\ 


REESE    LIBRARY 

OP    THK 

UNIVERSITY   OF    CALIFORNIA 

Received.. 
Access  io  i     No.  / 


Shelf  No. 


G> 


* 


MILITARY  DICTIONARY:, 


COMPRISING 


TECHNICAL  DEFINITIONS; 


INFORMATION 


ON   EAISING  AND    KEEPING    TEOOPS ; 

ACTUAL   SERVICE,, 


INCLUDING 


MAKESHIFTS  AND  IMPKOYED  MAT^EIEL; 


AND 


LAW,  GOVERNMENT,  REGULATION,  AND  ADMINISTRATION 
RELATING  TO  LAND  FORCES. 


BY 

COLONEL  H.   L. 

INSPECTOR-GENERAL,    U.    S.    A 


NEW  YORK : 
D.     YAK    NOSTKAISTD,    192    BKOADWAY. 

LONDON: 
TRUBNER    &    CO. 

1864. 


'U'ti 


ENTERED,  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  In  the  year  1861,  by 

HENRY  L.  SCOTT, 

In  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  the  United  States  for  the 
Southern  District  of  New  York. 


JOHN  F.  TROW,     ElJJCTKOTYPEB.  FEINTED     BY 

C.  A.  ALVORD.  NKW  YORK. 
No.  60  Greene  Street,  New  York. 


PREFACE. 


A  MILITARY  dictionary  which,  with  technical  definitions,  com- 
prises information  on  actual  service  ;  on  law,  government,  regu- 
lation, and  administration ;  on  raising  and  keeping  troops,  and 
on  makeshifts  and  improved  materiel,  is  much  needed  ;  and  the 
design  of  the  present  work  is  in  some  measure  to  occupy  that 
gap  in  military  literature. 

In  legal  articles,  plain  decisions  from  constitutional  ex- 
ponents of  law  have  been  accepted  as  conclusive ;  but  when 
without  such  a  guide,  an  endeavor  has  been  made  to  set  forth 
the  true  intent  and  meaning  of  laws  in  dispute,  by  simple,  clear, 
and  logical  annotations.  Much  interesting  law  matter  has  been 
abridged  from  Prendergast's  Law  relating  to  officers  of  the 
army ;  and  in  respect  to  courts-martial,  actual  service,  improved 
materiel^  &c.,  &c.,  the  author  is  indebted  to  many  standard 
authorities,  sometimes  only  designated  by  name  in  different  ar- 
ticles ;  but,  in  such  cases,  referred  to  fully  by  the  titles  of  their 
works  in  the  list  of  abbreviations  which  follows  this  preface. 

It  is  only  deemed  necessary  to  add,  that  the  work  was  not 
prepared  in  view  of  existing  disturbances,  but  was  begun  some 
years  ago,  and  that  the  few  additions  made  since  it  was  put  in 
the  hands  of  the  publisher  in  January  last,  refer  only  to  im- 
provements in  materiel. 


TITLES    OF 


REFERRED  TO  BY  ABBREVIATIONS  IN  THE  TEXT,  AND  EXPLANATIONS 
OF  OTHER  ABBREVIATIONS  USED. 


Act. — Act  of  Congress  of  the  United  States.     Reference  embraces  date  of  act. 
Aide  Memoire — to  the  military  sciences  framed  from  contributions  of  officers  of 

different  services,  and  edited  by  a  Committee  of  the  Corps  of  Royal  Engineers 

in  Dublin. 

Aide  Memoire  d'Artillerie — a  1'usage  des  Officiers  d'Artillerie.     Paris,  1855. 
Art. — (Articles  of  War,)  included  in  an  act  of  Congress  for  establishing  rules  and 

articles  for  the  government  of  the  armies  of  the  United  States,  approved  April 

10,  1806.    Reference  embraces  the  number  of  the  article. 
BARDIN. — Dictionnaire  de  I'Arme'e  de  Terre,  ou  Recherches  Historiques  sur  1'Art  et  les 

Usages  Militaires  des  Anciens  et  des  Modernes.     Par  le  General  Bardin,  &c. 

Ouvrage  termine"  sous  la  direction  du  General  Oudinot  de  Reggio.     6,337  pp. 

Paris,  1851. 

BAUCHER. — Method  of  Horsemanship.     Philadelphia,  1851. 
BENTON. — Ordnancfe  and  Gunnery.     By  Capt.  J.  G.  Benton,  U.  S.  Ordnance. 
BLACKSTONE. — Commentaries,  with  Notes.    4  vols.    London,  1844. 
BOUVIER. — Law  Dictionary  adapted  to  the  Constitution  and  Laws  of  the  United 

States.     By  John  Bouvier.     Philadelphia,  1839. 
BRANDS. — Encyclopedia  of  Science,  Literature,  and  Art. 
BUGEAUD. — Aperyus  sur  quelques  Details  de  la  Guerre.     Par  le  Marshal  Bugeaud. 

Ibid. — Instructions  Pratiques.     Bugeaud. 
BURNS. — Naval  and  Military  English-and-French  Technical  Dictionary.     By  Lieut.- 

Colonel  Burns,  Royal  Artillery.     London,  1852. 
CAYALLI. — Memoire  sur  divers  Perfectionnements  Militaires.    Par  J.  Cavalli,  Colonel 

d'Artillerie,  &c.,  &c.     Traduit  de  1'Italien.     Paris,  1856. 
COUTURIER. — Dictionnaire  Portatif  et  Raisonne.  Par  le  General  Le  Couturier.   Paris, 

1825. 
DE  HART.— -Courts-martial.     By  Captain  W.  C.  De  Hart,  2d  U.  S.  Artillery. 


6  t   ABBREVIATIONS,  AND  TITLES  OF  AUTHORITIES. 

DECKER.— De  la  Tactique  des  Trois  Armes :  Infanterie,  Cavalerie,  Artillerie.  Par  C. 
Decker,  Lieut. -Colonel,  &c.,  &c. 

DOUGLAS. — Naval  Gunnery.     By  Gen.  Sir  Howard  Douglas. 

DUFOUR. — Cours  de  Tactique.     Par  le  General  Dufour. 

DUNLOP. — Digest  of  Laws  of  the  United  States. 

Experiments,  &c. — By  officers  of  the  Ordnance  in  Small- Arras.     1856,  (official.) 

FAVE — Histoire  et  Tactique  des  Trois  Armes,  et  plus  Partieulierement  de  1' Artillerie 
de  Campagne.  Par  lid.  Fave,  Capitaine  d' Artillerie. 

FONBLANQUE. — The  Administration  and  Organization  of  the  British  Army,  with  es- 
pecial reference  to  Supply  and  Finance.  By  Edward  Barrington  de  Fonblanque, 
Asst.  Commissary-General.  London,  1858. 

GALTON. — The  Art  of  Travel.     By  Francis  Galton.     London,  1860. 

GIBBON. — The  Artillerist's  Manual.     By  Capt.  John  Gibbon,  4th  U.  S.  Artillery. 

GORDON. — Digest  of  Laws  of  the  United  States. 

GUILLOT.— Legislation  et  Administration  Militaire,  ou  Programme  Detaille  dea 
Matieres  Enseignees  &  1'Ecole  Imperiale  de  1'Etat  Major.  Par  M.  Leon  Guil- 
lot,  &c. 

HAILLOT. — Statistique  Militaire,  et  Recherches  sur  1'Organization  des  Armees  Etran- 

geres.     Par  C.  T.  Haillot,  Chef-d'Escadron  d' Artillerie. 
HETZEL. — Cross'  and  Hetzel's  Military  Laws  of  the  United  States. 
HOUGH. — Military  Law  Authorities.     By  Lieut.-Colonel  Hough,  Deputy  Judge-adro- 

cate  General,  &c. 
HYDE. — Elementary  Principles  of  Fortification.     By  John  Hyde,  Professor  Mih'tary 

College,  Addiscombe. 

JEBB. — Practical  Treatise  on  Attack  and  Defence.  By  Colonel  Jebb,  Royal 
Engineers. 

JOMINI. — Tableau  Analitique. 

KINGSBURY. — Artillery  and  Infantry.    By  Captain  Kingsbury,  Ordnance  Department. 

LE  GRAND. — Dictionnaire  Militaire  Portatif.     Par  Le  Grand. 

MACOMB. — Courts-martial.     By  Major-General  Macorab.     New  York,  1841. 

MCCLELLAN. — Military   Commission   in    Europe.       Report  by  Captain   McClellan, 

U.  S.  Army. 

MAHAN. — Field  Fortifications.     By  Professor  Mahan,  U.  S.  Military  Academy. 
MAYO  and  MOULTON. — Army  and  Navy  Pension  Laws.     Washington,  1852. 
Memorial — des  Officiers  d'Infanterie  et  de  Cavalerie.     Paris,  1846. 
MORDECAI. — Digest  of  Military  Laws.     By  Major  Mordecai,  U.  S.  Army. 
NAPOLEON. — Maxims  of  War. 
PETERS. — Digest  of  Decisions  of  Federal  Courts. 
PRENDERGAST.— The  Law  relating  to  Officers  in  the  Army.     By  Harris  Prendergast 

of  Lincoln's  Inn,  Esq.,  Barrister-at-Law. 
ROUVRE.— Aide  Memoire  de  POfficier  d'Etat  Major    en  Campagne.      Par  M.   De 

Rouvre,  Chef-d'Escadron  d'Etat  Major,  Aide-de-camp  de  son  Ex.  le  Marechal 


ABBREVIATIONS,  AND  TITLES  OF  AUTHORITIES.  7 

RUFFIN. — Manuel  d' Administration  et  de  Comptabilit6  a  1'usage  des  Officiers  des 
Compagnies  ou  Escadron  des  Corps  d'Infanterie  et  de  Cavalerie.  Par  M. 
Ruffin. 

SCOTT. — Orders  and  Correspondence  of  Gen.  Winfield  Scott,  Congressional  Docu- 
ments, &c. 

SKINNER. — Youatt  on  the  Horse.     By  Skinner. 

VATTEL. — Law  of  Nations.     Philadelphia,    1817. 

WHEATON. — Elements  of  International  Law.     Philadelphia,  1846. 

YOUATT. — Youatt  on  the  Horse.    By  Skinner. 


/  LIB  It  A  II  V 

UNJVKK8ITV   OF 

I    CALIFORNIA,^ 


MILITARY    DICTIONARY. 


ABANDONING  A  POST,  OR  MISBEHAVIOR  BEFORE  AN  ENEMY.  Pun- 
ishable with  death,  or  otherwise,  as  a  court-martial  shall  direct ;  (Art.  52.) 

ABATIS  (French) — are  rows  of  felled  trees  deprived  of  their 
smaller  branches,  the  remainder  sharpened  to  a  point,  and  employed 
for  defence.  Abatis  should  be  placed  so  as  not  to  be  exposed  to  the 
fire  of  artillery.  In  redoubts  or  intrenchments,  they  are  usually  fixed 

FIG.  1. 


in  an  upright  position  against  the  counterscarp,  or  at  the  foot  of  the 
glacis,  the  plane  of  which  is  broken  so  as  to  conceal  the  abatis  from 
the  view  of  the  enemy,  and  to  guard  against  obstructing  the  musketry 
fire  from  the  parapet  in  their  rear. 


FIG.  2. 


Abatis  are  also  an  excellent  means  of  blocking  up  a  road,  when 


10  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [Aus. 

trees  grow  ofl  either  side.  If  branches  are  properly  placed,  and  inter- 
twined one  within  another,  their  disengagement  is  extremely  difficult. 
An  abatis  will  always  be  found  a  very  useful  and  effective  auxiliary 
to  the  defence  of  houses  or  isolated  posts,  if  judiciously  placed  within 
range  of  musketry.  When  close  in  front  of  the  windows  on  the 
ground  floor,  or  used  as  a  cover  to  the  entrance  door,  it  will  be  ex- 
tremely difficult  for  the  enemy  to  force  his  way  into  the  building. 

ABSENCE,  WITH  LEAVE.  Every  colonel  or  other  officer  com- 
manding a  regiment,  troop,  or  company,  and  actually  quartered  with 
it,  may  give  furloughs  to  non-commissioned  officers  or  soldiers  in  such 
numbers,  and  for  so  long  a  time,  as  he  shall  judge  to  be  most  consistent 
with  the  good  of  the  service ;  and  a  captain  or  other  inferior  officer, 
commanding  a  troop  or  company,  or  in  any  garrison,  fort,  or  barrack 
of  the  United  States,  (his  field-officer  being  absent,)  may  give  furloughs 
to  non-commissioned  officers  or  soldiers  for  a  time  not  exceeding  twenty 
days  in  six  months,  but  not  more  than  two  persons  to  be  absent  at  the 
same  time,  excepting  some  extraordinary  occasion  should  require  it ; 
(Art.  12.) 

The  law  does  not  specify  by  whom  leaves  of  absence  may  be  given 
to  commissioned  officers,  and  the  omission  has  been  supplied  by  orders 
of  the  President. 

ABSENCE,  WITHOUT  LEAVE,  FROM  CAMP,  PARADE,  OR  RENDEZVOUS. 
Punished,  by  sentence  of  a  court-martial,  according  to  the  nature  of 
the  offence  ;  (Articles  41,  42,  43,  and  44.) 

ABUSES  AND  DISORDERS.  Every  commanding  officer  shall 
keep  good  order,  and,  to  the  utmost  of  his  power,  redress  all  abuses  and 
disorders  which  may  be  committed  by  any  officer  or  soldier  of  his  com- 
mand. If,  upon  complaint  made  to  him  of  officers  or  soldiers  beating, 
or  otherwise  ill-treating,  any  person,  of  disturbing  fairs  or  markets,  or 
of  committing  any  kinds  of  riots,  to  the  disquieting  of  the  citizens  of  the 
United  States,  &c.,  the  said  commander  shall  refuse  or  omit  to  see 
justice  done  to  the  offender  or  offenders,  and  reparation  made  to  the 
party  or  parties  injured,  as  far  as  part  of  the  offender's  pay  shall  enable 
him  or  them,  he  shall,  upon  proof  thereof,  be  cashiered,  or  otherwise 
punished,  as  a  general  court-martial  shall  direct ;  (Art.  32.) 

ACADEMY.  The  Military  Academy  of  the  United  States  is 
located  at  West  Point,  N.  Y.  The  students,  called  cadets,  are  subject 
to  the  rules  and  articles  of  war.  They  are  appointed  from  each  con- 
gressional district,  upon  the  nomination  of  the  representative  of  the 
district  in  Congress.  Each  district  is  allowed  but  one  representative 
at  the  Military  Academy ;  but  besides  the  number  so  appointed,  the 


Ace.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  H 

President  of  the  United  States  annually  appoints  ten  cadets  from  at 
large.  The  Academy  furnishes  about  forty  graduates  a  year,  who 
receive  commissions  of  the  lowest  grade  in-  some  one  of  the  different 
corps  of  the  army,  provided  vacancies  exist.  If  there  be  no  vacancies, 
the  graduates  are  attached  to  different  corps  as  supernumerary  officers 
of  the  lowest  grade,  not  exceeding  one  to  each  company.  The  Military 
Academy  was  founded  by  act  of  Congress  in  1802.  Its  present  high 
reputation  is  mainly  due  to  Colonel  Sylvanus  Thayer,  who  did  not  be- 
come Superintendent  until  1817. 

At  the  breaking  out  of  the  war  of  1812,  there  were  about  seventy 
graduates  of  the  Academy  holding  commissions,  and  but  little  knowledge 
of  the  military  art  arid  of  the  science  of  war  prevailed.  At  the  breaking 
out  of  the  Mexican  war,  the  officers  of  our  army  were  mostly  graduates 
of  the  Academy.  Every  branch  of  the  service  was  filled  with  men  of 
talent  and  military  information ;  volunteer  corps  raised  during  the 
war  sought  and  obtained  as  their  commanders  graduates  of  the  Mili- 
tary Academy.  General  officers  from'  political  life  appointed  staff  offi- 
cers from  the  same  class.  In  all  positions  which  the  graduates  held 
during  that  brilliant  war,  the  honor  and  glory  of  the  United  States  were 
sustained,  and  the  great  usefulness  of  an  institution,  which  annually  costs 
little,  if  any  more  than  the  maintenance  of  one  frigate  afloat,  was  satis- 
factorily demonstrated  to  the  people  of  the  United  States.  (See  SUPER- 
INTENDENT.) Military  Academies,  modelled  upon  that  at  West  Point, 
have  also  been  established  within  their  respective  limits  by  the  States 
of  Virginia,  Kentucky,  North  Carolina,  South  Carolina,  and  Alabama, 
and  perhaps  others. 

ACCOUNTS.  Officers  accountable  for  public  money  or  property 
render  quarterly  accounts  to  the  Treasury  Department,  if  resident  in 
the  United  States  ;  and  every  six  months,  if  resident  in  a  foreign  coun- 
try. Additional  returns  may  be  required  by  the  Secretary  of  War, 
if  the  public  interest  requires  it;  (Act  Jan.  31,  1823.)  Every  officer 
or  agent  offending  against  the  foregoing  provisions  may  be  dismissed 
by  the  President  of  the  United  States;  (Act  Jan.  31,  1823.)  The 
method  of  rendering  accounts  by  Administrative  Agents  of  the  appli- 
cation of  all  public  money  and  material  passing  through  their  hands, 
has  been  prescribed  by  regulations  made  pursuant  to  law.  The  object 
of  a  system  of  accountability  should  be,  in  respect  to  the  army,  to 
obtain  plain  statements  of  the  operations  and  results  of  Military  Ad- 
ministration. The  system  should  be  neither  complex  nor  cumbrous, 
but  should  be  adapted  to  a  state  of  war ;  and  while  carefully  guarding 
against  losses  to  the  Government,  should,  at  the  same  time,  by  prompt 


12  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [Ace. 

settlements,  through  government  agents,  present  with  armies  in  the 
field,  dispense  with  accumulations  of  papers,  which  manifestly  subject 
administrative  officers  to  great  losses,  even  if  they  were  not  frequently 
obliged  to  wait  years  before  obtaining  a  settlement  of  their  accounts. 

By  the  present  system  of  accountability  it  is  prescribed  :  1.  That 
all  accounts  whatever  in  which  the  United  States  are  concerned  shall 
be  settled  and  adjusted  in  the  Treasury  Department ;  (Act  March  3, 
1817.)  2.  It  is  made  the  duty  of  the  second  and  third  auditors  of  the 
Treasury,  to  receive  and  examine  all  military  accounts ;  to  receive  from 
the  second  comptroller  the  accounts  which  shall  have  been  finally  ad- 
justed; to  preserve  such  accounts;  to  record  all  warrants  drawn  by 
the  Secretary  of  War  ;  and  make  such  reports  on  the  business  assigned 
to  them  as  the  Secretary  of  War  may  deem  necessary,  and  require  for 
the  service  of  his  Department;  (Act  March  3,  1817.)  3.  It  is  the  duty 
of  the  second  comptroller  to^ examine  all  accounts  settled  by  the  second 
and  third  auditors,  and  certify  the  balances  arising  thereon  to  the  Sec- 
retary of  War ;  to  countersign  all  legal  warrants  drawn  by  the  Secretary 
of  War  ;  to  report  to  the  Secretary  of  War  the  official  forms  to  be  issued 
in  the  different  offices  for  disbursing  the  public  money,  and  the  manner 
and  form  of  keeping  and  stating  the  accounts  of  the  persons  employed 
therein;  and  it  shall  also  be  the  Comptroller's  duty  to  superintend 
the  preservation  of  the  public  accounts  subject  to  his  revision ;  (Act 
March  3,  1817.) 

The  great  obstacles  to  the  simplification  and  prompt  settlement  of 
army  accounts  interposed  by  law  consist :  1.  In  the  requirement  that 
military  accounts  shall  be  adjusted  and  settled  at  the  Treasury  Depart- 
ment, instead  of  being  settled  by  the  War  Department,  and  reported 
to  the  Treasury  ;  2.  In  making  the  second  and  third  auditors  and  second 
comptroller  officers  of  the  Treasury  instead  of  officers  of  the  War  De- 
partment ;  3.  In  authorizing  the  second  comptroller  to  establish  forms 
for  keeping  and  stating  military  accounts,  instead  of  requiring  him  in 
those  matters  to  conform  to  the  directions  of  the  Secretary  of  War ;  and, 
4.  In  withholding  from  the  War  Department  the  power  of  appointing 
agents  to  accompany  armies  in  the  field  for  the  prompt  settlement  of 
accounts.  With  the  changes  of  law  here  suggested,  it  would  be  easy  for 
the  War  Department,  through  the  various  grades  in  the  several  adminis- 
trative staff  departments,  to  establish  a  simple  system  of  accountability 
with  requisite  means  of  control  and  supervision,  which  would  operate 
advantageously  to  the  government,  and  to  individual  agents.  Under 
the  present  system  there  is,  and  must  be,  a  remarkable  similarity  in  the 
duties  of  all  grades  of  the  staff  administrative  departments.  (Consult 


Ace.] 


MILITARY  DICTIONARY. 


13 


Cours  d*  Administration,  par  VAUCHELLE,  Intendant  Militaire ;  Cours 
d* Eludes  sur  V Administration  Militaire,  par  ODIER  :  Memorial  des 
Officiers  d' Infanterie  et  de  Cavalerie,  1846.) 

ACCOUTREMENTS.     Black  leather  belts,  &c.,  furnished  by  the 
ordnance  department. 


PARTS. 

Infantry. 

Artillery. 

£ 

0 

o 

d 

| 

Cartridge  box                             .       

lets. 
1  10 
10 
69 
10 
56 
25 

$cts. 

$  cts. 

"io 

$  cts. 
95 
10 

Cartridge  box  plate                .         

Cartridge  box  belt                   ....       

Cartridge  box  belt  plate       

Bayonet  scabbard  and  frog  

37 
10 
40 
16 

"62 
10 
37 
60 

Waist  belt  plate          

10 
40 
16 

i'os 

60 
1  00 
10 

40 

1  35 
60 

Cap  pouch  and  pick             

Sabre  belt  

Sword  belt  

Sword  belt  plate  t  

Sword  belt,  non-commissioned  officer's  and  musician's.  .  . 
Sword  belt  plate                       do.                           do.         ... 
Waist  belt                                 do.                           do. 
Waist  belt  plate                      do.                          do. 

62 
10 
37 
60 

.... 

"87 

75 

Pistol            do.             

Holsters  witb  soft  leather  caps  

2  63 
95 

88 
30 

"53 

40 
1  20 

Carbine  sling  

Sabre  knot  

Bullet  pouch    

Flask  and  pouch  belt  

Powder  flask     

Waist  belt,  sapper's,  with  frog  for  sword  bayonet,  $1. 

Infantry  accoutrements  for  100  men,  including  non-commissioned 
officers'  shoulder-belts  and  plates,  weigh  330  Ibs. ;  rifle  accoutrements 
for  100  men,  including  non-commissioned  officers'  shoulder-belts  and 
plates,  weigh  329  Ibs. ;  100  carbine  slings  and  swivels,  110 Ibs.  (See  ARMS.) 

Mr.  Dingee's  directions  for  reblacking  Belts. — Brush  them  with  a 
hard  brush,  to  clean  the  surface ;  if  they  are  very  greasy,  use  a  wire 
scratch-brush.  Then,  with  a  soft  brush  or  sponge,  apply  the  following 
mixture,  viz.  :  one  gallon  soft  water,  two  pounds  extract  of  logwood, 
half  a  pound  of  broken  nutgalls,  boiled  until  the  logwood  is  dissolved. 
When  cold,  add  half  a  pint  of  the  pyrolignite  of  iron — made  by  dis- 
solving iron  filings  in  pyroligneous  acid,  as  much  as  the  acid  will  take 
up.  The  dye  thus  made  should  be  well  stirred,  and  then  left  to  settle. 
When  clear,  bottle  it  free  from  sediment,  and  keep  it  well  corked  for 
use.  Dye  the  belts  in  the  shade  ;  then  apply  a  little  sperm  or  olive  oil, 
and  rub  well  with  a  hard  brush.  Should  any  bad  spots  appear,  scratch 


14  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [ADD. 

up  the  surface  with  the  wire  brush,  and  wet  two  or  three  times  with  a 
simple  decoction  of  gallnuts  or  sumach,  and  again  apply  the  dye.  Log- 
wood is  not  essential,  and  a  solution  of  copperas  may  be  used  instead 
of  the  acetate  of  iron. 

ADDRESS.  An  address  to  a  court-martial,  by  either  party,  must 
be  in  writing.  (Consult  Hough's  Law  Authorities.) 

ADJUTANT,  (Latin  adjutor,  aid.)  An  officer  selected  by  the 
colonel  of  the  regiment  from  the  subalterns.  He  communicates  the 
orders  of  the  colonel,  and  has  duties  in  respect  to  his  regiment  assim- 
ilated to  those  of  an  adjutant-general  with  an  army. 

ADJUTANT-GENERAL.  The  principal  organ  of  the  com- 
mander of  an  army  in  publishing  orders.  The  same  organ  of  the 
commander  of  a  division,  brigade,  geographical  division,  or  department, 
is  styled  Assistant  Adjutant-general.  The  laws  of  the  United  States, 
however,  provide  for  but  one  Adjutant-general  with  the  rank  of  col- 
onel, (made  by  regulations  chief  of  a  bureau  of  the  War  Department, 
and  charged  with  the  recruiting  service,  records,  returns,  &c.,)  one  As- 
sistant Adjutant-general  with  the  rank  of  lieutenant-colonel,  and  twelve 
other  assistants  with  the  rank  of  major  and  captain.  (See  ARMY 
ORGANIZATION.) 

The  bureau  duties  of  Adjutants-general  and  assistants  are  :  publishing 
orders  in  writing ;  making  up  written  instructions,  and  transmitting 
them ;  reception  of  reports  and  returns ;  disposing  of  them  ;  forming 
tables,  showing  the  state  and  position  of  corps ;  regulating  details  of 
service ;  corresponding  with  the  administrative  departments  relative 
to  the  wants  of  troops ;  corresponding  with  the  corps,  detachments,  or 
individual  officers  serving  under  the  orders  of  the  same  commander  ; 
and  the  methodical  arrangement  and  care  of  the  records  and  papers  of 
his  office.  The  active  duties  of  Adjutants-general  consist  in  establish- 
ing camps ;  visiting  guards  and  outposts  ;  mustering  and  inspecting 
troops ;  inspecting  guards  and  detachments  ;  forming  parades  and  lines 
of  battle ;  the  conduct  and  control  of  deserters  and  prisoners  ;  making 
reconnaissances ;  and  in  general  discharging  such  other  active  duties  as 
may  be  assigned  them. 

ADJUTANT-GENERAL  o*  A  STATE.     (See  MILITIA.) 

ADJUTANT-GENERAL,  DEPUTY,  &o.  An  act  making  further 
provision  for  the  army,  and  for  other  purposes  :  Approved  July  6, 
1812,  provides:  Sec.  2,  That  to  any  army  of  the  United  States,  other 
than  that  in  which  the  adjutant-general,  inspector-general,  quarter- 
master-general, and  paymaster  of  the  army,  shall  serve,  it  shall  be 
lawful  for  the  President  to  appoint  one  deputy  adjutant-general, 


ADM.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  15 

one  deputy  inspector-general,  one  deputy  quartermaster-general,  and 
one  deputy  paymaster-general,  who  shall  be  taken  from  the  line  of 
the  army,  and  who  shall,  each,  in  addition  to  his  pay  and  other  emol- 
uments, be  entitled  to  fifty  dollars  per  month,  which  shall  be  in  full 
compensation  for  his  extra  services.  And  that  there  shall  be,  to 
each  of  the  foregoing  deputies,  such  number  of  assistant  deputies  (not 
exceeding  three  to  each  department)  as  the  public  service  may  require, 
who  shall  in  like  manner  be  taken  from  the  line,  and  who  shall  each  be 
entitled  to  thirty  dollars  per  month,  in  addition  to  his  pay  and  other 
emoluments,  which  shall  be. in  full  compensation  for  his  extra  ser- 
vices, &c. 

ADMINISTRATION,  ADMINISTRATIVE.  These  words  are  derived 
from  ministrare,  administrare,  to  serve.  Administration  is  a  branch  of 
political  economy ;  it  is  the  action  of  administrative  agents  in  executing 
laws  or  regulations  conformable  to  law.  The  aim  of  a  system  of  ad- 
ministration is  to  secure  the  performance  of  public  duties,  either  di- 
rectly, ministerially,  or  through  the  intervention  of  sub-agents.  It  is 
exercised  over  individuals  or  things,  in  civil  matters,  in  courts  of  law, 
in  political  bodies,  in  the  army  and  in  the  navy,  and  in  general  in  all 
financial  matters  of  government.  Administration  consists  in  estab- 
lishing the  ways  and  means  of  public  receipts  and  expenditures ;  in 
watching  over  such  employments ;  in  the  collection,  care,  and  distribu- 
tion of  material  and  money ;  and  in  rendering  arid  auditing  accounts 
of  such  employments.  Army  Administration  also  embraces  in  war  the 
means  by  which  an  army  is  supported  in  foreign  countries  by  a  general 
in  campaign,  when  without  regular  supplies,  without  resorting  to  pillage. 
The  wars  of  the  French  revolution  brought  into  use  REQUISITIONS,  a 
moderate  kind  of  marauding,  weighing  more  heavily  upon  countries 
than  upon  individuals.  Requisitions  are,  however,  an  uncertain  and 
unequal  means  of  supply,  and  only  enable  an  army  to  live  from  hand 
to  mouth,  and  although  practicable  in  offensive  wars,  are  only  justifiable 
in  rapid  movements,  where  time  does  not  admit  the  employment  of 
more  certain  means  of  supply.  The  system  is  less  odious  than  pillage. 

Bonaparte  skilfully  adopted  another  method,  in  harmony  with  the 
spirit  of  wars  of  invasion,  and  also  more  reliable  as  a  means  of  sup- 
port. He  substituted  himself  in  place  of  the  supreme  authorities  of 
the  invaded  country,  and  exacted  pecuniary  contributions,  paying,  or 
promising  to  pay,  for  all  provisions  and  other  supplies  needed  for  his 
army.  Some  writers  think  that  even  this  modified  system  can  only 
succeed  in  gigantic  operations,  where  an  army  upon  a  new  soil  succes- 
sively gives  repose  to  that  previously  occupied.  Such  a  system  was, 


16  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  ADM.] 

however,  well  executed  by  Marshal  Suchet  in  Spain,  and  a  similar  sys- 
tem was  also  matured  and  published  in  orders  by  General  Scott  while 
in  Mexico.  A  treaty  of  peace,  however,  soon  after  was  made,  which 
put  an  end  to  military  operations,  and  the  system  was  therefore  only 
partially  executed.  But  with  a  sufficient  army  in  a  fertile  country,  the 
experience  of  the  world  has  shown  that  if  the  inhabitants  are  protected 
from  injuries,  they  will  very  generally  sell  to  the  best  paymasters.  It 
is  therefore  the  interest  of  an  invading  army  not  to  interfere  with  the 
ordinary  avocations  of  citizens,  and  such  is  the  modern  usage. 

Bonaparte  (according  to  Las  Casas)  thought  that  an  entire  revolu- 
tion in  the  habits  and  education  of  the  soldier,  and  perhaps  also  in  those 
of  the  officers,  was  essential  to  the  formation  of  a  veritable  self-subsist- 
ing army.  Such  an  army  (he  said)  cannot  exist  with  present  ovens, 
magazines,  administration,  wagons,  &c.,  &c.  Such  an  army  will  exist 
when,  in  imitation  of  the  Romans,  the  soldier  shall  receive  his  corn, 
shall  personally  carry  his  mill  and  cooking  utensils,  cook  his  own 
bread,  &c.,  &c.,  and  when  the  present  frightful  paper  administration  has 
been  dispensed  with.  He  added  that  he  had  meditated  upon  all  those 
changes,  but  a  period  of  profound  peace  was  necessary  to  put  them  in 
practice.  If  he  had  been  constrained  to  keep  a  large  army  in  peace,  he 
would  have  employed  it  upon  the  public  works,  and  given  it  an  organi- 
zation, a  dress,  and  a  mode  of  subsistence  altogether  special.  If  such  a 
scheme  be  practicable,  no  approach  to  it  yet  exists. 

The  French  have  made  some  progress  in  developing  a  system  of 
administration  suited  to  a  large  army,  but  hardly  a  step  in  the  direction 
pointed  out  by  Napoleon..  The  French  administrative  service  is  a 
powerful  means  of  moving  armies  in  unforeseen  emergencies.  Its  fore- 
sight provides  resources,  and  the  adversary  soonest  ready  has  the 
greatest  chance  of  success.  Not  a  century  since,  the  French  govern- 
ment required  six  months'  preparation  before  an  army  could  move ; 
now,  in  the  language  of  Gen.  Lamarque,  "  The  cannon  is  loaded,  and 
the  blow  may  be  given  at  the  same  moment  as  the  manifesto,  and,  if 
necessary,  the  blow  may  precede  it."  Ordinary  army  administration 
consists  in  the  organization  and  other  means  by  which  various  adminis- 
trative duties  are  performed,  necessary  to  provide  for  the  wants  of 
troops,  and  for  all  the  foreseen  demands  of  a  state  of  war,  including 
labor  and  the  supplies  for  garrisons,  sieges,  &c.  Such  duties  embrace 
subsistence  magazines,  daily  rations,  forage,  dress,  encampments,  bar- 
racks, hospitals,  transportation,  &c.,  &c.,  the  administrative  duties 
of  engineers,  and  of  the  ordnance  department,  estimates,  accountability, 
payments,  recruiting,  and  in  general  the  receipt  and  proper  application 


MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  17 

of  money.  The  Secretary  of  War,  under  the  orders  of  the  President, 
is  the  head  of  military  administration  in  the  United  States.  The  object 
of  such  administration  is  to  provide,  through  the  resources  placed  by  law 
at  his  disposition,  for  the  constant  wants,  regular  or  accidental,  of  all 
who  compose  the  army.  Good  administration  embraces  a  foreknowledge 
of  wants,  as  well  as  the  creation,  operation,  and  watchfulness  of  the  ways 
and  means  necessary  to  satisfy  them ;  the  payment  of  expenses,  and 
the  settlement  of  accounts. 

Army  administration  is  divided  into  several  branches  determined 
by  law.  These  different  branches  constitute  the  administrative  service 
of  an  army,  the  operations  of  which  should  be  so  regulated  that  the 
Secretary  of  War  will  be  always  informed  of  the  condition  of  each,  and 
be  ablo  to  exercise,  subordinate  to  law,  a  complete  financial  control  over 
each.  These  different  branches  of  administration  are  :  1.  The  recruitino- 

o 

service,  and  the  custody  of  records  and  returns  of  personnel ;  2.  The  ad- 
ministrative service  of  engineers  and  topographical  engineers ;  3.  The 
ordnance  department ;  4.  The  quartermaster's  department ;  5.  The  sub- 
sistence department ;  6.  The  pay  department ;  7.  The  administrative  sei- 
vice  of  the  medical  department ;  and,  8.  The  settlement  of  army  accounts. 
Bureaux  of  the  War  Department  charged  with  these  different  matters 
have  been  organized  by  the  President  and  Secretary  of  War,  under  the 
joint  authority  given  these  functionaries  by  the  act  of  Congress  of  1813 
(See  REGULATION)  to  make  regulations  better  defining  the  powers  and 
duties  of  certain  staff  officers.  The  adjutant-general  of  the  army  and  the 
heads  of  administrative  corps  have  each  been  assigned  a  bureau  in  the 
War  Department,  under  the  direction  of  the  Secretary  of  War,  for  the 
management  of  the  administrative  duties  with  which  they  have  been 
respectively  charged.  Administration  and  Command  are  distinct.  Ad- 
ministration is  controlled  by  the  head  of  an  executive  department  of 
the  government,  under  the  orders  of  the  President,  by  means  of  legally 
appointed  administrative  agents,  with  or  without  rank,  while  Com- 
mand, or  the  discipline,  military  control,  and  direction  of  military  ser- 
vice of  officers  and  soldiers,  can  be  legally  exercised  only  by  the  mili- 
tary hierarchy,  at  the  head  of  which  is  the  constitutional  commander-in- 
chief  of  the  army,  navy,  and  militia,  followed  by  the  commander  of  the 
army,  and  other  military  grades  created  by  Congress.  (See  ACCOUNTS  ; 
ACCOUNTABILITY  ;  ADJUTANT-GENERAL  ;  ALLOWANCES  ;  AMBULANCES  ; 
APPROPRIATIONS  ;  ARREARS  OF  PAY  ;  ARMY  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  ; 
ARMY  REGULATIONS  ;  AUDITORS  ;  BAGGAGE  ;  BAKING  ;  BARRACKS  ;  BED  ; 
BOOKS  ;  BONDS  ;  BOUNTY  ;  BRIDGE  ;  CALLING  FORTH  MILITIA  ;  CARPEN- 
TRY ;  CASEMATE  ;  CLERKS  ;  CLOTHING  ;  COMMISSARY  ;  COMMISSION  ; 
2 


IS  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [ADM. 

COMPTROLLER  ;  CONGRESS  ;  CONSCRIPTION  ;  CONTRACTS  ;  COUNCILS  OF 
ADMINISTRATION;  DAMAGE;  DECEASED;  DEFAULTERS;  DELINQUENTS; 
DEPARTMENT  OF  WAR  ;  DEPOT  ;  DISBURSING  OFFICERS  ;  DISCHARGE  ; 
EMBEZZLEMENT  ;  ENGINEER  CORPS  ;  ENGINEERS,  (TOPOGRAPHICAL  ;)  EN- 
LISTMENTS ;  EXCHANGE  OF  PRISONERS  ;  EXECUTION  OF  LAWS  ;  EXEMPTS  ; 
EXTRA  EXPENSES  ;  EXTRA  ALLOWANCES  ;  GRATUITY  ;  INDIAN  ;  INSURREC- 
TION ;  LAWS  (MILITARY)  AND  REFERENCES  ;  LOSSES  ;  LOGISTICS  ;  MAR- 
SHALS ;  MEASURES  ;  MEDICAL  DEPARTMENT  ;  MILEAGE  ;  MILITIA  ;  MUS- 
TER ;  NITRE  ;  OBSTRUCTION  OF  LAWS  ;  ORDNANCE  DEPARTMENT  ;  ORD- 
NANCE SERGEANTS  ;  ORGANIZING  ;  OVEN  ;  PASSPORTS  ;  PAY  ;  PAY  DEPART- 
MENT ;  PAYMASTER-GENERAL  ;  PENSION  ;  PONTON  ;  POSSE  COMITATUS  ; 
PRESIDENT  ;  PURCHASING  ;  QUARTERS  ;  QUARTERMASTER'S  DEPARTMENT  ; 
QUARTERMASTER-GENERAL  ;  RAISE  AND  REFERENCES  ;  RATION  ;  RECRUIT- 
ING ;  REENLISTING  ;  REGULATION  ;  REMEDY  ;  RETURNS  ;  ROADS  ;  SALE  ; 
SANITARY  PRECAUTIONS  ;  SAPPERS  ;  SAW-MILL  ;  SECRETARY  OF  WAR  ;  SER- 
VICE ;  STAFF ;  STATE  TROOPS ;  STANDARDS ;  STOREKEEPERS  ;  STOPPAGE 
OF  PAY  ;  SUBSISTENCE  DEPARTMENT  ;  SUIT  ;  SUPERINTENDENT  ;  TELE- 
GRAPH ;  TENT  ;  TOOLS  ;  TRADE  ;  TRANSFERS  ;  TRAVELLING  ALLOW- 
ANCES ;  TREATY  ;  UNIFORM  ;  UTENSILS  ;  VALUE  ;  VETERAN  ;  VETERINARY  ; 
VOLUNTEERS  ;  WAGON  ;  WAR  ;  WEIGHTS  ;  WILLS,  (NUNCUPATIVE)  ; 
WOUNDS.  (Consult  BARDIN,  JDictionnaire  de  FArmee  de  Tcrre  /  Legisla- 
tion ef.  Administration  Militaire,  par  M.  LEON  GUILLOT  ;  Military 
Laws  of  the  United  States ;  Gen.  SCOTT'S  orders  in  Mexico  ;  SUCHET'S 
Memoirs.) 

ADMISSIONS.  The  judge  advocate  is  authorized,  when  he  sees 
proper,  to  admit  what  a  prisoner  expects  to  prove  by  absent  witnesses. 

ADOBES — are  unburnt  brick  made  from  earth  of  a  loamy  character 
containing  about  two-thirds  fine  sand  mixed  intimately  with  one-third 
or  less  of  clayey  dust  or  sand.  Stiff  clay  will  not  answer,  as  the  rays 
of  the  sun  would  crack  it  in  pieces.  The  adobe,  under  the  action  of  the 
sun,  becomes  a  compact  mass.  Upon  our  Indian  frontiers  in  New  Mex- 
ico, in  Mexico,  and  in  Central  America,  adobe  houses  and  adobe  defences 
against  the  Indians  are  common  structures.  Four  men  usually  work 
together  in  making  adobe  brick.  One  mixes  the  mass  in  a  hole,  and 
loads  the  barrow,  two  carry  it  on  a  common  hand-barrow,  and  the 
fourth  moulds  the  brick.  The  moulder  has  a  double  mould,  or  one 
which  forms  two  adobes,  each  eighteen  inches  long,  nine  inches  wride, 
and  four  inches  thick.  The  partition  between  the  two  compartments 
should  be  of  one  and  a  half  inch  stuff,  the  other  parts  of  inch  board  ; 
a  cleat  on  either  outer  side,  extending  the  length  of  the  mould,  permits 
the  mould  to  be  easily  handled.  It  must  be  well  morticed  together 


ADO.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  19 

so  as  not  to  wabble.  The  moulder  has  no  bottom,  the  adobe  being  depos- 
ited on  the  surface  of  the  ground,  made  tolerably  level,  and  without 
reversing,  as  in  brick  making.  The  mould  is  raised  gradually  and 
slowly  away  from  the  moulded  masses.  Before  placing  it  on  the  ground 
to  mould  another  couple,  the  inner  sides  of  the  mould  are  washed  with 
water,  kept  at  hand ;  this  is  all  that  is  required  to  preserve  the  mud 
from  sticking  and  thus  breaking  the  adobe.  The  mould  is  emptied  a 
second  time  on  the  ground  at  about  three  inches  from  the  first  couple, 
and  in  refilling,  the  balance  of  the  mud  left  over  from  the  first  moulding 
is  cast  in  the  compartments,  and  the  two  men  with  the  barrow  of  mud 
throw  their  load  directly  upon  the  mould,  and  all  that  is  over  and  above 
what  is  necessary  to  fill  it  is  scraped  off  by  the  moulder's  hands  toward 
where  his  next  couple  is  to  be.  The  dumping  of  the  mud  from  the 
barrow  is  facilitated  by  casting  into  the  barrow  a  little  finely  powdered 
dry  manure  or  dust. 

An  adobe  eighteen  inches  long,  nine  inches  wide,  and  four  inches 
thick,  is  the  best  average  size  for  moulding  and  for  buildfng.  They 
are  sometimes  made  sixteen  inches  long  and  twelve  inches  wide ;  in 
such  cases  they  are  all  laid  as  headers ;  but  with  the  eighteen  inch 
adobe  they  afford  the  means  of  binding  the  wall  strongly  by  alternating 
headers  and  stretchers,  as  in  brick-laying.  In  the  hot 'spring  and  sum- 
mer suns  two  or  three  days  uninterrupted  drying  is  sufficient  at.  the 
first ;  the  adobes  are  then  carefully  turned  up  on  edge,  so  as  to  expose 
the  under  or  still  wet  face  to  the  southern  and  western  sunshine.  They 
should  be  left  in  this  position  from  a  week  to  fifteen  days  to  dry  thor- 
oughly, when,  if  not  wanted  for  immediate  use,  they  may  be  stacked 
on  edge  and  covered  from  the  weather.  Houses  in  New  Mexico  are 
seldom  built  over  one  story  high.  This  enables  the  builder  to  place  on 
the  roof-covering  at  once,  if  necessary.  But  in  all  cases,  intervals  in  the 
work  must  be  allowed,  or  the  house  will  not  only  be  unsafe,  but,  if 
immediately  occupied,  damp  and  disagreeable.  The  inside  plastering 
with  mud  is  most  frequently  done  before  the  roof  is  covered  in,  so  as  to 
dry  with  the  wall.  If  the  wall  must  be  left  unfinished  through  the  fall 
rains  or  the  winter,  the  top  of  it  is  covered  with  a  bushy  weed  called 
cachanilla,  and  this  is  covered  with  earth,  to  exclude  water  and  protect 
it  till  the  ensuing  year.  If  door  and  window  frames  are  at  hand,  the 
Mexicans  prefer  to  put  them  in  as  they  build;  but  oftener  they  leave 
gaps  for  doors  and  windows,  unfilled  with  the  frames,  till  the  whole  is 
finished.  The  adobes  are  laid  with  mud  mortar  made  from  the  earth 
at  the  base  of  the  wall ;  the  holes  thus  formed  are  readily  filled  again 
with  the  rubbish  from  the  house  when  completed.  When  the  wall  is 


20  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [Aoy. 

ready  to  receive  the  roof-covering,  heavy  joists  are  laid,  about  two  feet 
apart,  on  the  top  of  the  walls,  strong  enough  to  "bear  near  a  foot  of 
earth  all  over  the  roof;  the  joists,  as  they  rest  upon  the  wall,  are  sup- 
ported upon  boards,  or  plates,  as  they  are  called,  to  distribute  the 
weight  of  the  roof,  and  prevent  the  joists  from  crushing  into  the  walls. 
Across  the  joists,  and  over  the  whole  roof,  averaging  about  two  inches 
in  diameter,  poles  are  now  placed,  the  largest  on  the  highest  side  of  the 
roof  to  begin  the  slope,  and  on  this  is  placed  a  close  covering  of  the 
cachanilla,  which  is  aromatic  and  keeps  out  bugs ;  it  is  evergreen,  and 
a  plant  of  the  most  suitable  length  to  fill  the  interstices  in  the  poles. 
Small  willow  brush  is  often  used  in  the  absence  of  cachanilla.  The 
earth-covering  of  the  roof  is  now  put  on,  extending  all  round  the  roof  to 
the  parapet  above  the  joists,  which  is  only  one-half  the  width  of  the 
wall  below  ;  this  brings  the  dirt  roof  to  cover  over  one-half  the  width 
or  thickness  of  the  wall,  by  which  leaks  in  the  room  below  are  pre- 
vented. An  adobe  house,  if  well  secured,  is  warmer  in  winter,  and 
cooler  in  summer,  than  one  of  wood  or  brick.  The  brick  is  cold  and 
damp,  the  adobe  is  dry  and  a  much  worse  conductor  of  heat — no  fur- 
rowing nor  lathing  is  necessary — and  the  rough  inside  can  be  white- 
washed or  slapped  with  plaster.  The  durability  of  adobe  walls  is  ex- 
traordinary. The  Pecos  Church,  not  far  from  Santa  Fe,  is  doubtless 
one  hundred  years  old ;  its  mud  walls  (adobe)  are  as  firm  to  this  day 
as  a  rock,  and  they  cannot  be  less  than  fifty  feet  high. 

ADVANCED.  Any  portion  of  an  army  which  is  in  front  of  the 
rest.  It  is  figuratively  applied  to  the  promotion  of  officers  and  soldiers. 

ADVANCED  COVERED  WAY— is  a  terre  plein,  on  the  ex- 
terior of  the  advanced  ditch,  similar  to  the  first  covered  way. 

ADVANCED  DITCH— is  an  excavation  beyond  the  glacis  of  the 
enceinte,  having  its  surface  on  the  prolongation  of  that  slope,  that  an 
enemy  may  find  no  shelter  when  in  the  ditch. 

ADVANCED  GUARD.  A  detachment  of  troops  which  precedes 
the  march  of  the  main  body. 

ADVANCED  LUNETTES— are  works  resembling  bastions  or 
ravelins,  having  faces  and  flanks.  They  are  formed  upon  or  beyond 
the  glacis. 

ADVANCED  WORKS— are  such  as  are  constructed  beyond  the 
covered  way  and  glacis,  but  within  the  range  of  the  musketry  of  the 
main  works. 

ADVANCES  of  public  money  may  be  authorized  by  the  President 
of  the  United  States  to  persons  in  the  military  or  naval  service  employed 
on  distant  stations.  Prohibited  otherwise  ;  (Act  Jan.  31,  1823.) 


ALL.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  21 

ADVISING  TO  DESERT.  Punishable  with  death  or  otherwise, 
as  a  court-martial  may  direct ;  (Art.  23,  Articles  of  War.) 

AFFAIR.  Any  slight  action  or  engagement.  Affair  of  outpost ; 
affair  of  rear-guard,  &c. 

AFFIDAVITS,  being  admissions  upon  oath,  are  evidence  as  such 
against  the  parties  who  made  them,  (Hough.)  In  the  trial  of  cases  not 
capital,  the  deposition  of  witnesses  not  of  the  staff  or  line  of  the  army, 
taken  before  a  Justice  of  the  Peace  in  presence  of  the  prosecutor  and 
person  accused,  may  be  read  in  evidence;  (Art  10.) 

AIDES-DE-CAMP — are  ex-officio  assistants  adjutant-general ;  (Act 
March  2,  1821.)  They  are  confidential  officers  selected  by  gen- 
eral officers  to  assist  them  in  their  military  duties.  A  lieutenant- 
general  appoints  not  exceeding  four  in  time  of  war,  and  two  in  peace, 
with  the  rank  of  lieutenant-colonel ;  a  major-general  two,  and  a  briga- 
dier-general one.  Attached  to  the  person  of  the  general,  they  receive 
orders  only  from  him.  Their  functions  are  difficult  and  delicate.  Often 
enjoying  the  full  confidence  of  the  general,  they  are  employed  in  repre- 
senting him,  in  writing  orders,  in  carrying  them  in  person  if  necessary, 
in  communicating  them  verbally  upon  battle-fields  and  other  fields  of 
manoeuvre.  It  is  important  that  Aides-de-Camp  should  know  well  the 
positions  of  troops,  routes,  posts,  quarters  of  generals,  composition  of 
columns,  and  orders  of  corps  :  facility  in  the  use  of  the  pen  should  be 
joined  with  exactness  of  expression ;  upon  fields  of  battle  they  watch 
the  movements  of  the  enemy  ;  not  only  grand  manoeuvres  but  special 
tactics  should  be  familiar  to  them.  It  is  necessary  that  their  knowl- 
edge should  be  sufficiently  comprehensive  to  understand  the  object  and 
purpose  of  all  orders,  and  also  to  judge  in  the  varying  circumstances 
of  a  battle-field,  whether  it  is  not  necessary  to  modify  an  order  when 
carried  in  person,  or  if  there  be  time  to  return  for  new  instructions. 

AIM.     (See  FIRING  ;  TARGET.) 

ALARM-POST — is  the  place  appointed  for  every  regiment  or 
detachment  to  assemble,  in  case  of  a  sudden  alarm. 

ALARMS,  FALSE.  Any  officer  who  shall  occasion  false  alarms 
in  camp,  garrison,  or  quarters,  shall  suffer  death  or  other  punishment 
as  a  court-martial  may  direct;  (Art.  49.) 

ALIBI.  Elsewhere.  An  Alibi  is  the  best  of  all  defence  if  a  man 
is  innocent ;  but  if  it  turns  out  to  be  untrue,  it  is  conclusive  against 
those  who  resort  to  it;  (Hough.) 

ALLOWANCES.  The  receipts  of  an  officer  consist  of  pay  and 
allowances,  sometimes  called  pay  and  emoluments.  Allowances  are 
regular  and  occasional ;  they  consist  of  money  for  servants,  forage, 


22  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [AMD. 

rations,  and  travelling  expenses  ;  and  of  fuel  and  quarters,  stationery, 
straw  for  bedding,  transportation  of  baggage,  and  forage  in  kind  under 
certain  circumstances.  An  allowance  for  servants  and  forage  is  only 
given  where  the  servants  and  horses  allowed  are  actually  kept  in  ser- 
vice by  the  officer.  Double  rations  are  given  to  the  commander  of  the 
army,  the  commander  of  an  army  in  the  field,  a  geographical  division, 
department,  military  post  and  arsenal ;  and  ten  dollars  per  month 
is  allowed  to  the  actual  commander  of  a  company.  Armies  have  always 
been  paid  by  means  of  pay  and  allowances.  It  is  the  least  expensive 
mode  of  supporting  an  army,  and  it  is  at  the  same  time  the  most  just 
method  of  graduating  the  pay  according  to  circumstances.  In  the 
United  States  army,  however,  the  allowances  made  are  not  sufficient, 
and  not  properly  graduated.  Several  of  the  allowances  given  in  Eu- 
ropean armies,  are  withheld  from  our  own  ;  and  of  those  withheld,  some 
are  charges  which  press  very  heavily  upon  officers  in  campaign,  when 
all  their  energies  are  needed  for  the  service  of  the  country.  Of  the 
allowances  given  in  European  armies,  but  withheld  from  the  United 
States  army,  the  following  are  the  most  important :  Allowance,  as 
equipment  money  at  the  beginning  of  a  campaign,  marching  allowance, 
indemnity  for  losses  in  the  field,  prize  money,  and  barrack  furniture 
allowance.  (See  INDEMNIFICATION.) 

AMBULANCES  (French) — are  flying  hospitals  so  organized 
that  they  can  follow  an  army  in  all  its  movements,  and  are  intended 
to  succor  the  wounded  as  soon  as  possible.  Other  sick  are  also  placed 
in  Ambulance,  but  the  Ambulances  are  emptied  as  soon  as  fixed  hos- 

FIG.  3. 


AMBULANCE  CART  PROPOSED   FOR  THE  XT.   8.   SERVICE. 

pitals  are  at  hand.     In  the  French  army,  an  Ambulance  of  infantry  is 
composed  of  five  wagons  containing  cases  of  instruments  for  amputating 


AMM.]  'MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  23 

and  trepanning,  bandages  for  divers  fractures,  utensils  of  all  kinds, 
medicines,  and  8,900  dressings.  The  Ambulance  of  cavalry  is  com- 
posed of  three  wagons,  containing  the  articles  above  enumerated,  with 
4,900  dressings.  The  Ambulances  are  distributed  as  follows:  Each 
division  of  infantry  has  one  Ambulance  of  infantry,  and  each  division 
of  cavalry  an  Ambulance  of  cavalry.  The  headquarters  of  an  army 
corps  is  allowed  two  Ambulances ;  the  grand  park  of  artillery  one  Am- 
bulance of  cavalry ;  the  reserve  of  the  army  at  general  headquarters 

FIG.  4. 


AMBULANCE  CART   PROPOSED   FOE  THE   U.  8.  SERVICE. 

six  Ambulances;  four  of  infantry,  and  two  of  cavalry.  The  number  of 
Ambulance  carts  and  wagons  recently  ordered  for  the  United  States  ser- 
vice, in  case  of  war,  greatly  exceeds  the  foregoing  allowance,  and  would 
be  doubtless  required  in  operations  of  small  detachments,  or  wherever, 
from  any  cause,  it  is  impracticable  to  establish  fixed  hospitals,  or  leave 
wounded  to  the  care  of  inhabitants.  (See  SURGERY  ;  WAGON.) 

AMBUSCADE.  A  body  of  men  lying  in  wait  to  surprise  an 
enemy. 

AMICUS  CUEIJi].  Counsel,  or  at  least  Amici  Curise,  (friends 
of  the  court,)  are  allowed  to  prisoners  in  all  cases,  but  no  person  is  per- 
mitted to  address  the  court,  or  interfere  in  any  manner  with  its  pro- 
ceedings, except  the  parties  themselves.  (Hough?  s  Law  Authorities.) 

AMMUNITION — is  a  term  which  comprehends  gunpowder,  and 
all  the  various  projectiles  and  pyrotechnical  compositions  and  stores 
used  in  the  service. 

Any  commissioned  officer  convicted  at  a  general  court-martial 
of  having  sold  without  a  proper  order,  embezzled,  misapplied 
or,  through  neglect,  suffered  provisions,  forage,  army  clothing,  am- 


24  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [AMM. 

munition,  or  other  military  stores  belonging  to  the  United  States  to  be 
spoiled  or  damaged,  shall  at  his  own  expense  make  good  the  loss  or 
damage,  and  shall  forfeit  his  pay  and  be  dismissed  from  the  service ; 
(Art.  36.)  Any  non-commissioned  officer  or  soldier  who  shall  be  con- 
victed at  a  regimental  court-martial  of  having  sold,  or  designedly,  or 
through  neglect,  wasted  ammunition  delivered  to  him,  shall  be  punished 
at  the  discretion  of  such  court ;  (Art  37.) 

The  quantity  of  ammunition  with  troops  is  usually  fixed  at  two 
hundred  rounds  for  each  piece  of  ordnance.  These  supplies  are  trans- 
ported in  caissons,  and  an  army  should  be  followed,  in  all  cases,  by  a 
second  supply  at  least  equal  to  the  first.  The  ammunition  which  can- 
not be  carried  in  the  caissons  attached  to  pieces  will  be  kept  in  boxes 
in  reserve. 

Additional  supplies  of  ordnance  stores  are  placed  in  convenient 
depots,  according  to  circumstances. 

Ammunition  for  Small  Arms. — This  supply  consists  of  one  hundred 
rounds  to  each  man  :  forty  rounds  in  cartridge  box,  and  sixty  in  re- 
serve. Percussion  caps  should  exceed  by  one-half  the  number  of  car- 
tridges. Cuts  5  and  6  represent  the  bullets  of  new  arms. 

FIG.  5. 


BULLET  FOR  ALTERED   MTJSKET. 

Weight  of  ball,  730  grains ;  weight  of  powder,  70  grains. 

To  use  the  new  cartridge  carrying  the  powder  and  elongated  ball 
attached  to  each  other,  tear  the  fold  and  pour  out  the  powder ;  then 
seize  the  ball  end  firmly  between  the  thumb  and  forefinger  of  the  right 
hand,  and  strike  the  cylinder  of  the  cartridge  a  smart  blow  across  the 
muzzle  of  the  piece  ;  this  breaks  the  cartridge  and  exposes  the  bottom 
of  the  ball ;  a  slight  pressure  of  the  thumb  and  forefinger  forces  the 
ball  into  the  bore  clear  of  all  cartridge  paper.  In  striking  the  cartridge, 
the  cylinder  should  be  held  square  across,  or  at  right  angles  to  the 
muzzle ;  otherwise,  a  blow  given  in  an  oblique  direction  would  only 
bend  the  cartridge  without  rupturing  it. 


AMM.] 


MILITARY  DICTIONARY. 
FIG.  6. 


25 


BTTLLETS  FOR  NEW  EIFLE-MUSKET  AND  PISTOL-CARBINE. 


Weight  of  No.  1,  500  grains.  Weight  of  No.  2,  450  grains. 

Weight  of  powder,  60  grains.  Weight  of  powder,  40  grains. 

No.  1,  section  of  musket  bullet.  No.  2,  section  of  pistol-carbine  ballet. 

Both  bullets  have  the  same  exterior. 


Ammunition  for  a  siege  train  of  one  hundred  pieces,  consisting  of 
the  following : 

(  24-pounder  about  one-third  the  whole  number 32 


Guns <  18-pounder,  one-tenth  the  whole  number. 

(  12-pounder,         "  "  " 

Howitzers. — 8-inch  siege,  one-eighth  "  "       . 


Mortars 


j  10-inch  siege,  one-seventh 


8-inch  siege,  one-fourteenth "  "       

Stone  Mortars,  one-seventh  "  "       

Coehorn  Mortars  (in  addition  to  the  100  pieces) 6 

Wall  Pieces,  for  the  attack  of  one  front 40 

The  18  and  24-pounders  should  be  furnished  with  one  thousand  rounds 
each,  the  12-pounders  with  twelve  hundred  rounds,  the  8-inch  howitzers 
and  mortars  with  six  hundred  rounds.  In  addition  to  the  above,  fifty 
rounds  of  spherical-case  shot  should  be  furnished  to  each  gun.  Powder 
magazines,  containing  from  fifty  to  one  hundred  thousand  pounds  of 
powder,  must  be  accessible. 

Cartridges  for  siege  and  garrison  service  are  usually  one-fourth  the 
weight  of  the  shot ;  but  the  charge  varies  according  to  circumstances 
from  one-third  the  weight  of  the  shot  (for  a  breaching  battery)  to  one- 
sixth  of  that  weight  for  firing  double  shot,  or  hot  shot,  and  still  less 
for  ricochet  firing.  The  charges  for  mortars  and  howitzers  vary  ac- 
cording to  the  required  range.  For  columbiads  and  sea-coast  howitzers, 
the  cartridge  should  always  occupy  the  whole  length  of  the  chamber ; 
for  this  purpose,  in  firing  with  reduced  charges  a  cartridge  block  is  placed 
in  the  bag  over  the  powder.  For  mortars,  cartridge  bags  may  be  made 
in  the  same  manner  as  for  gi^ns,  but  the  charge  is  usually  poured  loose 
into  the  chamber.  Charges  vary  for  mortar  shells  from  11  Ibs.  to  4 


20  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [AMN. 

oz.  according  to  the  size  of  the  mortar,  and  whether  the  intention  be  to 
fill  the  shell,  to  burst  it,  or  simply  to  blow  out  the  fuse.  For  hot 
shot,  cartridge  bags  are  made  double  by  putting  one  bag  free  from  holes 
within  another.  (For  full  details  concerning  ammunition,  including  its 
preparation,  &c.,  consult  ORDNANCE  MANUAL,  1850  ;  consult  also  Ex- 
periments with  small  arms  by  Ordnance  Officers,  1856.  See  ARMS  ; 
CANISTER  ;  CARTRIDGE  ;  FRICTION  TUBES  ;  FUZE  ;  GRAPE  SHOT  ;  GUN 
POWDER  ;  ORDNANCE  AND  ORDNANCE  STORES  ;  RIFLED  ORDNANCE  ; 
SABOT  ;  SHELLS  ;  SOLID  SHOT  ;  SPHERICAL-CASE.) 

AMNESTY.     An  act  of  oblivion,  or  forgiveness  of  past  offences. 

ANGLE  OF  DEFENCE— is  that  formed  by  the  meeting  of  the 
flank  and  line  of  defence,  or  the  face  of  the  bastion  produced. 

ANGLE  OF  THE  POLYGON— is  that  formed  by  the  meeting 
of  two  of  the  sides  of  the  polygon ;  it  is  likewise  called  the  polygon 
angle. 

APOLOGY — when  made  and  accepted,  debars  the  officer  who 
accepts  from  bringing  forward  the  matter  as  a  substantive  accusation, 
(Hough.} 

APPEAL.  Any  officer  or  soldier  who  may  think  himself  wronged 
by  his  colonel  or  the  commanding  officer  of  his  regiment,  and  after 
due  application  to  him,  is  refused  redress,  may  appeal  to  the  next  higher 
commander,  who  is  to  examine  into  said  complaint,  and  take  proper 
measures  for  redressing  the  wrong  complained  of,  and  transmit,  as  soon 
as  possible,  to  the  Department  of  War,  a  true  statement  of  such  com- 
plaint, with  the  proceedings  had  thereon ;  (Art  34.)  If  any  inferior 
officer  or  soldier  shall  think  himself  wronged  by  his  captain,  or  other 
officer,  he  is  to  complain  thereof  to  the  commanding  officer  of  the  regi- 
ment, who  is  required  to  summon  a  regimental  court-martial  for  doing 
justice  to  the  complainant ;  from  which  regimental  court-martial,  either 
party  may,  if  he  thinks  himself  still  aggrieved,  appeal  to  a  general 
court-martial.  But  if,  upon  a  second  hearing,  the  appeal  shall  appear 
vexatious  and  groundless,  the  person  so  appealing  shall  be  punished 
at  the  discretion  of  the  said  court-martial ;  (Art.  85.)  (See  REMEDY.) 

The  wrongs  here  alluded  to,  have  reference  chiefly  to  matters  of 
accounts  between  the  captain,  or  commander  of  the  company,  and  the 
soldier,  rplating  to  clothing  and  other  supplies,  as  well  as  to  pay ;  and 
the  regimental  court,  in  examining  into  such  transactions,  may  be  con- 
sidered more  as  a  court  of  inquiry  than  a  court-martial ;  or,  it  may 
be  viewed  as  an  arbitration  board,  called  on  to  adjust  and  settle 
differences  arising  in  the  settlements  of  accounts  between  the  captain 
QjA  his  men.  One  reason  why  a  power  of  appeal  is  declared  to  be  a 


A  PP.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  27 

matter  of  absolute  right  to  inferior  officers,  or  soldiers,  complaining  of 
being  wronged  by  their  officers,  doubtless  is,  that  a  regimental  or  gar- 
rison court-martial  has  not  the  power  of  inflicting  any  punishment  on 
commissioned  officers.  It  can  do  no  more  than  express  its  opinion 
that  the  complaint  is  just,  or  the  contrary,  and  where  it  is  practicable  and 
proper,  relieve  the  sufferer  as  to  any  existing  grievance ;  but,  the  injury 
complained  of,  however  flagrant,  must  still  have  remained  unredressed, 
as  far  as  punishment  is  concerned,  if  an  appeal  to  a  general  court-mar- 
tial had  not  been  declared  to  be  a  matter  of  right  to  the  party  aggrieved. 

APPOINTING-  POWER,  &c.  It  has  been  contended  by  advo- 
cates of  executive  discretion,  that  army  appointments  are  embraced  in 
the  power  granted  to  the  President  in  the  2d  section  of  the  Constitu- 
tion, to  nominate,  and,  by  and  with  the  advice  and  consent  of  the 
Senate,  appoint  "  all  other  officers  of  the  United  States,  whose  appoint- 
ments are  not  herein  otherwise  provided  for,  and  which  may  be  estab- 
lished by  law.  But  the  Congress  may,  by  law,  vest  the  appointment 
of  such  inferior  officers  as  they  think  proper  in  the  President  alone,  in 
the  courts  of  law,  or  in  the  heads  of  departments."  If  due  regard,  how- 
ever, be  paid  to  the  words,  "  whose  appointments  are  not  herein  other- 
wise  provided  for"  the  pretension  set  up  in  favor  of  Executive  power, 
will  receive  no  support  from  the  terms  of  the  Constitution.  The  powers 
granted  to  Congress  to  raise  and  support  armies,  and  to  make  all  rules 
for  the  government  and  regulation  of  the  land  and  naval  forces,  are 
necessarily  so  comprehensive  in  character,  as  to  embrace  all  means 
which  Congress,  according  to  circumstances,  may  deem  proper  and 
necessary  in  order  to  raise  armies,  or  to  govern  them  when  raised. 
Rules  of  appointment  to  office,  rules  of  promotion — another  form  of 
appointment — and  all  rules  whatever  in  relation  to  the  land  and  naval 
forces,  save  the  appointment  of  the  commander-in-chief  of  those  united 
forces,  who  is  designated  by  the  Constitution,  are  hence  within  the  com- 
petency of  Congress. 

It  is  true,  that  this  great  power  vested  in  Congress  has  been  exer- 
cised by  them,  in  most  cases,  by  giving  to  the  President  a  large  dis- 
cretion in  appointments  and  other  matters  connected  with  the  army. 
But  the  principle  itself — that  supreme  command  is  vested  in  Congress — 
has  been  often  asserted  in  our  military  legislation.  Contemporaneously 
with  the  foundation  of  the  government  laws  have  been  passed,  giving  to 
general  and  other  officers  the  right  of  appointment  to  certain  offices ;  in 
other  cases,  the  President  has  been  confined  in  his  selection  to  classes 
designated  by  law ;  again,  rules  have  been  made  by  Congress  for  the 
promotion  of  officers,  and  in  1846  an  army  of  volunteers  was  raised 


28  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [App. 

by  Congress,  the  officers  of  which  Congress  directed  should  be  ap- 
pointed, according  to  the  laws  of  the  States  in  which  the  troops  were 
raised,  excepting  the  general  officers,  who  were  to  be  appointed  by  the 
President  and  Senate — a  clear  recognition  that  the  troops  thus  raised 
were  United  States  troops,  and  not  militia.  (See  CONGRESS  ;  PRO- 
MOTION; VOLUNTEERS.) 

APPOINTMENT— is  Office,  Rank,  Employment,  Equipment. 

APPROACHES— are  the  first,  second,  and  third  parallels, 
trenches,  saps,  mines,  &c.,  by  which  the  besiegers  approach  a  fortified 
place. 

APPROPRIATIONS— for  the  support  of  armies,  are  limited  by 
the  Constitution  to  a  term  not  to  exceed  two  years.  The  President  is 
authorized  to  transfer  appropriations  for  subsistence,  forage,  the  medical 
and  quartermaster's  department,  from  one  branch  of  military  expend- 
iture to  any  other  of  the  above-mentioned  branches;  (Act  May  1, 
1820.)  (See  TRANSFERS.) 

APRON.  A  piece  of  sheet  lead  used  to  cover  the  vent  of  a 
cannon. 

APPUI,  POINT  D'.  A  term  applied  to  any  given  point  upon 
which  a  line  of  troops  is  formed. 

ARDENT  SPIRITS.  The  introduction  of  ardent  spirits  into 
Indian  Territory,  under  any  pretence,  prohibited ;  (Act  July  0,  1832.) 
The  President  of  the  United  States  may  take  such  measures  as  he  may 
deem  expedient  to  prevent  or  restrain  the  vending  or  distributing  of 
spirituous  liquors  among  Indians.  Goods  of  traders  introducing  it 
forfeited ;  (Acts  March  30,  1802,  and  May  6,  1832.) 

ARM.     Infantry,  artillery,  and  cavalry,  are  arms  of  the  service. 

ARMISTICE,  Armistitium,  i.  e.  sistere  ab  armis.  A  temporary 
truce,  or  suspension  of  hostilities. 

ARMORER.     The  person  who  makes,  cleans,  or  repairs  arms. 

ARMORY.  A  manufactory  or  place  of  deposit  for  arms.  (See 
ARSENAL  ;  ORDNANCE  DEPARTMENT.) 

ARMS,  SMALL.  Casting  away  arms  and  ammunition  punishable 
with  death  or  otherwise  according  to  the  sentence  of  a  general  court- 
martial  ;  (Art.  52.)  Officers,  non-commissioned  officers,  and  soldiers 
should  be  instructed  and  practised  in  the  nomenclature  of  the  arms,  the 
manner  of  dismounting  and  mounting  them,  and  the  precautions  and 
care  required  for  their  preservation.  Each  soldier  should  have  a  screw- 
driver and  a  wiper,  and  each  squad  of  ten  a  wire  and  a  tumbler  punch, 
and  a  spring  vice.  No  other  implements  should  be  used  in  taking 
arms  apart  or  in  setting  them  up.  In  the  inspection  of  arms,  officers 


ABM.] 


MILITARY  DICTIONARY. 


should  attend  to  the  qualities  essential  to  service,  rather  than  a  bright 
polish  on  the  exterior  of  the  arms.  The  arms  should  be  inspected  in 
the  quarters  at  least  once  a  month,  with  the  barrel  and  lock  separated 
from  the  stock. 

PEINCIPAL  DIMENSIONS,  WEIGHTS,  ETC.,  OF  SMALL  AEMS. 


Dimensions. 

Eifle  muskets. 

Kifles. 

Pistol 
carbine. 

1822. 

1840. 

1855. 

1841. 

1855. 

1855. 

C  Diameter  of  bore              . 

Inches. 
.69 
.015 
.82 
1.25 
42. 
16. 
41.96 
57.64 
73.64 

Inches. 
.69 
.015 

8.85 
1.25 
42. 
18. 
41.70 
57.80 
75.80 

Inches. 

.58 
.0025 
.78 
1.14 
40. 
18. 
39.60 
55.85 
73.85 

Inches. 
.58 
.0025 
.90 
1.15 
33. 
21.7 
33. 
48.8 
71.3 

Inches. 
.58 
.0025 
.90 
1.14 
33. 
21.7 
33. 
49.3 
71.8 

Inches. 

.58 
.0025 
.82 
1. 
12. 

Variation  allowed,  more  
Barrel  <  Diameter  at  muzzle 

I  Diam'r  at  breech  between  flats. 
[  Length  without  breech  screw. 
Bayonet     Length  of  blade  

12. 
17.6 

(  Length  without  bayonet  
Arm      J  Witb>   Bayonet  fixe(j  

complete,  j  With  butt-piece      

28.2 
3 
4. 

.30 

.005 
.008 

Lbs. 
1.4 
.6 

"3.66" 

f  Number                    .. 

3 
6. 
.36 
.005 
.015 

Lbs. 

4. 
*95 

.73 
9.06 

9.82 

3 
6. 
.36 
.005 
.015 

Lbs. 
4.19 
.95 
.64 
9.51 
10.15 

3 
6. 
.SO 
.005 
.015 

Lbs. 

4.28 
.81 
.72 
9.18 
9.90 

3 

6. 
.30 
.005 
.013 

Lbs. 

4.8 
.55 
3.05 
9.68 
12.72 

3 

6. 
.30 
.005 
.013 

Lbs. 

4.8 
.81 
3.05 
9.93 
12.98 

Twist 

Grooves   \  Width 

[_  Depth  at  breech.  

WEIGHTS. 

Barrel  without  breech  screw 

Bayonet  
(  Without  bayonet 

Arm      J  •YYJtb.  bayonet 

complete,  j  with  butt-piece 

5.09 

'             i 

HEIGHTS  OF  HAUSSE,  ETC. 

Table  of  approximate  heights  for  rear  sights  of  new  arms,  measured  from  the  line  of 
metal  of  the  barrel.    Pieces  fired  from  the  shoulder  and  rest. 


New  Eifle  musket. 

Eifle  musket  (altered). 

Distance. 

Weight  of  ball,       500  grains. 
Weight  of  powder,  60  grains. 

Weight  of  ball,        730  grains. 
Weight  of  powder,  70  grains. 

Yards. 

Inches. 

Inches. 

100 

.40 

.42 

The  top  of  the  front 

200 
300 
400 
500 

.54 

.70 
.88 
1.10 

.  .62 
.82 
1.08 
1.34 

sight  is  seen  "fine" 
through  the  notch 
of  the  rear  sight. 

600 

1.35 

1.65 

700 

1.63 

1.96 

800 

1.94 

2.28 

900 

2.28 

2.61 

1000 

2.63 

2.94 

*  Mayuard  primer. 


30 


MILITARY  DICTIONARY. 


[ARM. 


PENETRATIONS. 

Table  of  penetrations  in  a  target  made  of  seasoned  white  pine  plank  one  inch  thick, 
and  placed  one  and  a  half  inches  apart. 


Arm. 

Weight  of 
ball. 

Weight  of 
powder. 

Diameter 
of  bullet. 

Planks 
penetrated. 

Distance. 

Grains. 
500 

Grains. 
60 

Inch. 
.5775 

Number. 
9| 

Yards. 
200 

730 

70 

.685 

104 

200 

500 

60 

.5775 

11 

200 

450 

40 

.5775 

5| 

200 

500 

60 

.5775 

5} 

600 

730 

70 

.685 

6£ 

600 

500 

60 

.5775 

6i 

600 

450 

40 

.5775 

3 

500 

730 

70 

.685 

8i 

1000 

500 

Go 

.5775 

3 

1000 

500 

60 

.5775 

34- 

1000 

At  1,000  yards,  a  bullet  from  the  new  rifle-musket  passed  completely 
through  the  frame  of  the  target,  which  was  made  of  solid  white  pine, 
three  inches  thick. 

The  elongated  musket  bullets  do  not  cease  to  ricochet  on  level  ground, 
at  the  distance  of  1,000  yards.  A  strong  wind  blowing  perpendicularly 
to  the  direction  of  the  rifle-musket  bullet,  will  deflect  it  from  its  course 
12  feet  in  1,000  yards,  about  3  feet  in  500  yards,  and  about  \  foot  in 
200  yards.  The  effect  of  wind  on  the  pistol-carbine  bullets  is  somewhat 
greater,  for  the  same  distance.  When  two  oblong  bullets  are  fired  from 
the  new  rifle-musket,  or  altered  rifle,  with  the  ordinary  service  charge 
of  60  grains,  they  separate  from  each  other  and  from  the  plane  of  fire 
about  4  feet  in  a  distance  of  200  yards.  If  the  piece  be  held  firmly 
against  the  shoulder,  no  serious  inconvenience  will  be  felt  in  firing  this 
increased  charge ;  the  only  precaution  necessary  to  be  observed  in  aim- 
ing, is  to  give  the  barrel  greater  elevation  than  for  the  single  bullet,  in 
the  proportion  of  6  feet  for  200  yards.  In  cases  of  emergency,  firing 
with  two  bullets  might  be  effectively  employed  against  masses  of  in- 
fantry and  cavalry,  if  the  distance  does  not  exceed  300  yards.  Muzzle- 
loading  small  arms  can  be  discharged  two  or  three  times  in  a  minute, 
and  breech-loading  arms  about  ten  times.  Rapidity  of  loading  and 
discharging  fire-arms  is  however  of  doubtful  advantage  in  actual  service, 
as  soldiers  are  apt  to  discharge  their  pieces  without  proper  aim,  and 
thus  waste  ammunition. 


ARM.] 


MILITARY  DICTIONARY. 


1  c 

13 


bmiipfib*  of  %  giflc 


MODEL  OF  1855. 


Fig.  Y.  Bwrel,  one-seventh  size,  a,  breech  ;  6,  cone-seat ; 
<-,  rear-sight  ;  d,  front-sight  and  bayonet  stud  ;  e, 
muzzle. 


FIG.  8. 


Fig.  8.  Breech-screw,  full  size.     «,  plug  with  threads ;  6,          J± 
tenon  ;  c,  tang ;  d,  tang-screw  hole  ;  e,  face. 


FIG.  9. 


FIG.  9'. 
C 


Fig.  9.   Cone,  full  size,     a,  nipple ;  b,  square  ;  c,  shoulder ; 

d,  screw-thread ;  e,  vent. 
Fig.  9'.   Cone-seat  screw,  full  size,    a,  stem ;  6,  head ;  c,  slit ; 

d,  thread. 


FIG.  10. 


c 


Fig.  10.  Tang-screw,  full  size. 
11.  Ramrod,  one-seventh  size,     a,  stem;  6,  swell;  c,  head;  d,  cup;  e,  screw. 


32 


MILITARY  DICTIONARY. 


[ARM. 


FIG.  13. 


FIG.  12. 

Fig.  12.  Rear-sight,  full  size,  side 
view,  complete.  1,  2,  3,  4,  grad- 
uation-marks on  the  base,  a. 


Fig.  13.    Section  through 
a,  a,  full  size. 

Fia.  14. 


Fig.  14.    Section  through 
6,  6,  full  size. 


FIG.  15. 

T"T^ 


15.  £ea/,  full  size,     a,  frame  ;  6,  slot;    d,  tongue;    e,  joint-pin  hole;   /,  sight- 
notch  ;  5,  6,  7,  8,  9,  graduation-markfl. 


FIG.  16. 


FIG.  IT. 


i  -•  I 

a 

0* 

Fig.  16.   Leaf-spring,  full  size,     a,  blade;  6,  screw-hole;  c,  thickness. 

Fig.  17.    Leaf-spring  screw,  full  size,     a,  head ;  6,  stem ;  c,  c,  holes  for  screw-driver. 


FIG.  13. 


FIG.  10. 

CL 

— v 

05 
O5 


FIG.  20. 


Fig.  18.  >S^ek,  full  size,     a,  back-piece;   6,  6,  grooves;  c,  c,  rivet-holes;  <?,  <£,  han- 

'    dies ;  e,  sight-notch ;  f,  f,  rivets. 

Fig.  19.  Slide-spring,  full  size,     a,  sight-notch;  6,  b,  rivet-holes;  c,  thickness. 
Fig.  20.  Joint-pin,  full  size. 


ARM.] 


MILITARY  DICTIONARY. 


FIG.  22. 


FIG.  23. 


FIG. 


FIG.  21. 


a 


a 

Fig.  21.  Front-sight  and  bayonet-stud,  full  size,     a,  sight;  b,  stud. 
J%s.  22,  23.  Bayonet-clasp,  full  size,    a,  body  ;  b,  6,  stud  ;  c,  bridge; 

c?,  groove ;  e,  e,  stops ;  /,  screw. 
Fig.  24.   Bayonet,  quarter  size,     a,  blade ;  6,  neck ;  c,  socket ; 

bridge ;  e,  stud  mortise  ;  /,  clasp. 


FIG.  25. 


0 

Fig.  25.  Lock,  outside  view,  half  size,  a,  hammer ;  6,  lock-plate  ; 
c,  magazine-cover ;  d,  tumbler-screw ;  e,  joint-pin ;  /,  side- 
screw  hole. 


FIG.  26. 


Fig.  26.  Lock,  inside 
view,  half  size,  show- 
ing the  parts  with  the 
hammer  at  half  cock, 
a,  hammer;  6,  tum- 
bler; c,  bridle;  rf,  bri- 
dle-screw ;  e,  sear, ;  /, 
sear-screw;  g,  sear- 
spring;  A,  sear-spring 
screw  ;  i,  mainspring; 
j,  swivel;  k,  cover- 
catch. 


34 


MILITARY  DICTIONARY, 

FIG.  27. 


[ARM. 


Fig.  27.  Lock-plate,  half  size,  showing  the  position  of  the  holes,  &c.  a,  cone-seat 
notch ;  b,  bolster ;  c,  mainspring  notch ;  d,  hole  for  mainspring  pivot ;  e,  hole 
for  arbor  of  tumbler ;  f,  hole  for  cover-catch ;  g,  hole  for  cover  hinge  stud ; 
h,  A,  side-screw  holes;  i,  hole  for  bridle-screw;  j,  hole  for  sear-screw;  k, 
hole  for  sear-spring ;  I,  hole  for  catch-spring  screw ;  m,  sear-spring  stud-mortise ; 
n,  feed-finger  slot ;  o,  bridle  pivot  hole ;  p,  feed-finger-spring-screw  hole. 


FIG.  28. 


FIG  29. 


FIG.  80. 


Fig.  28.  Magazine-cover,  full  size,     a,  body;  6,  6,  jaws;  c,  c,  holes  for  joint-pin. 
Fig.  29.   Cover-hinge  stud,  full  size,  two  views,     o,  head;  6,  joint-pin  hole;  c,  stem. 
Fig.  30.   Cover-catch  and  screw,  full  size,  two  views,     a,  head;  b,  notch;  c,  c,  foot; 
d,  screw-hole ;  e,  catch-screw. 


r?    c 

-LT 

p        £ 

=u= 

FIG. 

p     (! 

31. 

=LF= 

H 

Si 

^ 

^ 

rf 

7.  31.  Lock-screws,  full  size,  and  side-screics,  half  size,     a,  6,  side-screws ;  c,  sear- 
screw  ;  c?,  bridle-screw  ;  e,  sear-spring  screw ;  /,  tumbler-screw. 


NOTE. — In  all  the  screws,  the  parts  are  the  stem,  the  head,  the  slit,  the  thread. 


ARM.] 


MILITARY  DICTIONARY. 


35 


FIG.  32. 


Fio.  83. 


v_^x  LJ^  ua 

Fig.  32.  Mainspring-swivel,  full  size,     a,  a,  body ;  b,  axis ;    e,  tumbler-pin  hole ;  d, 
finger-pivot  hole. 


finger-pivot  hole. 
Fig.  33.  feed-finger,  full  size,  two  views,     a,  a,  eye-pivot ;  6,  crook ;  c,  e,  finger. 


FIG,  34. 


rr 


^  — c  |i     j . | 

34.  Feed-finger  spring,  full  size,     a,  eye ;    b,  long  branch;    c,  short  branch ; 

d,  screw. 


FIG.  35. 


FIG.  36. 


"la 


Fig.  35.  Hammer,  half  size,     a,  body;  b,  head;  c,  comb;  d,  countersink,  slit,   and 

knife-edge ;  e,  tumbler-hole. 
Fig.  36.  Tumbler,  half  size,  two  views,     a,  body;  b,  arbor;  c,  squares;  d,  pivot;  e, 

swivel-arm  and  pin-hole ;  f,  tumbler-screw  hole. 


FIG.  87. 


FIG.  88. 


Fig.  37.  Bridle,  half  size,  two  views,     a,  body  ;  b,  eye  for  tumbler-pivot ;  c,  pivot ; 

d,  hole  for  bridle-screw ;  e,  hole  for  sear-screw. 

Fig.  38.    Sear,  half  size,  two  views,     a,  body ;  b,  nose ;  c,  arm ;  d,  screw-hole ; 

e,  screw. 

FIG.  89. 


Fig.  39.   Sear-spring,  half  size,  two  views,     a,  blade ;    6,  upper  branch :    c,  lower 
branch  ;  d,  stud ;  e,  screw-hole. 


36 


MILITARY  DICTIONARY. 
FIG.  40. 


[AKM. 


Fig.  40.  Mainspring,  half  size,  two  views,  a,  upper  branch  ;  6, 
lower  branch  ;  c,  hook  ;  d,  pivot ;  e,  tang. 

Fig.  41.  Stock,  one-ninth  size,  a,  butt ;  b,  handle  ;  c,  head  ;  d, 
bed  for  lock  ;  e,  shoulder  for  lower  band ;  /,  bed  for  band- 
spring  ;  g,  shoulder  for  middle  band  ;  h,  bed  for  band-spring ; 
i,  shoulder  for  upper  band  ;  j,  bed  for  band-spring ;  &,  shoul- 
der and  tenon  for  tip. 

FIG.  42. 


Fig.  42.  Butt-plate  and  screws,  quarter  size,  three  views,  a,  body ; 
6,  toe  ;  c,  heel ;  d,  d,  screw-hples  ;  e,  e,  screws. 


FIG.  48. 


d 

D 


Fig.  43.  Tip,  full  size,  two  views,     a,  recess  for  stock  ;  b,  groove 
for  ramrod  ;  c,  rivet-hole  ;  d,  rivet. 


FIG.  44. 


Fig.  44.  Guard-plate,  quarter  size,  a,  body;  b,  b,  bolsters;  c,  c,  trigger-stud  and 
mortise ;  d,  d,  holes  for  guard-bow ;  e,  c,  for  wood  screws ;  /,  for  trigger-screw ; 
g,  for  tang-screw. 


ARM.] 


MILITARY  DICTIONARY. 


37 


Fio.  45. 


FIG.  48.  Fig.  45.    Guard-bow,  quarter  size,  two  views,     a,  body ;  b,  b, 

stems  ;  c,  c,  nuts  ;  d,  d,  swivel ;  e,  rivet. 
Fig.  46.  Trigger,  half  size,     a,  blade ;  6,  finger-piece ;  c,  hole 

for  screw  ;  c?,  screw,  full  size. 
Fig.  48.   Guard-screws,  half  size. 


FIG.  49. 


FIG.  50. 


FIG.  51. 


Fig.  49.    Upper  band,  half  size. 
Fig.  50.  Middle  band,  half  size. 

Fig.  51.  Zower  6awc?,  half  size,     a,  body;  6,  6,  creases;   £T  denotes  the  upper  edge ; 
c,  swivel-stud  (on  middle  band  only) ;  d,  swivel. 


Fio.  52. 


FIG.  53. 


FIG.  54 


Figs.  62,  53,  54.    Upper,  middle,  and  lower  band-springs,  half  size,    a,  stem  ;  6,  wire ; 
c,  shoulder ;  e,  tang. 


38 


FIG.  55. 


MILITARY  DICTIONARY. 
FIG.  56. 


[ARM. 


FIG.  57. 


Fig.  55.  Side-screw  washer,  full  size,     a,  countersink  ;  b,  hole  for  screw. 
Fig.  56.      Wiper,  full  size,     a,  body;  b,  b,  prongs;  c,  screw-hole  for  rod. 
Fig.  57.  Ball-screw,  full  size,  a,  body ;  b,  tang ;  c,  screw-hole  for  rod ;  d,  screw  to 
draw  the  ball. 

FIG.  58. 


Fig.  68.  Screw-driver,  half 
j  j       size,  two  views,    a,  cone- 
wrench  ;  b,  b,  b,  blades  ; 
c,  rivet ;  d,  d,  collets  for 
rivet. 


FIG.  59. 


FIG.  60. 


FIG.  61. 


Fig.  59.  Spring-vice,  half  size,  two  views. 

a,  bolster  ;  b,  slide  ;  c,  slide-mortise  ;  d, 

slide  screw  ;  e,  thumb-screw. 
Fig.  60.  Upper  side  of  slide. 
Fig.  61.   Tompion,  half  size,      a,  head ;  b, 

body  ;    c,  rivet ;    d,  leather  washer ;    e, 

slot. 
Fig.  62.   Cone,  (spare,)  see  Fig.  9. 


FIG.  62. 


ARM.] 


MILITARY  DICTIONARY. 


39 


FIG.  63. 


I 


ifle  gtoshrf  mtb  ^pptnimgw,  floM 


Wiper. 


Ball-screw.        Screw-driver.   -Spring-vice. 


Tompion. 


Spare  cone. 


Tumbler  and  "Wire  Punch. 


MATEEIALS  OF  WHICH  THE  PAETS  AEE  MADE. 

Steel 

Tumbler;  Lock-swivel,  Feed-finger;  Finger- 
spring  ;  Cover-catch ;  Sear ;  Sear-spring ;  Main- 
spring ;  Band-springs ;  Ramrod ;  Rear-sight 
(except  the  screw);  Screw-driver;  Wiper; 
Ball-screw ;  Cone ;  Tumbler,  and  Wire  Punch. 

Brass. 
Tip  for  Stock ;    head  of  Tompion. 

Wood. 
Stock ;  Tompion. 

Iron. 

Socket  of  the  Bayonet,  and  all  other  parts 
not  enumerated. 


40  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [ARM. 

RULES  FOR  DISMOUNTING  THE  RIFLE  MUSKET,  MODEL  OF  1855. — 1st. 
Unfix  the  bayonet  (24).  3d.  Put  the  tompion  (60)  into  the  muzzle  of 
the  barrel.  3d.  Draw  the  ramrod  (11).  4th.  Turn  out  the  tang- 
screw  (10).  5th.  Take  off  the  lock  (25) :  to  do  this,  first  put  the 
hammer  at  half-cock,  then  unscrew  partially  the  side-screws  (31,  a,  b), 
and,  with  a  slight  tap  on  the  head  of  each  screw  with  a  wooden  instru- 
ment, loosen  the  lock  from  its  bed  in  the  stock ;  then  turn  out  the  side- 
screws,  and  remove  the  lock  with  the  left  hand.  6th.  Remove  the  side- 
screws  (31,  a,  b),  taking  care  not  to  disturb  the  washers  (55).  7th. 
Take  off  the  upper  band  (49).  8th.  Take  off  the  middle  band  (50). 
9th.  Take  off  the  lower  band  (51).  (Note. — The  letter  U,  on  bands, 
is  to  indicate  the  upper  side  in  assembling.)  10th.  Take  out  the  barrel 
(7) :  in  doing  this,  turn  the  musket  horizontally,  with  the  barrel  down- 
ward, holding  the  barrel  loosely  with  the  lefl  hand  below  the  rear  sight 
(12),  the  right  hand  grasping  the  stock  by  the  handle ;  and  if  it  does 
not  leave  the  stock,  tap  the  tompion  in  the  muzzle  gently  against  the 
ground  or  floor,  which  will  loosen  the  breech  end  from  the  stock.  This 
is  preferable  to  lifting  the  barrel  out  by  the  muzzle,  because  if  the  tang 
of  the  breech-screw  (8)  should  bind  in  the  wood,  the  head  of  the  stock 
(41  c)  -would  be  liable  to  be  split  by  raising  the  muzzle  first. 

The  foregoing  parts  of  the  rifle  musket  are  all  that  should  usually 
be  taken  off  or  dismounted.  The  soldier  should  never  dismount  the 
band-springs,  guard,  side-screw  washers,  butt-plate,  rear-sight,  cone,  and 
cone-seat  screw,  except  when  an  officer  considers  it  necessary.  The 
breech-screw  should  be  taken  out  only  by  an  armorer,  and  never  in 
ordinary  cleaning.  The  lock  should  not  be  taken  apart,  nor  the  bay- 
onet-clasp taken  off,  except  when  absolutely  necessary  in  the  opinion 
of  an  officer.  If  proper  and  regular  care  be  taken  of  the  arm,  this  will 
le  very  seldom  necessary.  The  musket  being  thus  taken  to  pieces,  the 
soldier,  under  ordinary  circumstances,  will — 

To  clean  the  barrel — 1st.  Stop  the  hole  in  the  cone  (9,  e)  with  a 
peg  of  soft  wood  ;  pour  a  gill  of  water  (warm,  if  it  can  be  had)  into 
the  muzzle ;  let  it  stand  a  short  time,  to  soften  the  deposit  of  the  pow- 
der ;  put  a  plug  of  soft  wood  into  the  muzzle,  and  shake  the  water  up 
and  down  the  barrel  well ;  pour  this  out  and  repeat  the  washing  until 
the  water  runs  clear ;  take  out  the  peg  from  the  cone,  and  stand 
the  barrel,  muzzle  downwards,  to  drain,  for  a  few  moments.  2d. 
Screw  the  wiper  (56,  c)  on  to  the  end  of  the  ramrod  (11,  e)  and  put  a 
piece  of  dry  cloth,  or  tow,  round  it,  sufficient  to  prevent  it  from  chafing 
the  grooves  of  the  barrel ;  wipe  the  bart-el  quite  dry,  changing  or  dry- 
ing the  cloth  two  or  three  times.  3d.  Put  no  oil  into  the  vent  (9,  e), 


ARM.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  41 

as  it  will  clog  the  passage,  and  cause  the  first  primer  to  miss  fire ;  but, 
with  a  slightly  oiled  rag  on  the  wiper,  rub  the  bore  of  the  barrel,  and 
the  face  of  the  breech-screw  (8,  e),  and  immediately  insert  the  tompion 
(61)  into  the  muzzle.  4th.  To  clean  the  exterior  of  the  barrel,  lay  it 
flat  on  a  bench,  or  board,  to  avoid  bending  it.  The  practice  of  sup- 
porting the  barrel  at  each  end  and  rubbing  it  with  a  strap  or  buff-stick, 
or  with  the  ramrod,  or  any  other  instrument,  to  burnish  it,  is  perni- 
cious, and  should  be  strictly  forbidden.  5th.  After  firing,  the  barrel 
should  always  be  washed  as  soon  as  practicable;  when  the  water  comes 
off  clear,  wipe  the  barrel  dry,  and  pass  into  it  a  rag  moistened  with  oil. 
Fine  flour  of  emery-cioih  is  the  best  article  to  clean  the  exterior  of  the 
barrel. 

To  clean  the  lock. — Wipe  every  part  with  a  moist  rag,  and  then  a 
dry  one ;  if  any  part  of  the  interior  shows  rust,  put  a  drop  of  oil  on 
the  point  or  end  of  a  piece  of  soft  wood  dipped  into  flour  of  emery ; 
rub  out  the  rust  clean  and  wipe  the  surface  dry  ;  then  rub  every  part 
with  a  slightly  oiled  rag. 

To  clean  the  mountings. — For  the  mountings,  and  all  iron  and 
steel  parts,  use  fine  flour  of  emery  moistened  with  oil,  or  flour  of 
emery-cloth.  For  brass,  use  rotten-stone  moistened  with  vinegar,  or 
water,  and  avoid  oil  or  grease.  Use  a  hard  brush,  or  a  piece  of  soft 
pine,  cedar,  or  crocus-cloth.  Remove  dirt  from  the  screw-holes  by 
screwing  a  piece  of  soft  wood  into  them.  Wipe  clean  with  a  linen 
rag,  and  leave  the  parts  slightly  oiled.  In  cleaning  the  arms,  the 
aim  should  be  to  preserve  the  qualities  essential  to  service,  rather  than 
to  obtain  a  bright  polish.  Burnishing  the  barrel  (or  other  parts) 
should  be  strictly  avoided,  as  it  tends  to  crook  the  barrel,  and  also  to 
destroy  the  uniformity  of  the  exterior  finish  of  the  arm. 

It  is  not  essential  for  the  musket  to  be  dismounted  every  time  that 
it  is  cleaned ;  for,  after  firing  in  fine  weather,  or  when  dampness  could 
not  get  between  the  barrel  and  the  stock,  it  can  be  perfectly  cleaned 
as  follows :  Put  a  piece  of  rag  or  soft  leather  on  the  top  of  the  cone, 
and  let  the  hammer  down  upon  it ;  pour  a  gill  of  water  into  the  muzzle 
carefully,  so  that  it  cannot  run  down  the  outside ;  put  a  plug  of  wood 
into  the  muzzle,  and  shake  the  gun  up  and  down,  changing  the  water 
repeatedly  until  it  runs  clear.  Then  withdraw  the  leather,  and 
stand  the  musket  on  the  muzzle  a  few  moments ;  then  wipe  out  the 
barrel  (as  told  in  the  second  rule  for  cleaning),  and  also  wipe  the  ex- 
terior of  the  lock  and  the  outside  of  the  barrel  around  the  cone  and 
cone-seat,  first  with  a  damp  rag,  and  then  with  a  dry  one,  and  lastly 
with  a  rag  that  has  been  slightly  oiled.  In  this  way,  all  dirt  from 


42  MILITAKY  DICTIONARY.  [ARM. 

firing  may  be  removed  without  taking  out  a  screw.  If,  however, 
the  hammer  works  stiffly,  or  grates  upon  the  tumbler,  the  lock  must 
immediately  be  taken  off,  and  the  parts  cleaned  and  touched  with  oil. 

To  re-assemble  the  musket. — The  parts  of  the  musket  are  put  to- 
gether in  the  inverse  order  of  taking  them  apart,  viz. :  1st.  The  barrel. 
Drop  the  barrel  into  its  place  in  the  stock,  and  squeeze  it  down  with 
the  hand ;  give  the  butt  of  the  stock  a  gentle  tap  against  the  floor  to 
settle  the  breech  end  of  the  barrel  against  the  head  of  the  stock  (41,  c). 
2d.  Put  on  the  lower  band  with  the  letter  U  upward,  being  careful  not 
to  mar  the  stock,  or  barrel,  in  sliding  it  into  its  place  ;  apply  the  thumb 
to  the  band-spring  to  see  that  it  plays  freely.  3d.  Put  on  the  middle,  and, 
4th.  The  upper  band,  in  the  same  manner.  5th.  The  lock.  Half-cock 
the  hammer  ;  take  the  lock  in  the  right  hand,  with  the  main  spring  and 
sear  toward  you,  holding  the  stock  with  the  left  Jiand  by  the  swell, 
with  the  butt  between  the  knees.  Enter  the  lock  fairly  into  the  lock- 
bed,  taking  care  to  keep  the  arm  of  the  sear  clear  of  the  trigger  ;  press 
the  plate  well  down  into  the  wood,  and  then  turn  'the  musket  over, 
holding  the  lock  and  stock  together  with  the  left  hand.  6th.  With  the 
right  hand,  turn  in  the  side-screws,  after  having  touched  their  screw- 
threads  with  oil.  Observe  that  the  point  of  the  rear-screw  is  flat,  and 
should  not  project  beyond  the  plate,  to  interfere  with  the  hammer. 
The  front  screw  has  a  round  point.  7th.  Turn  in  the  tang-screw,  after 
having  oiled  the  screw-thread.  Be  careful  to  see  that  each  of  these 
screws  are  turned  firmly  home,  but  not  forced.  Observe  that  the  lock 
plays  freely,  without  friction,  and  that  no  limb  is  bound  by  the  wood. 
8th.  Return  the  ramrod.  9th.  Refix  the  bayonet,  after  having  oiled 
the  clasp  and  socket  to  prevent  chafing.  10th.  Replace  the  tompion. 
Oil  the  stock  well  with  sperm  or  linseed  oil ;  let  it  stand  a  few  hours, 
and  then  rub  it  with  a  woollen  rag  until  the  wood  is  perfectly  dry.  Re- 
peat this  from  time  to  time,  and  it  will  produce  a  polish  which  moisture 
will  not  affect.  Linseed  oil  is  the  best  for  this  purpose,  and  it  should 
be  used  while  the  arm  is  dismounted. 

Rules  for  the  more  complete  dismounting  of  the  rifle-musket,  when 
cleaned  by  an  armorer. — 1st.  The  parts  which  should  be  dismounted 
by  an  experienced  armorer  will  be  given  in  their  regular  order  fol- 
lowing No.  10,  viz.  :  llth.  Unscrew  the  cone,  keeping  the  wrench  well 
down  on  the  square  of  the  cone,  to  prevent  the  corners  from  being 
injured.  12th.  Take  out  the  cone-seat  screw  (9').  13th.  Take  out 
the  upper,  middle,  and  lower  band- springs  (52,  53,  54),  using  a  wire 
punch  of  proper  size.  14th.  Take  out  the  guard-screws  (48).  Note. — 
The  guard,  butt-plate,  and  side-screw  heads  have  concave  slits,  for 


ARM.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  43 

which  the  screw-driver  is  adapted :  this  lessens  the  danger  of  the 
stock  being  marred  by  accident  or  carelessness  in  letting  the  screw- 
driver slip  out,  while  in  the  act  of  turning  the  screw  :  great  care 
should  be  used  to  prevent  such  injuries.  15th.  Take  out  the  guard, 
and  be  careful  not  to  injure  the  wood  at  each  end  of  the  guard- 
plate  (44).  16th.  Take  out  the  side-screw  washers  (55)  with  a  drift- 
punch.  17th.  Take  out  the  butt-plate  screws  (42)  with  the  largest 
blade  of  the  screw-driver,  and  remove  the  butt-plate  (42).  18th.  Re- 
move the  rear  sight  (12),  by  turning  out  the  leaf-spring  screw  (17), 
which  will  release  the  sight  from  the  barrel.  19th.  Turn  out  the 
breech-screw  (7),  by  means  of  a  "  breech- screw  wrench  "  suited  to  the 
tenon  (b)  of  the  breech-screw  (8).  No  other  wrench  should  ever  be 
used  for  this  purpose,  and  the  barrel  should  be  held  in  clamps  fitting 
neatly  the  breech  (7,  a). 

In  re-assembling  the  parts,  the  armorer  is  to  observe  the  inverse 
order  of  taking  them  apart,  viz.  :  1st.  Breech-screw  to  be  screwed  into 
the  barrel  after  being  oiled ;  2d.  Rear-sight  to  be  affixed ;  3d.  Butt- 
plate  and  screws ;  4th.  Side-screw  washers ;  5th.  Guard ;  6th.  Guard- 
screws  ;  7th.  Lower,  middle,  and  upper-band  springs ;  8th.  Cone-seat 
screw ;  9th.  Cone.  The  remaining  parts  follow  as  given  for  the  sol- 
dier, commencing  with  the  barrel  (see  page  42). 

Order  in  which  the  Lock  is  taken  apart. — 1st.  Cock  the  piece,  and 
put  the  spring-vice  (59)  on  the  mainspring ;  give  the  thumb-screw  a 
turn  sufficient  to  liberate  the  spring  from  the  swivel  (32)  and  main- 
spring notch  (27,  c).  Remove  the  spring  ;  2d.  The  sear-spring  screw : 
Before  turning  this  screw  entirely  out,  strike  the  elbow  of  the  spring 
writh  the  screw-driver,  so  as  to  disengage  the  pivot  from  its  mortise : 
then  remove  the  screw  and  spring  ;  3d.  The  sear-screw  and  sear  ;  4th. 
The  bridle-screw  and  bridle ;  5th.  The  tumbler-screw ;  6th.  The  tum- 
bler. This  is  driven  out  with  a  punch  inserted  in  the  screw-hole,  which 
at  the  same  time  liberates  the  hammer.  7th.  Detach  the  mainspring 
swivel  from  the  tumbler  with  a  drift  punch.  8th.  Take  out  the  feed- 
finger  and  spring.  The  magazine-cover  should  never  be  taken  off  except 
when  absolutely  necessary  ;  9th.  The  catch-spring  and  screw.  The  lock 
is  re-assembled  in  the  inverse  order  of  taking  apart,  viz. :  1st.  The 
catch-spring  ;  2d.  The  feed-finger  and  spring  ;  3d.  Mainspring  swivel ; 
4th.  Tumbler  and  hammer ;  5th.  Tumbler-screw;  6th.  Bridle  and  screw ; 
7th.  Scar  and  screw  ;  8th.  Sear-spring  and  screw ;  9th.  Mainspring. 

Before  replacing  the  screws,  oil  them  slightly  with  good  sperm-oil, 
putting  a  drop  on  the  point  of  the  screw  ;  also  on  the  arbor  and  pivot 
of  the  tumbler ;  between  the  movable  branches  of  the  springs,  and  the 


44  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [ARM. 

lock-plate ;  on  the  hook  and  notches  of  the  tumbler.  After  the  lock 
is  put  together,  avoid  turning  the  screws  in  so  hard  as  to  make  the 
limbs  bind :  to  insure  this,  try  the  motion  of  each  limb  before  and 
after  its  spring  is  mounted,  and  see  that  it  moves  without  friction. 
When  a  lock  has,  from  any  cause,  become  gummed  with  oil  and  dirt, 
it  may  be  cleaned  by  being  boiled  in  soapsuds,  or  in  pearlash  or  soda 
water,  to  loosen  the  thick  oil ;  but  heat  should  never  be  applied  to  any 
part  of  it  in  any  other  way.  As  rust  and  dirt  are  produced  by  explod- 
ing caps  or  primers,  although  no  charge  be  fired,  the  parts  of  the  bar- 
rel and  cone  exposed  should  be  carefully  wiped  and  oiled  after  such  exer- 
cise. Besides  the  precautions  in  dismounting,  remounting,  and  clean- 
ing, which  have  been  pointed  out  in  the  foregoing  pages,  habitual  care 
in  handling  arms  is  necessary  to  keep  them  in  good  and  serviceable 
condition.  In  ordering  arms  on  parade,  let  the  butt  be  brought  gently 
to  the  ground,  especially  on  pavements  or  hard  roads.  This  will  save 
the  mechanism  of  the  lock  from  shocks,  highly  injurious  to  it,  from 
the  loosening  of  screws  and  splitting  the  wood-work. 

Rifled  arms  should  not  have  the  ramrod  sprung  in  the  bore  with 
unnecessary  force.  It  batters  the  head  of  the  rod  and  wears  injuriously 
the  grooves.  The  soldier  should  let  the  rod  slide  down  gently,  sup- 
ported by  the  thumb  and  finger ;  and  the  inspecting  officer  can  satisfy 
himself  of  the  condition  of  the  bottom  of  the  bore  by  gently  tapping 
with  the  rod.  The  face  of  the  breech  can  be  polished,  after  washing,  by 
means  of  a  cork  fixed  on  the  wiper  or  ball-screw  ;  the  polished  surface 
can  be  seen  if  the  muzzle  is  turned  to  the  light. 

In  stacking  arms,  care  should  be  taken  not  to  injure  the  bayonets 
by  forcibly  straining  the  edges  against  each  other.  The  stack  can  be 
as  well  secured  without  such  force  being  used.  No  cutting,  marking, 
or  scraping,  in  any  way,  the  wood  or  iron  should  be  allowed ;  and  no 
part  of  the  gun  should  be  touched  with  a  file.  Take  every  possible 
care  to  prevent  water  from  getting  in  between  the  lock,  or  barrel,  and 
stock.  If  any  should  get  there,  dismount  the  gun  as  soon  as  possible, 
clean  and  oil  the  parts  as  directed,  and  see  that  they  are  perfectly  dry 
before  re-assembling  them. 

To  place  a  coil  of  primers  in  the  magazine. — Let  down  the  ham- 
mer ;  open  the  magazine,  by  pulling  back  the  head  of  the  cover-catch 
with  the  thumb-nail  of  the  left  hand,  while  the  thumb-nail  of  the  right 
hand  is  pushed  under  the  cover  at  the  bottom.  Remove  the  covering 
paper  from  the  coil  of  primers ;  separate  any  parts  that  may  happen 
to  stick  together  ;  unwind  about  one  inch  ;  place  the  coil  in  the  maga- 
zine, and  the  free  end  of  it  in  the  groove,  flat-side  towards  the  cone, 


ARM.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  45 

and  one  primer  beyond  the  end  of  the  feed-finger ;  close  the  magazine. 
Should  an  exploded  primer  fail  to  ignite  the  charge,  there  must  be 
moisture,  or  some  obstruction,  in  the  vent ;  or  the  gun  may  be  im- 
properly loaded.  After  a  night  in  a  damp  place,  a  drop  of  moisture 
sometimes  collects  in  the  vent,  and,  unless  removed,  prevents  the  first 
primer,  or  cap,  from  igniting  the  charge.  If,  by  accident,  a  coil  of 
primers  becomes  softened  by  dampness,  it  can  be  made  good  again  by 
a  short  exposure  to  a  dry  warm  atmosphere.  Should  the  cocking  of 
the  hammer  fail  to  feed  out  properly  the  primer,  open  the  magazine 
and  notice,  while  working  the  hammer,  the  cause  of  the  difficulty.  It 
can  generally  be  readily  corrected. 

RIFLE-MUSKET  (1842). — This  arm  differs  from  the  original  model 
in  the  following  particulars :  1st.  The  bore  is  grooved.  2d.  It  has  a 
rear  sight  similar  to  that  for  the  new  musket,  and  a  front  sight  of  iron 
attached  to  the  upper  strap  of  the  upper  band.  To  prevent  the  band 
from  moving  sideways,  a  short  stud  is  attached  to  the  under  side  of  the 
strap,  which  fits  into  a  groove  in  the  barrel.  3d.  The  head  of  the  ram- 
rod is  reamed  out  to  fit  the  pointed  end  of  the  ball.  4th.  The  lock  is 
altered  to  the  Maynard  principle,  differing  from  the  one  described  for 
the  new  rifle-musket  of  1855,  by  its  size,  the  absence  of  the  swivel,  and 
the  facts,  that  the  mainspring  is  fastened  by  a  screw,  and  the  finger 
spring  by  a  pin.  5th.  To  adapt  the  cone  seat  to  this  modified  lock,  a 
portion  of  the  breech  of  the  barrel  is  cut  off,  and  a  new  breech  piece 
with  cone  seat  attached,  is  screwed  on  in  its  place.  Breech  piece  :  body, 
shoulder,  screw  thread,  chamber  (conical),  tang,  tenon,  tang  screw  hole, 
chamfer,  notch  for  side  screw,  cone  seat,  vent,  vent  screw,  vent  screw 
thread,  cone  thread. 

RIFLE-MUSKET  (1822). — The  bayonet  of  this  arm  has  no  clasp,  or 
ramrod  spring ;  in  all  other  respects  the  nomenclature  is  the  same  as 
that  of  the  rifle-musket  (1842). 

PERCUSSION-RIFLE  (1841). — The  bore  of  this  arm  is  reamed  up  and 
re-rifled ;  it  also  has  a  rear  sight  similar  to  the  rifle-musket  of  1855, 
and  a  stud  and  guide  attached  for  a  sword  bayonet. 

RIFLE  (1855). — The  exterior  size  of  the  barrel  is  nearly  the  same 
as,  that  of  the  model  of  1841.  The  barrel  has  a  stud  and  guide  for  at- 
taching a  sword  bayonet.  The  breech  and  cone  seat  are  finished  like 
the  same  pa'rts  of  the  new  rifle-musket.  Lock  :  Identical  with  that  of 
the  new  rifle-musket.  Rear  sight :  Similar  to  that  of  the  new  rifle- 
musket.  Mountings :  Similar  to  those  of  the  new  rifle-musket,  with 
the  addition  of  a  catch  box,  smaller  than  the  one  on  the  rifle  of  1841. 
Ramrod:  Similar  to  the  new  rifle-musket.  Sword  bayonet:  Blade — 


46  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [ARM. 

shoulder,  back,  edge,  bevel,  point,  curvature,  groove,  tang  riveting, 
rivet  hole,  rivet.  Hilt :  Gripe — ridges,  back,  beak,  slot  for  stud,  slot 
for  guide,  hole  for  finger  piece,  hole  for  spring  screw,  hole  for  rivet 
(tang),  mortice  for  tang  :  Finger  piece — head,  notch.  Finger  piece 
spring — blade,  screw  hole,  boss :  Guard — long  and  short  branch, 
knobs,  muzzle  socket.  Scabbard:  Black  leather,  with  brass  band 
and  tip. 

Materials.  Steel. — Tumbler,  lock  swivel,  feeding  finger,  cover  catch, 
sear,  all  the  springs,  ramrod,  blade  of  sword  bayonet,  finger  piece,  rear 
sight,  except  screw,  cone,  screw  driver,  ball  screw  and  wiper.  Brass. 
— Sword  bayonet  handle,  front  sight,  and  all  the  mountings.  Wood. — 
Stock  (black  walnut).  Iron. — All  the  remaining  parts. 

PISTOL-CARBINE  (1855). — Barrel:  Muzzle,  front  sight, breech,  breech 
pin  threads,  fiats,  bevels  and  oval,  cone  seat,  vent,  vent  screw,  bore, 
grooves,  lands.  This  barrel  tapers  with  a  straight  line  from  breech  to 
muzzle.  The  portion  of  the  flat  in  rear  of  the  cone  seat  is  parallel  to 
the  axis  of  the  bore.  Breech  screw :  Plug,  with  threads  (16  to  the 
inch),  tenon,  shoulders,  tang,  tang  screw  hole,  bevel  sight  mortice. 
Cone :  Same  as  for  musket.  Rear  sight :  Base,  ears,  joint  screw, 
screw  hole,  1st,  2d,  and  3cf  leaves,  4  sight  notches,  eye  joint,  screw 
holes.  Tang  screw :  Shoulder.  Lock :  Same  as  for  rifle-musket,  1855, 
except  in  size,which  is  reduced  to  conform  to  a  magazine  capable  of  hold- 
ing one-half  a  strip  of  primers.  Mountings  :  Band,  swivel,  and  spring, 
correspond  to  the  middle  band,  swivel,  and  spring  of  the  new  musket. 
Guard  plate :  Butt  cup — screw  hole,  tang.  Butt  strap — holes  for  catch 
spring  and  hook,  tang,  strap,  and  guard  plate  screws,  shoulders  for 
breech  screw  tang,  and  butt  cup  tang,  reinforces  for  hook,  and  catch 
spring.  Cup  screw — head,  eye.  Swivel  ring.  The  remaining  mount- 
ings are  similar  to  the  corresponding  parts  of  the  new  rifle-musket. 
Ramrod :  Head  (riveted  on),  cup,  foot  with  a  female  screw.  Ramrod 
swivel :  Two  side  bars,  screw,  cross  bar,  riveted  into  the  side  bars. 
Stock  :  Butt,  handle,  curve,  facings,  reinforce,  chase ;  shoulders  for  band 
and  tip,  grooves  for  barrel  and  ramrod  ;  beds  for  tang  and  tenon,  lock, 
washers,  guard  plate,  nuts  for  guard  bow  and  trigger  stud,  butt  plate, 
band  spring,  tip,  butt  cup  and  strap,  butt  piece  cap,  and  catch  spring, 
hook  nut ;  mortices  for  trigger,  hook,  and  catch  spring  ;  holes  for  rod, 
tip  rivet,  band  spring,  side  screws,  tang  screw,  cup  screw,  strap  screw, 
butt  plate  screws,  and  cap  screws.  Butt  piece :  Plate — two  wood  screws ; 
cap,  hollow,  upper  and  lower  tang,  screw  holes,  two  wood  screws,  cavity 
for  pistol  handle,  hook,  stem,  nut ;  spring  catch,  screw,  head,  blade ; 
finger  piece,  loop  for  spring,  screw  thread,  rivet  and  nut. 


ARMY  OF  U.  S.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  47 

Materials.  Steel. — Cone,  tumbler,  lock  swivel,  finger,  sear,  lock 
springs,  band  springs,  ramrod,  except  the  head,  rear  sight  except  screw, 
spring  catch,  screw  driver,  wiper  and  ball  screw.  Brass. — Butt  plate, 
butt  cup,  cup,  guard  plate  and  bow,  band,  and  tip.  Wood. — Stock 
and  butt  piece.  'Iron. — Head  of  ramrod,  and  remaining  parts  (Con- 
sult ORDNANCE  MANUAL  ;  ALLIN'S  MANAGEMENT  OF  RIFLE-MUSKET, 
&c. ;  SMALL  ARMS,  1856.) 

ARMY.  In  its  widest  signification,  Army  is  the  military  force  of 
the  state.  It  is  the  active  and  paid  portion  of  the  militia.  It  is  an 
assemblage  of  agents  and  instruments  proper  and  necessary  to  carry 
on  war  abroad,  or  suppress  insurrection  and  repel  invasion  at  home. 
The  MILITARY  ART  organizes  and  combines  its  elements,  and  gives 
force  and  activity  to  armies. 

In  the  United  States,  Congress  raises,  supports,  governs,  and  regu- 
lates armies.  RAISING  is  the  prescribed  means  of  organizing  and  collect- 
ing ;  SUPPORTING  is  the  system  of  administration  ;  GOVERNMENT  consists 
in  the  creation  of  a  hierarchy,  with  rules  for  rewarding  and  punishing  ; 
and  REGULATION  embraces  the  precise  determination  of  methodical  rights 
and  duties,  including  the  systems  of  tactics  to  be  practised.  Different 
armies  are  designated  as  follows  :  Standing  or  Regular  Army  ;  Army 
in  the  field  ;  Army  of  Observation  ;  Army  of  Invasion  ;  Army  of  Oc- 
cupation ;  Besieging  Army ;  Covering  Army ;  Offensive  Army ;  De- 
fensive Army  ;  Army  of  the  East ;  Army  of  Mexico ;  Army  of  Re- 
serve, &c.  The  military  art  divides  Armies  into  different  ARMS  ;  upon 
the  theatre  of  war,  it  assembles  an  army  in  one  or  in  many  camps  or 
cantonments ;  it  links  the  army  to  a  BASE  by  means  of  a  LINE  OF 
OPERATIONS  ;  during  the  course  of  its  movements,  the  army  rests  upon 
fortresses  or  entrenched  camps ;  marches  in  combined  columns,  or 
columns  in  mass ;  for  battle,  it  is  distributed  into  Army  Corps,  Divi- 
sions, Brigades,  and  Battalions,  and  upon  the  day  of  action  it  is  assem- 
bled between  an  advanced  and  rearguard,  and  flanking  parties.  The 
advance  guard  clears  away  the  front,  and  secures  all  defiles  ;  the  rear- 
guard watches  over  the  safety  of  communications,  and  the  flanking  par- 
ties secure  the  flanks.  The  military  art  ranges  an  army  according 
to  circumstances  ;  it  determines  the  calibre  of  the  ordnance,  and  the 
manner  of  using  it.  Laws  and  lawful  orders  are  the  basis  of  the  daily 
duties  of  troops.  Orders  of  the  day  direct  movements ;  breaking  up 
camps ;  maintain  discipline ;  and  provide  for,  and  watch  over,  the 
distribution  of  supplies. 

ARMY  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES— (ORGANIZATION  or  THE). 


48 


MILITARY  DICTIONARY. 


[ARMY  OF  U.  S. 


Major-general. 

Brigadier-generals. 

Ad  j  utan  t-ge  n  cral. 

Assistant  Adj.  Gen.,  (Lieut.  Col.) 
Asst.  Adjts.  Gen.,  (Majors  bvt.) 
AsstTAdjts.  Gen.,  (Captains  bvt.) 

Judge-advoeatc. 

Inspector-general. 

Quartermaster-general. 

Assist.  Quartermasters-general. 

Dep.  Quartermasters-general. 

Quartermasters. 

Assistant  Quartermasters. 

Com.  General  of  Subsistence. 

A.sst.  Com.  Gen.  ol  Subsistence. 
Commissaries  of  Sub.,  (Majors.) 

Commissaries  of  Sub.,  (Captains.) 

Surgeon-general. 

Surgeons. 

Assistant  Surgeons. 

Paymaster-general. 

Deputy  Paymasters-general. 

Paymasters. 

9 

C 
O 

3 

General  Officers 

1 

B 

Aids-de-camp  to  General  Officers  . 
Adjutant-general's  Department.. 
Judge-advocate's  Department.  .  .  . 
Inspector-general's  Department.  . 

1 

1 

4 

? 

? 

9, 

1 

2 

i 

4 

a 

JS 

1 

1 

1 

J'i 

a 

8 

1 

>fi 

80 

25 

1 

2 

Corps  of  Topographical  Engineers 

I 

2 

Two  Regiments  of  Cavalry 

1 

2 

- 

- 

- 

Regiment  of  Mounted  Riflemen. 

1 

Four  Regiments  of  Artillery  

4 

Ten  Regiments  of  Infantry  

•• 

10 

Non-commissioned     Staff    unat- 

Grand  aggregate  

3 

1 

1 

4 

a  a 
812 

1 

2 

2 

4 

a 
28    1 

i 

2 

a  ! 
8.  1 

26 

I 

SO 

1 

2 

25 

i 

22 

(a)  One  of  the  eight  Assistant  Adjutants-general  (captains  by  brevet),  four  of  the  twenty-eight 
Assistant  Quartermasters,  and  one  of  the  eight  Commissaries  of  Subsistence  (captains),  belonging  also 
to  regiments,  and  being  included  in  their  strength,  are,  to  avoid  counting  them  twice,  excluded,  as 
Staff  officers,  from  the  columns,  "total  commissioned,"  and  "aggregate,"  of  their  respective  Depart- 
ments. The  Regimental  and  Staff  commissions,  held  by  these  officers,  are  of  unequal  grades;  and 
hence  they  are  not  affected  by  the  provisions  of  the  7th  section  of  the  act  of  June  18,  1846.  The  like 
remark  is  applicable  to  thojudge-advocate  of  the  army,  who  is,  at  the  same  time,  a  Captain  in  the 
Ordnance  Department.  * 


ARMY  OF  U.  S.] 


MILITARY  DICTIONARY. 


49 


Lieutenant  Colonels. 

I 

s 

q 
I 

a 

d. 
d 

? 

Adjutants. 

Kegimental  Quartermasters. 

First  Lieutenants. 

Second  Lieutenants. 

Brevet  Second  Lieutenants. 

Military  Storekeepers. 

Sergeant  Majors. 

Quartermaster  Sergeants. 

Principal  or  Chief  Musicians. 

bl 

Ordnance  Sergeants. 

Hospital  Stewards. 

Sergeants. 

1 

| 

O 

2 

0 

tc 
p 

Musicians. 

Farriers  and  Blacksmiths. 

Artificers. 

Privates. 

Enlisted  men  of  Ordnance. 

1 

1 

Total  enlisted. 

Aggregate. 

4 

4 

c 

fS 

•• 

... 

13 

13 

2 
40 
11 

2 
40 
11 
175 
28 
146 
89 
454 

7 

2 
1 
1 

4 
4 

4 

£ 

107 

28 

68 

18 

6 

17 
& 
17 

12 
10 
12 

11 
3 
1 

e 
8 
e 
3 

6 

3 

10 

10 

2 

78 

46 
39 

100 

15 

• 

400 

54 

400 

2 

4 

20 

•• 

' 

2 

20 

20 

e 
4 

•• 

2 

2 

2 

4 

80 

SO 

40 

20 

1,000 

•• 

74 

1,280 

1,304 

2 

4 

20 

• 

I 

2 

20 

20 

e 
4 

2 

2 

2 

4 

80 

80 

40 

20 

•• 

1,000 

74 

1,230 

1,304 

1 

•2 

10 

1 

1 

10 

10 

e 

1 

•• 

1 

1 

1 

2 

40 

40 

20 

... 

20 

•• 

640 

86 

765 

801 

4 

8 

48 

• 

d 

4 

d 

4 

96 

48 

6 

5 

4 

4 

92 

192 

96 

•• 

96 

h 

2,148 

•• 

213 

2,732 

2,945. 

10 

20 

100 

10 

d 

10 

00 

100 

t 

4 

0 

,0 

20 

400 

400 

200 

• 

4,200 

•• 

344 

5,240 

5,584 

f 

3 

73 

73 

23 

50 

b 
245 

c 

5 

d 

19 

19280 

213 

e 

2'2 

9 

9 

25 

OJ73 

ff 

s 

02 

802 

100 

298 

GO 

06 

9,066 

400 

1,085 

11,838 

12,923 

(&)  By  the  act  of  March  3,  1S53,  section  9,  a  Lieutenant  of  Engineers,  Topographical  Engineers, 
and  Ordnance,  having  served  "fourteen  years'  continuous  service  as  Lieutenant,"  is  entitled  to  pro- 
motion to  the  rank  of  Captain  ;  but  such  promotion  is  not  to  increase  the  whole  number  of  Officers, 
in  either  of  said  corps,  beyond  the  number  previously  fixed  by  law. 

(«)  Thejire  Aids-de-catnp.  being  taken  from  regiments,  in  the  strength  of  which  they  are  in- 
cluded, are,  to  avoid  counting  them  ivticA,  excluded,  as  Staff  officers,  from  the  columns,  "total  com- 
missioned,'' and  "aggregate." 

(d)  The  Adjutants  of  Artillery  and  Infantry  (14),  and  all  the  Eegimental  Quartermasters  (19), 
4 


50 


MILITARY  DICTIONARY. 


OF  V.  S. 


1 

^ 

1 

t/C 

Total  en- 
listed. 

Aggr  igate. 

£l 

d 

8. 

a 

1 

I     . 

•A 

OEGANIZATION  OF 
Bacuuorn 

AJTD  COMPANIES. 

ant-colone 

Qtal  Quart 

00 

eutenants. 

Lieutenan 

f 

master  Sei 

il  or  Chiel 

£ 

1 

2 

and  Blacl 

>mmission 

f 

1 

Q 

I 

i 

in  strengt 

m  strengt 

"3 

s 

s 

t 

IWPTS 

a 

cj 

c, 

•- 

w 

c 

g 

a 

o 

« 

£ 

S 

3 

0 

3 

s 

S 

3 

a 

i 

S 

"S,  ^ 

o 

cj 

c 

0 

g> 

£< 

tl 

| 

E 

§ 

.£     " 

(3 

D 

a 

'j< 

3 

£ 

^ 

1 

y    P-! 

^ 

02 

o- 

PH 

x: 

3 

O 

n 

a 

rrt 

5 

£     ^ 

3 

1 

Eegiment  of  Dragoons 
and  Cavalry  

1 

1 

2 

1 

i 

10 

» 

10 

1 

1 

1 

2 

40 

40 

20 

10 

500 

35 

615 

855 

650 

» 

Company  of  Dragoons 
and  Cavalry  .   . 

1 

1 

1 

4 

? 

1 

50 

n 

85 

64 

RS 

Regiment  of  Mounted 

1 

Eiflemen  

1 

1 

9 

1 

1 

10 

1  ) 

10 

1 

1 

1 

9 

10 

40 

^0 

20 

010 

or-   "/'"; 

S65 

£00 

9'  0 

Company  of  Mounted 

| 

Eiflemen  

t 

1 

1 

4 

4 

« 

9 

M 

a  7r» 

86 

79 

89 

| 

Eegiment  of  Artillery. 

1 

1 

2 

1 

i 

12 

24 

12 

1 

1 

•• 

4S 

48 

24 

24  52G*  :,*>  672  * 

1,034 

724 

1,086 

Company  of  Light  Ar- 

1 

0 

1 

4 

| 

9 

0 

M 

1 

7G 

86 

80 

90 

Company  of  Artillery 

1 

9 

1 

4 

4 

9 

9 

49, 

,1 

M 

86 

CS 

90 

| 

Eegiment  of  Infantry. 

1 

1 

2 

1 

i 

10 

10 

10 

1 

1 

2 

40 

40 

. 

20 

•  • 

420 

34524 

844 

553 

878 

Company  of  Infantry. 

1 

1 

1 

J 

4 

4 

2 

" 

•• 

42 

S 

52 

84 

55 

87 

The  regiment  being  understood  to  consist  of  one  Light  and  eleven  Heavy  companies. 


being  taken  from  the  Subalterns,  and  accounted  for  in  their  several  regiments  as  belonging  to  Com- 
panies, are  excluded,  as  regimental  £tajf  officers,  from  the  columns  "  total  commissioned,"  and  "ag- 
gregate." 

(e)  Under  the  4th  section  of  the  act  of  April  29, 1812,  "  making  further  provision  for  the  Corps  of  Engi- 
neers," one  Brevet  Second  Lieutenant  is  allowed  to  every  "company."    The  number  authorized  is,  con- 
sequently, one  hundred  and  ninety-nine.    The  number,  now  attached  to  the  Army,  is  twenty-seven. 

(f)  By  the  act  of  April  5,  1882,  section  2d,  "providing  for  the  organization  of  the  Ordnance  Depart- 
ment," the  number  of  Ordnance  Sergeants  cannot  exceed  "one  for  each  military  post."    The  number,, 
actually  in  service,  is  seventy-three. 

(g)  By  the  act  of  August  16, 1856,  section  2d,  "providing  for  a  necessary  increase  and  better  organization 
of  the  Medical  and  Hospital  Department  of  the  Army,"  the  number  of  Hospital  Stewards  cannot  exceed  "one 
for  each  military  post."    Tho  number,  actually  in  service,  is  sijcty-eight. 

(h)  Two  companies  in  the  1st  and  2d,  and  one  in   each  of  the  other  regiments  of  artillery,  being 
equipped  as  Light  Artillery,  are  allowed,  in  consequence,  "•aixty-four"  instead  of  "forty-two"  privates 


See  act   "to  increase  the  rank  and  file  of  the  Army,'' 


1S50, 


per  company.    Bee  act   "to  increase  tne  rant  ana  mo  or  me  .army,"   &c.,  approved  June  17 
section  1st. 

(i)  By  the  act  of  June  17, 1850,  "  to  increase  the  rank  and  file  of  the  Army,"  &c.,  section  2d,  the  Presi- 
dent is  authorized,  whenever  the  exigencies  of  the  service  require  it,  to  increase  to  seventy-four,  the 
number  of  privates  in  any  company,  "serving  at  the  several  military  posts  on  the  Western  frontier,  and  at 
remote  and  distant  stations."  In  the  table,  the  minimum,  or  fixed,  organization  is  given,  viz. :  fifty  privates 
to  a  compuny  of  Dragoons,  sfcrty-four  to  a  company  of  Light  Artillery  and  Eiflemon,  and  forty-two  to  the 
Artillery  and  Infantry.  If  all  the  companies  belonging  to  "regiments"  (19S)  were  serving  at  distant  sta- 
tions, the  "total  enlisted''  would  be  17,502,  and  the  "aggregate"  18,587. 

The  organization  by  corps  limits  the  number  of  orh'cers  in  the  army,  but  not  their  rank ;  the  Presi- 
dent, by  and  with  the  advice  and  consent  of  the  Senate,  being  authorized  by  law  to  confer  rank  by  brevet 
for  gallant  and  meritorious  services  (xe.e  BREVET).  Four  Surgeons  and  four  Assistants  have  been  added  to 
the  Medical  Department,  and  one  Signal  Officer  created,  with  the  rank  of  Major,  since  the  preparation  of 
these  tables. 


ARM.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  51 

The  most  glaring  deficiency  in  the  military  legislation  of  the  United 
States,  is  the  want  of  a  GENERAL  LAW,  regulating  the  organization  of 
all  troops  that  Congress  may  see  fit  to  raise,  so  that,  upon  adding  to, 
or  diminishing,  the  public  force  in  any  emergency,  it  will  be  only 
necessary  to  prescribe  what  number  of  men  are  to  be  added  or  taken 
away.  This  general  law  should  embrace  general  officers,  staff  corps, 
and  departments,  engineers,  and  regiments  of  cavalry,  artillery,  and 
infantry ;  it  should  establish  rules  of  promotion  and  appointment ;  it 
should  regulate  the  recruiting  service ;  it  should  provide  for  the  re- 
pression of  military  crimes  and  disorders  ;  it  should  not  fail  to  stimu- 
late the  appetite  for  rewards ;  it  should  make  just  rules  concerning 
captures,  which  would  recognize  the  rights  of  captors ;  it  should  regu- 
late the  indemnification  for  losses ;  and  it  should  provide  for  the 
organization  of  a  suitable  board,  which  would  take  advantage  of  all 
improvements  in  the  military  art  and  suggest,  from  time  to  time,  such 
modifications  of  the  general  law  as  might  appear  just  and  proper.  In 
respect  to  Army  Organization,  there  are  two  acts  of  Congress  of  the 
general  character  here  suggested.  One,  an  act  to  regulate  the  medical 
establishment,  approved  March  2,  1799 ;  and  the  second,  an  act  for  the 
better  organizing  of  the  troops  of  the  United  States,  and  for  other  pur- 
poses, approved  March  3,  1799.  Both  of  these  acts  were  drawn  by 
Alexander  Hamilton,  as  he  explained  in  a  letter  to  the  Secretary  of 
War,  "  as  permanent  rules  to  attach  to  all  provisions  of  law  for  the 
increase  or  diminution  of  the  public  force."  Subsequent  legislation 
has,  however,  without  providing  any  other  permanent  rule  regulating 
the  organization  in  respect  to  general  officers,  staff  corps,  and  depart- 
ments, &c.,  according  to  the  increase  or  diminution  of  force,  almost 
entirely  superseded  the  provisions  of  the  remarkable  acts  here  referred 
to.  (See  ARTICLES  OF  WAR.) 

ARMY  REGULATIONS— a  ^book  so  called,  published  in  the 
name  of  the  President  of  the  United  States  "  for  the  government  of  all 
concerned."  The  Constitution  provides  that  "  Congress  shall  have 
power  to  make  rules  for  the  government  and  regulation  of  the  Land  and 
Naval  forces."  The  only  acts  of  Congress  in  force,  authorizing  the 
President  to  make  regulations,  better  defining  the  powers  and  duties  of 
officers,  are  contained  in  the  5th  section  of  the  act  of  March  3,  1813, 
and  the  9th  section  of  the  act  approved  April  26,  1816.  The  first  of 
these  acts  is  an  act  for  the  better  organization  of  the  general  staff  of 
the  army,  and  the  second  relates  (with  the  exception  of  the  last  section, 
concerning  forage  and  private  servants)  to  the  same  subject.  By  the 
5th  section  of  the  act  of  1813,  it  is  provided,  "  That  it  shall  be  tho 


52  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [ARM. 

duty  of  the  Secretary  of  the  War  Department,  and  he  is  hereby  au- 
thorized, to  prepare  general  regulations,  better  defining  and  prescribing 
the  respective  duties  and  powers  of  the  several  officers  in  the  adjutant- 
general,  inspector-general,  quartermaster-general,  and  commissary  of 
ordnance  departments,  of  the  topographical  engineers,  of  the  aides  of 
generals,  and  generally  of  the  general  and  regimental  staff;  which  regu- 
lations, when  approved  by  the  President  of  the  United  States,  shall  be 
respected  and  obeyed,  until  altered  or  revoked  by  the  same  authority. 
And  the  said  general  regulations,  thus  prepared  and  approved,  shall  be 
laid  before  Congress  at  their  next  session." 

Remarking  here,  that  the  regulations  to  be  prepared  and  approved 
refer  only  to  the  powers  and  duties  of  the  officers  of  the  several  staff 
departments,  enumerated  in  the  act,  it  follows  that  no  other  regulations 
made  by  the  President  can  derive  any  force  whatever  from  this  act. 
The  9th  section  of  the  act  of  1816  therefore  only  continued  this  then 
existing  power  of  the  President  in  providing  "  That  the  several  officers 
of  the  staff  shall  respectively  receive  the  pay  and  emoluments,  and  re- 
tain all  the  privileges,  secured  to  the  staff  of  the  Army,  by  the  act  of 
March  3,  1813,  and  not  incompatible  with  the  provisions  of  this  act : 
and  that  the  regulations  in  force  before  the  reduction  of  the  Army  be 
recognized,  as  far  as  the  same  shall  be  found  applicable  to  the  service ; 
subject,  however,  to  such  alterations  as  the  Secretary  of  War  may 
adopt,  with  the  approbation  of  the  President."  It  would  seem,  there- 
fore, that  whatever  may  be  contained  in  the  President's  Army  regula- 
tions of  a  legislative  character  concerning  officers  of  the  Army,  not 
belonging  to  staff  departments,  must,  if  valid,  be  a  legitimate  deduc- 
tion from  some  positive  law,  or  depend  for  its  legality  upon  the  exercise 
of  authority  delegated  to  the  Constitutional  commander-in-chief  or  other 
military  commander,  in  the  rules  made  by  Congress  for  the  govern- 
ment of  the  Army.  Congress  has  delegated  to  the  President,  authority 
to  prescribe  the  uniform  cf  the  Army  ;  authority  to  establish  the  ra- 
tion ;  and  besides  the  authority  given  by  law  to  other  military  com- 
manders, he  also  has  been  authorized  to  relieve,  in  special  cases,  an 
inefficient  military  commander  from  duty  with  any  command ;  to 
assign  any  senior  to  duty  with  mixed  corps,  so  that  the  command  may 
fall  by  law  on  such  senior  in  rank  ;  to  limit  the  discretion  of  command- 
ing officers  in  special  cases,  in  regard  to  what  is  needful  for  the  service ; 
and  hence  also  he  has  been  given  authority  to  carve  out  special  com- 
mands from  general  commands,  in  particular  cases ;  (62d  Article  of 
War.)  These  are  all-important  functions,  but  they  do  not  authorize 
special  cases  to  be  made  general  rules,  and  it  is  much  to  be  regretted 


ARR.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  53 

that  the  lines  of  separation  between  regulations  and  the  orders  of  the 
commander-in-chief  have  not  been  kept  distinct.  (See  COMMAND  ;  CON- 
GRESS ;  OBEDIENCE;  ORDERS.  Consult  opinions  of  Attorneys-general, 
particularly  the  opinion  of  Mr.  Berrien,  July  18,  1839.) 

ARREARS  OF  PAY.  The  troops  shall  be  paid  in  such  manner 
that  the  arrears  shall,  at  no  time,  exceed  two  months,  unless  the  cir- 
cumstances of  the  case  shall  render  it  unavoidable ;  (Act  March  16, 
1802  ;  Act  March  3,  1813.)  This  provision  of  law  has  been  strangely 
executed  by  never  paying  troops  oftener  than  once  in  two  months,  and 
not  unfrequently  neglecting  to  pay  them  for  a  much  longer  time. 

ARREST  IN  ORDER  TO  TRIAL.  Before  an  offiqer  or  sol- 
dier, or  other  person  subject  to  military  law,  can  be  brought  to  trial, 
he  must  be  charged  with  some  crime  or  offence  against  the  rules  and 
articles  of  war,  and  placed  in  arrest.  The  articles  of  war  direct  that 
whenever  any  officer  shall  be  charged  with  a  crime,  he  shall  be  arrested 
and  confined  in  his  barracks,  quarters,  or  tent,  and  deprived  of  his 
sword  by  the  commanding  officer.  And  that  "  non-commissioned  offi- 
cers and  soldiers,  charged  with  crimes,  shall  be  confined  until  tried 
by  a  court-martial,  or  released  by  proper  authority  ;  "  (ARTS.  77,  78.) 
The  arrest  of  an  officer  is  generally  executed  through  a  staff-officer ;  by 
an  adjutant,  if  ordered  by  the  commanding  officer  of  a  regiment ;  or 
by  an  officer  of  the  general  staff,  if  ordered  by  a  superior  officer ;  and 
sometimes  by  the  officer  with  whom  the  arrest  originates.  On  being 
placed  in  arrest,  an  officer  resigns  his  sword.  If  this  form  be  some- 
times omitted,  the  custom  is  invariably  observed,  jof  an  officer  in  arrest 
not  wearing  a  sword.  By  the  custom  of  the  army,  it  is  usual,  except  in 
capital  cases,  to  allow  an  officer  in  arrest  the  limits  of  the  garrison  or  even 
greater  limits,  at  the-  discretion  of  the  £bmmanding  officer,  who  regu- 
lates his  conduct  by  the  dictates  of  propriety  and  humanity.  A  non- 
commissioned officer  or  soldier  is  confined  in  charge  of  a  guard  ;  but, 
by  the  custom  of  the  service,  the  non-commissioned  staff  and  sergeants 
may  be  simply  arrested.  The  articles  of  war  declare,  "  that  no  officer 
or  soldier,  who  shall  be  put  in  arrest  or  imprisonment,  shall  continue 
in  his  confinement  more  than  eight  days,  or  until  such  time  as  a  court- 
martial  can  be  conveniently  assembled;  (ART.  79.)  The  latter  part  of 
this  clause  evidently  allows  a  latitude,  which  is  capable  of  being  abused ; 
but,  as  in  a  free  country  there  is  no  wrong  without  a  remedy,  an  action 
might  be  brought  against  the  offender  in  a  civil  court,  (See  INJURIES,) 
if  the  mode  of  redress  for  all  officers  and  soldiers,  who  conceive  them- 
selves injured  by  their  commanding  officer,. be  not  sufficient.  (ARTS. 
34,  35.) 


54  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [ARR. 

It  is  declared  by  the  articles  of  war,  that  "  no  officer  commanding 
a  guard,  or  provost-marshal,  shall  refuse  to  receive  or  keep  any  prisoner 
committed  to  his  charge,  by  any  officer  belonging  to  the  forces  of  the 
United  States  ;  provided,  the  officer  committing  shall,  at  the  same  time, 
deliver  an  account  in  writing,  signed  by  himself,  of  the  crime  with  which 
the  said  prisoner  is  charged ;  "  and  it  is  also  declared,  that  "  no  officer 
commanding  a  guard,  or  provost-marshal,  shall  presume  to  release  any 
prisoner  committed  to  his  charge,  without  proper  authority  for  so 
doing,  nor  shall  he  suffer  any  person  to  escape,  on  the  penalty  of  being 
punished  for  it  by  the  sentence  of  a  court-martial.  Every  officer  or 
provost-marshal,  to  whose  charge  prisoners  shall  be  committed,  shall, 
within  twenty-four  hours  after  such  commitment,  or  as  soon  as  he  shall 
be  relieved  from  his  guard,  make  report  in  writing,  to  the  commanding 
officer,  of  their  names,  their  crimes,  and  the  names  of  the  officers  who 
committed  them,  on  the  penalty  of  being  punished  for  disobedience,  or 
neglect,  at  the  discretion  of  a  court-martial  ;  (ARTS.  80,  81,  82.) 
Thus  the  liberty  of  the  citizen,  under  military  law,  so  far  as  is  consistent 
with  the  ends  of  justice,  seems  to  be  guarded  with  precautions  little 
inferior  to  those  which  secure  personal  liberty  under  the  civil  laws  of 
the  state.  The  penalty  of  an  officer's  breaking  his  arrest,  or  leaving  his 
confinement  before  he  is  set  at  liberty  by  his  commanding  officer,  or  by 
a  superior  officer,  is  declared  to  be  cashiering  by  sentence  of  a  general 
court-martial ;  (ART.  77.)  A  court-martial  has  no  control  over  the 
nature  of  the  arrest  of  a  prisoner,  except  as  to  his  personal  freedom  in 
court;  the  court  cannot,  even  to  facilitate  his  defence,  interfere  to 
cause  a  close  arrest  to  be  enlarged.  The  officer  in  command  is  alone 
responsible  for  the  prisoners  under  his  charge.  Individuals  placed  in 
arrest,  may  be  released,  without  being  brought  before  a  court-martial ; 
by  the  authority  ordering  the  arrest,  or  by  superior  authority.  It  is 
not  obligatory  on  the  commander  to  place  an  officer  in  arrest,  on  ap- 
plication to  that  effect  from  an  officer  under  his  command.  He  will 
exercise  a  sound  discretion  on  the  subject.  But  in  all  applications  for 
redress  of  supposed  grievances  inflicted  by  a  superior,  it  will  be  his 
duty,  in  case  he  shall  not  deem  it  proper  to  order  an  investigation,  to 
give  his  reasons  in  writing,  for  declining  to  act ;  these  reasons,  if  not 
satisfactory,  the  complaining  party  may,  should  he  think  fit  so  to  do, 
forward  to  the  next  common  superior,  together  with  a  copy  of  his  ap- 
plication for  redress.  An  officer  has  no  right  to  demand  a  court- 
martial,  either  on  himself,  or  on  others ;  the  general-in-chief  or  officer 
competent  to  order  a  court,  being  the  judge  of  its  necessity  or  pro- 
priety. Nor  has  any  officer,  who  may  have  been  placed  in  arrest,  any 


ART.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  55 

right  to  demand  a  trial,  or  to  persist  in  considering  himself  under  ar- 
rest, after  he  shall  have  been  released  by  proper  authority.  An  officer 
under  arrest  will  not  make  a  visit  of  etiquette  to  the  commanding 
officer,  or  other  superior  officer,  or  call  on  him,  unless  sent  for ;  and  in 
case  of  business,  he  will  make  known  his  object  in  writing.  It  is  con- 
sidered indecorous  in  an  officer  in  arrest  to  appear  at  public  places. 

ARREST  BY  CIVIL  AUTHORITY.  By  section  21,  Act  January  11, 
1812,  no  non-commissioned  officer,  musician,  or  private,  can  be  arrested 
on  mesne  process,  or  taken  or  charged  in  execution  for  any  debt  con- 
tracted before  enlistment  under  twenty  dollars,  nor  for  any  debt  what- 
ever, contracted  after  enlistment.  (See  MESNE  PROCESS.) 

ARSENAL.  A  place  of  deposit  for  ordnance  and  ordnance  stores. 
There  are  also  arsenals  of  construction  and  repairs.  (See  ORDNANCE.) 

ARTICLES  OF  WAR.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  prerog- 
ative to  command  and  regulate  the  whole  military  force  of  the  king- 
dom, whether  consisting  of  the  feudal  tenants,  or  of  the  militia,  or  of 
paid  troops,  resided  in  the  Crown  of  England.  Nevertheless  the  power 
of  the  sovereign  was  restricted  by  a  provision,  that  he  should  exercise 
his  military  jurisdiction  only  "  according  to  the  laws  and  usages  of 
the  realm."  In  the  reign  of  Edward  VI.,  however,  parliament  as- 
serted authority  over  military  matters  by  passing  an  act  for  the 
government  of  the  army  ;  various  offences,  as  losing,  selling,  or  fraudu- 
lently exchanging  horses  or  armor ;  desertion ;  detaining  the  pay  of 
soldiers ;  and  taking  rewards  for  granting  them  discharges,  were  put 
under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  civil  magistrate.  It  was  also  provided 
that  the  act  should  be  read  once  a  month  by  every  field  officer  to  the 
soldiers  under  his  command,  and  once  a  quarter  by  the  governor  or 
captain  of  every  garrison  or  fortress.  At  this  period,  however,  there 
was  no  standing  army,  the  feudal  system  was  still  in  force,  every  man 
in  the  realm  was  more  or  less  a  soldier ;  military  law  was  accord- 
ingly restricted  to  such  persons  as  were  actually  serving  in  the  field, 
the  process  of  civil  judicature  being  obviously  inapplicable  to  their 
case — but  directly  the  soldier  ceased  to  belong  to  the  force  in  actual 
campaign,  the  civil  power  stepped  in  and  claimed  cognizance  of  his 
offences. 

Until  the  Civil  War  in  the  reign  of  Charles  I.,  it  is  probable  that  no 
regular  permanent  code  of  rules  or  articles  for  enforcing  military  disci- 
pline was  in  existence  ;  the  ruling  authority  had  promulgated  its  orders 
for  the  government  and  regulation  of  the  army  as  occasion  required. 
Each  war,  each  expedition,  had  its  own  edict,  which  fell  into  disuse  again 
upon  the  disbanding  of  the  army,  which  inevitably  followed  the  cessa- 


56  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  ART.] 

tion  of  hostilities.  Several  instances,  indeed,  of  rules  and  ordinances 
for  military  government  by  the  ancient  kings  are  still  extant ;  one  of 
Richard  I.,  for  the  government  of  those  going  by  sea  to  the  Holy  Land, 
is  to  be  found  in  Rymer's  Fredera.  An  elaborate  code  of  "  statutes, 
ordonnances,  and  customs  to  be  observed  in  the  army,"  made  in  the  9th 
year  of  Richard  II.,  is  to  be  found  among  the  Cottonian  MS.  in  the  Brit- 
ish Museum — and  those  of  Henry  V.,  Henry  VII.,  and  Henry  VIII., 
have  not  been  lost. 

The  experience  of  ages  and  the  precedents  of  former  Avars,  there- 
fore, enabled  the  authorities  to  frame  a  sufficiently  comprehensive  code 
in  case  of  need  ;  accordingly,  soon  after  the  outbreak  of  the  civil  Avar,  the 
necessities  of  the  case  compelled  the  parliament  to  enact  ordinances 
or  articles  of  war.  The  first  complete  "  Lawes  and  Ordinances  of 
Warre"  (as  he  called  them)  were  issued  by  Essex,  the  commander-in- 
chief  of  the  parliamentary  army  in  1642.  These  articles  are  remark- 
able and  interesting,  as  undoubtedly  forming  the  groundwork  of  those 
now  in  use.  Two  years  after  the  publication  of  Essex's  ordinances, 
on  the  marching  of  the  Scottish  army  into  England,  soon  after  the 
ratification  of  the  solemn  league  and  covenant,  "  Articles  of  War  " 
were  issued  for  its  government.  These  articles,  although  very  dis- 
similar to  those  of  Essex,  considering  that  both  were  in  force  in 
the  same  kingdom  at  the  same  time,  and  were  applicable  to  armies 
fighting  on  the  same  side,  nevertheless  treat  mainly  of  the  same 
offences.  The  form  of  judicature  established,  consisted  of  two  courts 
of  justice,  called  "Councils  of  War,"  the  one  superior,  and  the  other 
inferior.  The  superior  court,  also  called  the  "  Court  of  War,"  took 
cognizance  of  the  more  serious  offences,  and  likewise  heard  appeals  from 
the  decision  of  the  lower  court,  called  the  "  Marshal  Court."  No  trace 
of  the  constitution  of  these  courts  is  now  to  be  found  except  that  "the 
judges  were  sworn  to  do  justice."  Within  a  few  months  of  the  pro- 
mulgation of  the  latter,  (August,  1644,)  the  same  parliament  that  was 
the  author  of  the  petition  of  right,  passed  an  ordinance,  establishing  a 
system  of  martial  law,  applicable  not  only  to  soldiers,  but  to  all  per- 
sons alike.  By  this  ordinance,  the  Earl  of  Essex,  captain-general  of  the 
parliamentary  forces,  together  with  fifty-six  others  named  therein, 
(among  whom  were  peers,  members  of  the  House  of  Commons,  gentry, 
and  officers  of  the  army.)  were  constituted  "  commissioners,"  and  any 
twelve  of  them  authorized  to  hear  and  determine  all  such  causes  as 
"  belong  to  military  cognizance,"  according  to  the  articles  mentioned 
in  the  ordinance,  and  to  proceed  to  the  trial,  condemnation,  and  exe- 
cution, of  all  offenders  against  the  said  articles,  and  to  inflict  upon 


ART.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  57 

them  such  punishment,  either  by  death  or  otherwise,  corporally,  as 
the  said  commissioners,  or  the  major  part  of  them  then  present, 
should  judge  to  appertain  to  justice,  according  to  the  measure  of  the 
offence.  Under  cover  of  this  ordinance,  which,  after  one  refusal  by  the 
peers,  was  subsequently  renewed,  parliament  proceeded  to  issue  a  vari- 
ety of  orders  for  the  conduct  of  the  war,  and  the  regulation  of  the  army  ; 
and  many  persons  were  tried  by  court-martial  and  executed.  After  the 
expiration  of  this  last  ordinance,  the  absolute  executive  power,  in  all  mat- 
ters of  military  law,  fell  into  the  hands  of  Cromwell, .who  claimed  it  as 
his  right,  in  virtue  of  his  office  of  general- in-chief.  "  The  general,"  says 
Whitlocke,  "  sent  his  order  to  several  garrisons,  to  hold  courts-martial, 
for  the  punishment  of  soldiers  offending  against  the  articles  of  war ;  pro- 
vided that  if  any  be  sentenced  to  lose  life  or  limb,  that  then  they  transmit 
to  the  judge-advocate  the  examinations  and  proceedings  of  the  court- 
martial,  that  the  General's  pleasure  may  be  known  thereon.*'  On  one 
occasion,  deeming  it  necessary  for  the  sake  of  discipline,  to  make  an 
immediate  example,  Cromwell  seized  several  officers  with  his  own 
hand,  called  a  court-martial  on  the  field,  condemned  them  to  death, 
and  shot  one  forthwith  at  the  head  of  his  regiment.  It  will  thus 
be  seen,  that  the  administration  of  martial  law  was  almost  inva- 
riably in  the  hands  of  the  most  considerable  power  in  the  state — it 
alternated  between  king  and  parliament,  and  between  parliament  and 
dictator,  as  each  became  uppermost  in  the  realm.  On  the  restoration 
of  Charles  II.,  the  army,  with  the  exception  of  about  five  thousand  men* 
consisting  of  General  Monk's  regiment  called  "  the  Coldstream,"  the 
first  regiment  of  foot,  the  royal  regiment  of  Horse  Guards,  called  "  the 
Oxford  Blues,"  and  a  few  other  regiments,  was  disbanded.  The  force 
kept  on  foot  was  the  first  permanent  military  force,  or  "  standing  army," 
known  in  England ;  and  from  it  the  present  army  dates  its  origin. 

A  statute  passed  in  the  reign  of  Charles  II.,  intituled,  "  An  act 
for  ordering  the  forces  in  the  several  counties  of  this  kingdom," 
recites  that,  "  within  all  his  majesty's  realms  and  dominions,  the  sole 
and  supreme  power,  government,  command,  and  disposition  of  the 
militia,  and  of  all  forces  by  sea  and  land,  and  of  all  forts  and  places  of 
strength  is,  and  by  the  laws  of  England  ever  was,  the  undoubted  right 
of  his  majesty,  and  his  royal  predecessors,  kings  and  queens  of  Eng- 
land." With  the  exception  of  some  slight  encroachment  on  the  part 
of  the  Crown,  and  protests  on  the  part  of  the  parliament,  matters  re- 
mained in  very  much  the  same  state  till  the^ revolution,  at  which  period 
military  law  assumed  a  permanent  and  definite  form,  as  it  now  exists. 
The  only  allusions  to  the  military  power  of  the  Crown,  in  the  Bill  of 
\ 


58  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [ART. 

Eights,  are,  "  that  the  raising  and  keeping  of  a  standing  army  in  time 
of  peace,  without  consent  of  parliament,  is  contrary  to  law  ;  "  and  that 
"subjects,  if  Protestants,  may  have  arms  for  their  defence,  suitable  to 
their  condition,  and  as  allowed  by  law."  In  the  first  year,  however, 
of  the  reign  of  William  and  Mary,  British  regiments,  jealous  of  the  sup- 
posed preference  shown  by  William  for  his  Dutch  troops,  mutinied  at 
Ipswich.  The  king  suppressed  the  mutiny  with  a  strong  hand,  at  the 
same  time  communicating  the  event  to  parliament.  Parliament,  anxious 
to  devise  means  for  the  convenient  application  of  a  code  of  laws  for  the 
regulation  and  management  of  the  army,  and  at  the  same  time  deter- 
mined to  place  a  check  upon  the  exercise  of  the  military  power  of  the 
king,  passed,  on  the  3d  April,  1689,  for  a  period  of  six  months  only, 
the  first  mutiny  act,  the  preamble  of  which  is  as  follows : 

"  Whereas,  the  raising  or  keeping  a  standing  army  within  this 
kingdome,  in  time  of  peace,  unlesse  it  be  with  the  consent  of  Parlya- 
rnent,  is  against  law ;  and  whereas  it  is  judged  necessary,  by  their 
majestyes  and  this  present  parlyament  that,  during  this  time  of  warr, 
severall  of  the  forces  which  are  now  on  foote  should  be  continued  and 
others  raised,  for  the  safety  of  the  kingdome,  for  the  common  defence 
of  the  Protestant  religion,  and  for  the  reducing  of  Ireland.  And 
whereas  no  man  can  be  prejudged  of  life  or  limb,  or  subjected  to  any 
kinde  of  punishment  by  martiall iftw,  or  in  any  other  manner  than  by 
the  judgment  of  his  peeres,  and  according  to  the  knowne  and  established 
lawes  of  this  realme ;  yet,  nevertheless,  it  being  requisite  for  retaining 
such  forces  as  are  or  shall  be  raised  during  this  exigence  of  affaires  in 
their  duty,  that  an  exact  discipline  be  observed  ;  and  that  soldiers  who 
shall  mutiny  or  stirr  up  sedition,  or  who  shall  desert  their  majestye's 
service,  be  brought  to  more  exemplary  and  speedy  punishment  than 
the  usual  formes  of  law  will  allow." 

The  act  provides  for  the  assembling  and  constitution  of  courts-mar- 
tial, for  the  oath  of  members,  for  ^ie  punishment  of  desertion,  mutiny, 
sedition,  false  musters,  &c. ;  for  the  regulation  of  billets ;  and  is  or- 
dered to  be  read  at  the  head  of  every  regiment,  troop,  or  company,  at 
every  muster,  "  that  noe  soldier  may  pretend  ignorance."  No  power 
is,  however,  reserved  to  the  sovereign  to  make  articles  of  war.  This 
act  was  renewed  soon  after  its  expiration ;  and  with  the  exception  of 
about  three  years  only,  viz.,  from  10th  April,  1698,  to  20th  February, 
1701,  has  been  annually  re-enacted  (with  many  alterations  arid  amend- 
ments) ever  since.  The  first  statutory  recognition  of  articles  of  war, 
occurs  in  the  1st  Anne,  statute  2,  c.  20,  in  a  clause,  which  saves  to  her 
majesty  the  right  of  making  articles  of  war,  for  the  regulation  of  her 


ART.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  59 

forces  "  beyond  the  seas  in  time  of  war."  It  is  not  until  the  3d  Geo. 
1,  c.  2,  that  we  find  the  sovereign  distinctly  empowered  by  the  mutiny 
act  to  make  articles  of  war  for  the  government  of  the  troops  at  home. 
A  clause  in  that  act,  after  reciting  that  no  effectual  provision  has  been 
made  for  the  government  of  his  majesty's  land  forces,  empowers  the 
king  to  make  and  constitute,  under  his  sign  manual,  articles  for  the 
better  government  of  his  majesty's  forces,  "  as  well  within  the  king- 
doms of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  as  beyond  the  seas."  This  privilege 
has  been  annually  re-enacted,  and  annually  exercised  by  the  Crown  to 
the  present  day. 

Under  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States,  Congress  only  can 
make  rules  of  government  and  regulation  for  the  land  forces,  and  those 
rules,  commonly  called  Articles  of  War,  were  originally  borrowed 
jointly  from  the  English  mutiny  act  annually  passed  by  parliament, 
and  their  articles  of  war  established  by  the  king.  The  existing 
articles  for  the  government  of  the  army  of  the  United  States,  en- 
acted April  10,  1806,  are  substantially  the  same  as  those  originally 
borrowed  July  30,  1775,  and  enlarged  by  the  old  Congress  from  the 
same  sources,  Sept.  20,  1776.  The  act  consists  of  but  three  sections. 
The  first  declares :  The  following  shall  be  the  rules  and  articles  by 
which  the  armies  of  the  United  States  shall  be  governed  ;  "  and  gives 
one  hundred  and  one  articles,  all  noticed  in  these  pages.  Each  article 
is  confined,  in  express  terms,  to  the  persons  composing  the  army.  The 
second  SECTION  contains  the  only  exception  in  the  cases  as  follows  :  "  In 
time  of  war,  all  persons,  not  citizens  of,  or  owing  allegiance  to,  the 
United  States  of  America,  who  shall  be  found  lurking,  as  spies,  in  or 
about  the  fortifications  or  encampments  of  the  armies  of  the  United 
States,  or  any  of  them,  shall  suffer  death,  according  to  the  law  and 
usage  of  nations,  by  sentence  of  a  general  court-martial."  The  third 
section  merely  repeals  the  previous  act  for  governing  the  army. 

The  Articles  of  War,  therefore,  are,  and  under  th<  Constitution  of 
the  United  States  can  be,  nothing  more  than  a  code  for  the  government 
and  regulation  of  the  army.  Or,  in  other  words,  within  the  United 
States,  these  articles  are  "  a  system  of  rule  superadded  to  the  common 
law,  for  regulating  the  citizen  in  his  character  of  a  soldier,"  and  appli- 
cable to  no  other  citizens.  Beyond  the  United  States  another  code  is 
essential ;  for,  although  armies  take  with  them  the  Rules  and  Articles  of 
War,  and  the  custom  of  war  in  like  cases — in  a  foreign  country,  the 
soldier  must  be  tried  by  some  tribunal  for  offences  which  at  home 
would  be  punishable  by  the  ordinary  courts  of  law.  It  is  impossible 
to  subject  him  to  any  foreign  dominion,  and  hence,  in  the  absence  of 


60  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [ART. 

rules  made  by  Congress  for  the  government  of  the  army  under  such 
circumstances,  the  will  of  the  commander  of  the  troops,  ex  necessitate 
rei,  takes  the  place  of  law,  and  the  declaration  of  his  will  is  called 
MARTIAL  LAW.  (See  MARTIAL  LAW.) 

The  most  casual  reader  of  our  Articles  of  War  will  be  struck  by 
the  fact,  that  whereas  the  mutiny  act  of  Great  Britain  is  annually  sub- 
jected to  the  supervision  of  parliament,  and  altered  or  modified  accord- 
ing to  circumstances,  yet  the  Rules  and  Articles  of  War,  passed  in  1806, 
have  remained  upon  our  statute  book  from  that  day  to  the  present 
without  any  general  revision.  Another  fact  equally  important  is,  that 
while  the  king  of  Great  Britain  not  only  commands,  but  governs  the 
British  army,  and  therefore  modifies  the  government  of  the  army  at 
his  pleasure,«the  President  of  the  United  States  is  simply  the  com- 
mander of  our  army,  under  such  rules  for  raising,  supporting,  gov- 
erning, and  regulating  it,  as  Congress  may  appoint.  The  necessity  of 
attention  to  the  military  establishment  on  the  part  of  Congress  is 
therefore  manifest,  and  it  is  most  earnestly  to  be  hoped  that,  in  their 
wisdom  they  will,  at  some  early  day,  fulfil  their  constitutional  obliga- 
tions of  raising,  governing,  and  regulating  armies  :  1.  By  establishing 
a  system  of  recruiting  which  will  bring  into  the  ranks,  soldiers  who 
will  make  good  officers ;  2.  By  providing  that  all  commissioned  offi- 
cers shall  be  appointed  from  enlisted  soldiers,  or  from  military  acad- 
emies, and  making  rules  precisely  regulating  the  manner  in  which 
such  appointments  shall  be  made ;  3.  In  making  rules  for  a  system  of 
promotion  partly  by  seniority,  and  partly  by  merit ;  4.  In  passing 
other  remunerative  laws,  such  as  prize  money,  field  allowances,  indem- 
nification for  losses,  &c. ;  5.  In  accurately  defining  the  powers,  rights, 
and  duties  of  all  officers  and  soldiers ;  6.  In  providing  remedies  for 
wrongs,  including  appeals  to  federal  civil  courts,  to  determine  the  true 
exposition  of  military  laws  in  dispute ;  and  7.  In  revising  the  penal 
code,  and  better  adapting  it  to  a  system  of  government  which  will  pro- 
vide rewards  for  good  conduct,  and  not  simply  punishments  for  bad. 
See  ABANDONING  A  POST;  ABSENCE  WITHOUT  LEAVE;  ABSENCE  WITH 
LEAVE  ;  ABUSES  AND  DISORDERS  ;  ALARMS  ;  AMMUNITION  ;  APPEAL  ; 
ARMS,  (CASTING  AWAY  ;)  ARREST  ;  BREACH  OF  ARREST  ;  BREVET  ;  BRIBE 
AT  MUSTER  ;  BOOTY  ;  CASTING  AWAY  ;  CERTIFICATES  OF  MUSTER  ; 
CERTIFICATES,  (FALSE  ;)  CHALLENGES,  (DIFFERENT  KINDS  ;)  CHAPLAIN  ; 
COMMAND  ;  CONDUCT  UNBECOMING  AN  OFFICER  AND  A  GENTLEMAN  ;  CON- 
FINEMENT ;  CONNIVING  ;  CONTEMPT  ;  CORPORAL  ;  CORRESPONDENCE,  (WITH 
AN  ENEMY  ;)  COURTS-MARTIAL,  AND  REFERENCES  UNDER  THAT  HEAD  ; 
COURTS  OF  INQUIRY  ;  COWARDICE  ;  CRIMES  ;  CUSTOM  OF  WAR  ;  DEATH  ; 


ART.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  61 

DECEASED  •,  DEPARTMENT  ;  DEPOSITION  OF  WITNESSES  ;  DETACHMENT  ; 
DESERTION  ;  DISCHARGE  ;  DISMISSION  ;  DISOBEDIENCE  ;  DISORDERS  ; 
DISRESPECT  ;  DRUNKENNESS  ;  DUELS  ;  EMBEZZLEMENT  ;  ENGINEERS  ; 
ENLISTMENTS  ;  ENTICING  ;  EXACTIONS  ;  FALSE  ;  FRAUDS  ;  FRAYS  ; 
FURLOUGHS  ;  GENERAL  OFFICERS  ;  GRIEVANCES  ;  HARBORING  AN 
ENEMY  ;  HIRING  OF  DUTY  ;  INJURING  PRIVATE  PROPERTY  ;  JUDGE- 
ADVOCATE  ;  JURISDICTION  ;  LEAVE  ;  LINE  ;  LYING  OUT  OF  CAMP  OR 
QUARTER  ;  MENACING  ;  MILITIA  ;  MISBEHAVIOR  ;  MITIGATION  ;  MONEY  ; 
MONTHLY  RETURNS  ;  MUSTERS  ;  MUTINY  ;  OATH  ;  OBEDIENCE  ;  OF- 
FENCES NOT  SPECIFIED  ;  OFFICERS  ;  ORDERS  ;  PARDON  ;  PAROLE  :  PIL- 
LAGE ;  POST  ;  PRESIDENT  ;  PRISONER  ;  PROCEEDINGS  ;  PROMULGATION  ; 
PROVOST-MARSHAL  ;  QUARRELS  ;  RANK  ;  REDRESSING  WRONGS  ;  RE- 
ENLISTING  ;  REFUSAL  TO  RECEIVE  PRISONERS  ;  RELEASING  PRISONERS  ; 
RELIEVING  AN  ENEMY  ;  REPROACHFUL  SPEECHES  ;  RETAINERS  ;  RE- 
TURNS ;  SAFEGUARD  ;  SECRETARY  OF  WAR  ;  SELLING  ;  SENTENCE  ;  SEN- 
TINEL ;  SPIES  ;  STAFF  j  STATE  TROOPS  ;  STORES  ;  STRIPES  ;  STANDING 
ARMY  ;  SUBSCRIBING  ;  SUSPENSION  ;  SUTLERS  ;  TRIALS  ;  UPBRAIDING  ; 
VIOLENCE  ;  WASTE  OR  SPOIL  ;  WATCHWORD  ;  WITNESS  ;  WORSHIP  ; 
WRONGS  ;  and  references  under  the  heading  of  Law,  all  military  laws 
being  rules  for  the  government  and  regulation  of  the  army,  although 
they  may  also  include  other  matters.  (Consult  PIPON'S  MANUAL  OF 
MILITARY  LAW.) 

ARTIFICER.  Military  workman  ;  two  allowed  to  each  com- 
pany of  artillery. 

ARTILLERY.  The  word  is  more  ancient  than  the  use  of  powder, 
and  was  applied  to  machines  of  war,  and  all  projectiles  that  the  masters 
of  artillery  had  under  their  direction.  In  foreign  armies  the  word  Ar- 
tillery is  still  indifferently  applied  to  an  arm  of  the  service,  the  ma- 
terial used,  and  branch  of  science.  By  Artillery  in  the  U.  S.  army  is 
usually,  but  not  always,  meant  an  arm  of  the  service,  designed  to  use 
mountain,  field,  and  heavy  ordnance,  and  the  knowledge  requisite  for  such 
use.  There  are  four  regiments  of  Artillery  in  our  army,  in  each  of  which 
the  law  authorizes  two  companies  to  be  equipped  as  harnessed  batteries ; 
(See  ARMY,  for  their  organization.)  The  remaining  companies  are,  from 
supposed  necessities  of  service,  usually  employed  as  infantry,  but  their 
name,  and  liability  at  any  time  to  become  artillerists,  must  cause  officers 
not  to  neglect  such  knowledge  of  their  arm  as  may  be  derived  from 
books,  and  the  establishment  of  the  school  of  practice  at  Fort  Monroe 
cannot  fail  to  have  the  happiest  effects  in  making  skilful  artillerists. 
The  instructions  for  field  artillery,  and  heavy  and  mountain  artillery, 
are  contained  in  books  published  by  the  War  Department,  one  called 


62  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [ART. 

"  Instruction  for  Field  Artillery,  Horse  and  Foot,"  and  another  "  Heavy 
Artillery"  being  "  a  complete  system  of  instruction  for  Siege,  Garri- 
son, Sea  coast  and  Mountain  Artillery,"  and  a  third  "  Evolutions  of 
Field  Artillery,"  by  Major  Robert  Anderson. 

Composition  of  a  field  battery  on  the  war  establishment. — Four  12- 
pounders  or  four  six-pounder  guns,  and  two  24-pounders  or  12-pounder 
howitzers.  Six  pieces  mounted  to  each  battery.  Carriages  including 
caissons,  spare  gun-carriages,  forges,  and  battery  wagons,  accompany 
each  battery,  together  with  implements  and  equipments  specified  in 
the  ordnance  manual.  Draught  horses,  six  to  each  battery  wagon, 
and  12-pounder  gun-carriage,  four  to  other  carriages,  and  one  twelfth 
spare.  Harness  corresponding  to  the  number  of  horses  to  the 
carriage. 

Tactics. — A  battery  going  into  line  with  other  troops,  is  usually 
formed  in  column  of  sections,  and  deployed  into  line  as  the  enemy  is 
approached.  Under  ordinary  circumstances  the  best  formation  is  the 
column  doubled  on  the  centre  section,  as  the  deploy  is  then  toward  both 
wings  at  the  same  time,  and  more  promptly  performed.  Unless  in 
extreme  cases,  the  cannoneers  should  never  be  mounted  on  the  boxes 
when  the  battery  is  within  range  of  the  enemy,  as  the  explosion  of  a 
caisson  might  destroy  nearly  every  cannoneer  belonging  to  a  piece. 
When  several  batteries  are  united,  they  are  formed  by  sections  in  one 
or  several  parallel  columns,  or  in  double  columns  on  the  centre,  or  still 
better,  in  two  columns  joined,  and  presenting  a  front  of  four  pieces 
with  the  same  intervals  as  in  line.  Sometimes  they  are  formed  in  close 
column  with  a  front  of  four  or  six  pieces,  and  the  batteries  being  spaced 
a  distance  apart  equal  to  the  interval  between  two  pieces.  When  de- 
ployed, the  distance  between  the  batteries  is  double  this.  When  horse- 
artillery  and  mounted  batteries  are  placed  together,  the  former  are 
placed  on  the  wings,  and  the  distances  and  intervals  of  the  whole  con- 
form to  those  of  horse-artillery  ;  as  in  manoeuvring  no  regard  is  paid 
to  inversions,  it  frequently  happens  that  the  batteries  change  their 
relative  positions,  and  it  is  then  necessary  that  each  space  should  be 
large  enough  to  contain  a  horse-artillery  battery.  A  close  column  of 
several  batteries  is  deployed  in  the  same  manner  as  a  column  of  cav- 
alry ;  the  leading  battery  moving  off  at  an  increased  gait,  and  the 
others,  obliquing  to  the  right  or  left,  gain  their  intervals  and  form  in 
line  or  battery  to  th^  front  as  usual.  The  changes  of  front  to  fire  to 
the  right  and  left  are  made  on  the  wings  in  the  same  manner  as  with  a 
single  battery ;  but  it  is  betj^er  to  make  these  changes  on  the  centre 
buttery.  But  four  of  these  changes  are  practicable,  viz.,  two  to  fire  to 


ART.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  63 

the  right  by  throwing  the  left  wing  to  the  front  or  rear,  and  two  to  fire 
to  the  left  by  throwing  the  right  wing  to  the  front  or  rear.  In  the 
other  four  changes  of  front,  the  pivot  pieces  would  be  masked  by  the 
rest  of  the  carriages,  and  could  not  commence  their  fire  soon  enough. 
On  this  account  the  pivot  carriages,  in  these  changes,  should  be  on  the 
side  towards  which  the  fire  is  to  be  delivered.  In  defensive  battles, 
the  contour  of  the  ground  is  of  the  first  importance,  and  if  properly 
taken  advantage  of,  may  be  made  to  double  the  force  and  importance 
of  artillery. 

Artillery,  held  in  reserve,  arriving  in  mass  or  deployed  upon  the 
field  of  battle,  occupies  positions  determined  by  circumstances  and 
localities.  Heights  and  commanding  positions  should  be  secured,  and 
those  positions,  also,  from  which  an  oblique  fire  may  be  obtained  upon  the 
enemy.  In  a  defensive  position,  those  points  are  sought  from  whence  the 
enemy  may  be  discovered  at  the  greatest  distance.  Advantage  should  be 
taken  of  all  local  circumstances  to  render  the  artillery  fire  most  effective, 
and  at  the  same  time  shelter  it  from  the  fire  of  the  enemy.  The  guns 
should  be  placed,  if  possible,  under  cover.  This  is  easily  effected  upon 
heights,  by  keeping  them  so  far  back  that  the  muzzles  only  are  to  be  seen 
over  them.  Ravines,  banks,  ditches,  &c.,  also  offer  facilities  for  the  pur- 
pose. The  perfection  to  which  the  materiel  of  field  artillery  has  been 
brought,  gives  it  comparatively  great  mobility  of  action ;  but  large  quan- 
tities of  ammunition  must  be  consumed  to  attain  any  positive  result  from 
its  employment  in  battle.  The  transportation  of  this  ammunition  with 
an  army  involves  serious  economical  considerations,  constituting  no  small 
impediment  to  armies,  from  the  number  of  horses,  wagons,  caissons, 
&c.,  required  for  each  battery.  The  improvements  made  in  the  mate- 
riel of  artillery  will  not,  therefore,  in  all  probability,  cause  a  more  fre- 
quent employment  of  light  batteries;  but  on  the  contrary,  the  long 
range  which  has  been  given  to  the  rifle  and  musket,  and  the  facility 
with  which  tho  horses  and  gunners  of  field  batteries  may  be  picked  off 
at  1,000  yards,  will  probably  cause  even  the  rifled  field  gun  to  become 
an  arm  of  RESERVE,  which  brought  up  at  a  decisive  moment  may  influence 
the  result  of  a  battle,  defend  entrenchments  against  attack,  and  be  use- 
fully employed  against  isolated  field  works. 

Smooth-bore  field  pieces,  fired  at  a  distance  of  five  or  six  hundred 
yards,  will  penetrate  from  one  yard  and  a  half  to  two  yards  in  para- 
pets recently  constructed,  and  will  traverse  walls  of  ordinary  construc- 
tion ;  but  a  12-pounder  is  necessary  to  make  a  breach  in  walls  of  good 
masonry  four  feot  in  thickness,  and  in  this  case  the  position  of  the  bat- 
tery must  be  favorable,  and  the  operation  is  even  then  a  slow  one. 


64 


MILITARY  DICTIONARY. 


[ART. 


Moderate  charges  are  employed  in  firing  upon  gates,  block-houses,  pal- 
isades, and  in  general  upon  all  wooden  structures.  The  heaviest  siege 
pieces,  by  their  great  force  of  penetration,  are  best  adapted  for  forming 
a  breach  in  the  walls  of  permanent  fortifications.  Their  superior  accu- 
racy, and  the  mass  of  their  projectiles,  render  them  also  very  effective 
in  ricochet  firing.  Balls  of  smaller  calibre  have  not  sufficient  mass  to 
destroy  carriages  offering  such  resistance  as  those  employed  in  the  de- 
fence of  places.  The  force  of  penetration  of  balls  in  different  substances 
increases  with  their  calibre  and  velocity  :  at  one  hundred  yards,  a  24- 
pound  ball  fired  with  a  cartridge  of  12  pounds  will  be  one  yard  in  brick 
masonry,  nearly  two  feet  in  rubble  work,  one  yard  and  a  half  in  oak 
wood,  two  yards  in  pine,  two  yards  and  a  half  in  well  rammed  earth, 
and  nearly  five  yards  in  a  recent  embankment.  The  ball  of  an  18- 
pounder,  fired  with  a  charge  of  nine  pounds  under  the  same  circum- 
stances, will  give  penetrations  nearly  six-sevenths  of  those  indicated 
above. 

Field  guns,  in  general,  may  be  employed  to  cannonade  with  force 
and  perseverance  ;  to  reinforce  the  weakest  points  of  positions,  whe.ther 
offensive  or  defensive ;  to  secure  a  retreat  by  the  occupation  of  points 
established  as  the  base  of  defence  of  particular  ground,  or  of  any  im- 
portant object,  as  the  defence  of  a  village  or  defile,  or  the  passage  of  a 
river,  and  to  overthrow  such  obstacles  as  palisades,  rampart  walls, 
doors,  &c.,  interposed  by  art ;  to  prepare  the  way  for  an  assault, 
and  aid,  at  a  decisive  moment,  to  secure  the  victory  by  a  united 
fire.  A  field  cannon  ball  has  sufficient  force  to  disable  seven  or  eight 
men  at  a  distance  of  900  yards.  It  is  stated  that  a  single  cannon  ball, 
at  the  battle  of  Zorndorf,  disabled  42  men.  Rifle  projectiles,  having 
more  momentum,  are  effective  at  greater  distances. 

The  following  tables  of  Charges  and  Ranges  for  United  States  Field 
Guns,  Howitzers,  and  Heavy  Ordnance,  are  taken  from  Roberts'  Hand- 
book of  Artillery. 


CHARGES  FOE  A  FLATTENED  Eico- 
CHET  FOR  SIEGE-GUNS. 


CHARGES  FOR  A  FLATTENED  RICOCHET 
FOR  SIEGE-HOWITZERS. 


DISTANCE. 

ELEVATION. 

CHARGE. 

DISTANCE. 

ELEVATION 

CHARGE. 

6C.O  yards. 

2°  45' 

Via  wt.  of  ball. 

550  yards. 

1°     45' 

3  Ihs. 

550 

3° 

V»    " 

440       " 

2°   15' 

2  Ihs.  3  oz. 

410       " 

3°  15' 

V*.   " 

330       " 

2°   15' 

1   1!).  12  oz. 

330       " 

3°  35' 

V..   " 

220       " 

2°  45' 

1   lh.  2  oz. 

ART.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  65 

CHAEGES  FOE  A  CUEVATED  RICOCHET  FOE  SIEGE-HOWITZEES. 


DISTANCE. 

ELEVATION. 

CHAKGE. 

REMARKS. 

550  yards. 
440 

7°  30' 
u 

1  lb.  4  oz. 
1  lb.  1  oz. 

The  height  of  the  object  above 
the   level   of   the    battery  being 

330 

14  oz. 

supposed  to  be  20  feet. 

220       " 

10  oz. 

The  charges  vary  with  the  elevation ;  or,  if  the  elevation  be  fixed  at 
any  particular  angle,  they  must  be  determined  by  the  range. 

• 
CHAEGES  FOE  FIELD-GUNS  AND  FIELD-HOWITZEES. 


FOR  GXJN8. 

FOB  HOWITZERS. 

KIND. 

a 

f, 

(-' 

T3 

f 

-5 

-s  • 

5 
p 

A 

£ 

i 

j 

s 

B 

Ibs. 

Ibs. 

Ibs. 

Ibs. 

Ibs. 

Ibs. 

2  5 

1  25 

For  spherical  case  or  canister 

1.5 

1. 

2.5 

1.75 

0.75 

0.5 

(  small   charge 

2.5 

2. 

1. 

0.5 

*J  large  charge  

3.25 

2.50 

1. 

0.5 

CHAEGES  FOE  HEAVY  GUNS,  COLUMBIADS,  AND  HOWITZEES. 


GUNS. 

COLUMBIADS. 

HOWITZERS. 

i 

9 

1 

2 

1 

1 
ob 

1 

10-inch. 

8-inch. 

Siege  8-in. 

fi 
-i 

SEA-COAST. 

10-in. 

8-in. 

Ibs. 
10.5 

Ibs. 
8. 

Ibs. 
8. 

Ibs. 
6. 

Ibs. 
4. 

Ibs. 
14. 

Ibs. 

8. 

Ibs. 
4. 

Ibs. 
2. 

Ibs. 
12. 

Ibs. 
8. 

GEEATEST  CHAEGES  OF  SEA-COAST,  SIEGE,  AND  COEHOEN  MOETAES. 


SEA-  COAST. 

SIEGE. 

COEHOEN. 

STONE  MORTAB. 

,d 

1i 

£j 

Q 

J 

.3 

| 

PHOI 

•g 
™ 

?2 

O 

o 

00 

§    0 

Ibs. 

Ibs. 

Ibs. 

Ibs. 

Ibs. 

Ibs. 

lb. 

20. 

10. 

4. 

2. 

0.5 

1.5 

1 

66 


MILITARY  DICTIONARY. 


[ART: 


RANGES  OF  FIELD  GUNS  AND  HOWITZERS. 


KIND  OF  PIECE. 

Powder 

Ball. 

Eleva- 
tion. 

Range. 

Remarks. 

6-Po  under  Field  Gun. 

Ibs. 
1.25 

Shof. 

II 
(1 

<t 

0 
1 

2 
3 

4 

5 

yards. 
318 
647 
867 
1138 
1256 
1523 

P.  B.  Range. 

Time  of  flight  2* 
do.           3" 
do.           4" 

1. 

Sph.  case,   i    2 
"               2  30 
"               3 

650 
840 
1050 

12-Pounder  Field  Gun. 

• 

2.5 

Shot. 

M 

M 

U 

u 
u 

0 
1 
1  30 
2 
3 
4 
5 

347 
662 
785 
909 
1269 
1455 
1663 

P.  B.  Range. 

Time  2  seconds. 
«      3 

"      4 

1.5 

Sph.  case. 
u 

u 

1 
1  45 
2  30 

670 
950 
1250 

12-Pounder  Field 
Howitzer. 

1. 

Shell. 

If 
M 
II 

(( 

0 

1 
2 
3 
4 
5 

195 
539 
640 
847 
975 
1072 

Time  2  seconds, 
u     3         tt 

«      4         u 

0.75 

Sph.  case. 
u 

u 

2   15 
3  15 
3  45 

485 
715 
1050 

24-Pouuder  Field 
Howitzer. 

2. 

Shell. 

(I 

u 
u 

u 

0 

1 
1 
3 
4 
5 

295 
516 
793 
976 
1272 
1322 

Time  2  seconds. 
"      3         " 
«      4         « 

"      3         " 

1.75 
2. 

Sph.  case. 

u 

(( 
(( 

2 
3 
5  30 
3  30 

600 
800 
1050 
880 

32-Pounder  Field 
Howitzer. 

2.5 

Shell. 

a 
« 

0 

1 
2 
3 
4 
5 

290 
531 
779 
1029 
1203 
1504 
800 

Time  2f  seconds. 

2.5 

Sph.  case. 

3 

Mountain  Howitzer. 

0.5 

Shell. 

M 
U 

U 

U 

« 
14 

0 
1 
2 
2  30 
3 
4 
5 

170 

300 
392 
600 
637 

785 
1005 

Time  2  seconds. 
Time  3  seconds. 

ART.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY. 

BANGES  OF  FIELD  GUNS  AND  HOWITZERS — (Continued.) 


67 


KIND  OF  PIECE. 

Powder. 

Ball. 

Eleva- 
tion. 

Range. 

Remarks. 

Mountain   Howitzer  — 
Continued. 

Ibs. 
0.5 

Sph.  case. 

u 
u 
A 
U 

0 
2  30 
3 
4 
4  30 

yards. 
150 
450 
500 
700 
800 

Time  2  seconds. 

Time  2f  seconds. 
Time  3  seconds. 

0.5 

Canister. 

4  to  6 

25U 

RANGES  OF  HEAVY  ARTILLERY. 


KIND  OP  PIECE. 

Powder. 

Ball. 

Eleva- 
tion. 

Range. 

Remarks. 

Ibs. 

0 

yards. 

18-Pdr.  Siege  and  Gar- 

4.5 

Shot. 

•  1 

641 

rison  Gun  on  Barbette 

" 

1  30 

800 

Point  Blank. 

Carriage. 

« 

2 

950 

" 

3 

1256 

" 

4 

1450 

u 

5 

1592 

24-Pdr.  Siege  and  Gar- 

6. 

Shot. 

0 

412 

rison   Gun   on   Siege 

" 

1 

842 

Carriage. 

u 

1  30 

953 

Point  Blank. 

M 

2 

1147 

U 

3 

1417 

U 

4 

1666 

<< 

5 

1901 

8. 

M 

1 

883 

" 

2 

1170 

U 

3    ' 

1454 

'' 

4 

1639 

u 

5 

1834 

32-Pdr.   Sea-Coast  Gun 

6. 

Shot. 

1  45 

900 

on  Barbette  Carriage. 

8. 

u 

1 

713 

'* 

1   30 

800 

u 

1  35 

900 

44 

2 

1100 

M 

3 

1433 

« 

4 

1684 

H 

5 

1922 

10.67 

M 

1 

780 

. 

U 

2 

1155 

H 

3 

1517 

42-Pdr.  Sea-Coast  Gun 

10.5 

Shot. 

1 

775 

on  Barbette  Carriage. 

u 

1  30 

860 

a 

2 

1010 

u 

3 

1300 

H 

4 

1600 

U 

5 

1955 

14. 

a 

1 

770 

" 

2 

1128 

(i 

3 

1380 

" 

4 

1687 

u 

5 

1915 

68 


MILITARY  DICTIONARY. 


[ART. 


RANGES  OF  HEAVY  AETILLEEY — {Continued.') 


KIND  OF  PIECE. 

Powder. 

Ball. 

Eleva- 
tion. 

Range. 

Remarks. 

8-inch  Siege  Howitzer  on 
Siege  Carriage. 

Ibs. 
4. 

45-lb.  Shell. 
« 

0 

1 

yards. 
251 
435 

Time    %  seconds. 
It 

u 

2 

618 

2 

II 

3 

720 

3 

u 

4 

992 

4 

it 

5 

1241 

5 

u 

12  30 

2280 

24-Pdr.   Iron   Howitzer 

2. 

17  -Ib.  Shell. 

0 

295 

on  a  Flank  Casemate 

u 

1 

516 

Carriage. 

" 

5 

132*2 

If 

Sph.  cases. 

2 

600 

Time  2  seconds. 

<t 

5  30 

1050 

«      4       •  » 

2. 

14 

3  30 

880 

"      3         " 

8-inch   Sea-Coast   How- 

4. 

45-lb.  Shell. 

1 

405 

itzer  on  a  Barbette 

u 

2 

652 

Carriage. 

u 

3 

875 

" 

4 

1110 

II 

5 

1300 

6. 

II 

1 

572 

(( 

2 

828 

u 

3 

947 

1 

4 

1168 

( 

5 

1463 

8. 

1 

1 

646 

1 

2 

909 

a 

1 

3 

1190 

' 

4 

1532 

1 

5 

1800- 

10-inch  Sea-Coast  How- 

12. 

yu-lb.  Shell. 

1 

580 

itzer  on  Barbette  Car- 

ii 

2 

891 

Time  3  seconds. 

riage. 

u 

3 

1185 

"      4         " 

11 

3  30 

1300 

u 

4 

1426 

"   5^    <c 

" 

5 

1650 

"      6 

8-in.  Columbiad  on  Bar- 

10. 

65-lb.  Shot. 

1 

932 

Axis  of  gun  1(5  feet 

bette  Carriage. 

" 

2 

1116 

above  the  water. 

i 

3 

1402 

• 

4 

1608 

' 

& 

1847 

' 

6 

2010 

< 

8 

2397 

Shot  ceased  to  ri- 

• 

10 

2834 

cochet     on    the 

»« 

15 

3583 

water. 

u 

20 

4322 

u 

25 

4875 

u 

27 

4481 

15. 

u 

27  30 

4812 

10. 

50-lb.  Shell. 

1 

919 

(i 

2 

1209 

i 

3 

1409 

1 

4 

1697 

' 

5 

1813 

' 

6 

1985 

' 

8 

2203 

ART.] 


MILITARY  DICTIONARY. 


60 


RANGES  OF  HEAVY  AETILLEET  —  (Continued.) 


KIND   OF   PIECE. 

Powder. 

Ball. 

Eleva- 
tion. 

Range. 

Remarks. 

Ibs. 

0             / 

yards. 

8-in.  Columbiad  on  Bar- 

10. 

50-lb.  Shell. 

10 

2657 

bette  Carriage  —  Con- 

u 

15 

3556 

tinued. 

u 

20 

3716 

U 

25 

4387 

" 

27 

4171 

15. 

u 

27  30 

4468 

* 

10-inch    Columbiad    011 
Barbette  Carriage. 

18. 

128-lb.  Shot. 

M 

0 
1 

394 

752 

Axis  of  gun  16  teet 
above  the  water. 

u 

2 

1002 

i 

« 

3 

1230 

" 

4 

1570 

U 

5 

1814 

u 

6 

2037 

Shot  ceased  to  rico- 

" 

8 

2519 

chet  on  the  water. 

« 

10 

2777 

u 

15 

3525 

it 

20 

4020 

u 

25 

4304 

II 

30 

4761  , 

^~~~~' 

II 

35 

543»f 

T    7 

20. 

" 

39  15 

565IE 

JU  /  jj-J  l  j 

A   /">  x 

12. 

100-lb  Shell. 

1 

8JO 

• 

^  i\  > 

it 

2 

\Qt.2\ 

T  Vr  r  --r^ 

u 

3 

llj§4 

-*^  J?  S 

"  TI  •  • 

u 

4 

1*43 

*""    ' 

*  Jt    f) 

«    _ 

5 

1604 

("**•  \  1  7"  r  > 

18. 

II 

0 

448 

^^  -*-t  £  \  /  1 

jfYr  < 

u 

1 

747 

* 

k\ 

" 

2 

1100 

M 

3 

1239 

" 

4 

1611 

" 

5 

1865 

u 

6 

2209 

u 

8 

2489 

u 

10 

2848 

u 

15 

3200 

u 

20     m 

u 

25    ^ 

|4160 

a 

30 

4651 

II 

35 

4828 

Time  35  seconds. 

13-in.  Sea-Coast  Mortar. 

20. 

200-lb.  Shell. 

45 

4325 

Time  40  seconds. 

10-in.  Sea-Coast  Mortar. 

10. 

98-lb.  Shell. 

45 

4250 

Time  3fi  seconds. 

10-inch  Siege  Mqrtar. 

1. 

90-lb.  Shell. 

45 

300 

Time    6.5  seconds. 

1.5 

u 

u 

700 

"      12. 

2. 

« 

«' 

1000 

"      14/ 

2.5 

" 

« 

1300 

"      16. 

3. 

u 

u 

1600 

"      18. 

3.5 

M 

(C 

1800 

"      19. 

4. 

" 

" 

2100 

"      21.          * 

Ibs.  oz. 

8-inch  Siege  Mortar. 

0     8 

i5-lb  Shell. 

45 

209 

Time    6.75  seeds. 

0   1-2 

u 

a 

376 

44        9. 

1     0 

« 

* 

650 

•'      11.5 

1     4 

u 

i 

943 

44      14. 

• 

1     8 

« 

i 

1318 

4'      16.5         ' 

*1  12 

ft 

* 

1522 

44      18.5        4 

2     0 

u 

* 

1837 

"      20.5 

70 


MILITARY  DICTIONARY. 


[Ass. 


RANGES  OF  HEAVY  ARTILLERY — (Continued.') 


KIND  OF  PIECE. 

Powder. 

Ball. 

Eleva- 
tion. 

Range. 

Remarks. 

[ 

oz. 

0 

yards. 

24-Pounder  Coehorn 

0.5 

17-lb.  Shell. 

45 

25 

Mortar. 

1. 

68 

1.5 

104 

1.75 

143 

2. 

165 

2.75 

260 

4. 

422 

6. 

900 

8. 

1200 

Ibs. 

Stones. 

Stone  Mortar. 

1.5 

120  Ibs. 

60 

(  150 

•j   to 

(  250 

1 

j  15  6-pdr. 

33 

50 

Fuze  15  seconds. 

\     shells. 

to  150 

NOTE. — Fire-balls,  according  to  their  size,  are  fired  from  mortars  of  corresponding  calibres. 
"With  a  charge  of  ONE  TWENTY-FIFTH  its  weight,  the  ball  is  thrown  600  to  700  yards. 

Howitzers  are  used  to  drive  the  enemy  from  positions  when  he 
can  only  be  reached  by  shells ;  against  covered  ground,  and  particularly 
forests  and  denies;  against  strong  cavalry  attacks  ;  to  prepare  the  way 
for  an  attack  of  fortifications  and  posts,  and  to  burn  combustible  ob- 
jects of  great  extent.  (Consult  Aide  Memoire,  par  GASSENDI  ;  GIBBON  ; 
ROBERTS  ;  BENTON  ;  KINGSBURY  ;  Histoire  et  Tactique  des  Trois  Armes, 
par  ILD.FAVE.  See  AMMUNITION  ;  RIFLED  ORDNANCE.) 

ASSAULT.  In  any  assault,  it  is  necessary  that  the  officer,  com- 
manding and  responsible  for  the  whole  operation,  should  be  in  immediate 
communication  with  the  troops  during  the  assault,  and  be  present  with 
the  reserve  or  supporting  party  ;  2.  The  troops  destined  for  this  duty 
should  be  divided  into  two  portions,  each  equal  in  strength  to  three- 
fourths  of  the  garrison  aj^fcked  :  one  portion  being  the  attacking  party, 
and  the  other  half,  the  reserve  or  supporting  party ;  3.  Each  column 
of  the  attacking  party  will  also  be  subdivided  into  advance,  main  body, 
and  support,  whatever  may  be  the  number  of  these  columns ;  4.  The 
disposition  of  the  attacking  party,  as  it  reaches  the  point  of  attack,  will 
be  regulated  by  the  engineer  officer,  under  the  orders  of  the  officer 
commanding — they  having  made  the  necessary  reconnoissances ;  the 
party  must  be  furnished  with  tools,  ladders,  and  proper  implements, 
adapted  to  the  circumstances  of  the  moment,  and  accompanied  by  a 
detachment  of  sappers ;  5.  The  disposition  of  the  reserve,  equal,  as 
before  observed,  to  the  whole  attacking  force,  should  be  regulated  by 
the  officer  intrusted  with  the  execution  of  the  assault ;  and  this  re- 
serve should  be  accompanied  or  not,  according  to  circumstances,  by 
cavalry  and  field  artillery.  When  these  descriptions  of  force  are 


Ass.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  71 

i 

present,  the  former  should  be  placed  under  cover  or  out  of  gun  shot 
about  1,500  yards  distant;  the  artillery  should  be  kept  in  hand  until 
the  attacking  party  is  engaged,  when  the  guns  should  be  spread  out  on 
the  flanks,  and  open  a  vigorous  fire  upon  the  works ;  the  infantry, 
brought  immediately  in  rear  of  the  leading  attack,  should  be  placed 
under  cover,  if  possible,  from  fire  of  grape  and  musketry,  and  halted 
until  the  issue  of  the  first  assault  is  seen ;  6.  It  is  impossible  to  regu- 
late an  assault  by  any  minute  suggestions  for  the  advance,  except  to 
observe  that  it  is  usual  for  each  column  to  attack  the  salient  points  of 
the  works,  and  least  defended  portions ;  to  throw  out  skirmishers  and 
firing  parties  under  any  cover  available,  and  keep  up  a  rapid  and  com- 
pact fire  upon  the  defenders ;  to  follow  with  the  sappers  and  grenadiers 
to  force  all  obstructions  ;  and  then  to  advance  the  main  body,  the  sup- 
ports of  each  column  being  judiciously  planted  in  the  rear.  Eventually, 
as  success  occurs  and  the  whole  move  on,  points  of  security  should  be 
taken  up,  such  as  the  reverse,  or  the  exterior  slope  of  the  works  ;  build- 
ings, walls,  as  well  as  gorges  and  flanks,  which  frequently  give  cover. 
Men  should  be  planted  under  an  officer,  with  instructions  to  take  no 
notice  of  the  pell-mell,  but  to  keep  up  a  heavy  firing  in  front ;  employ- 
ing the  sappers  in  entrenching  the  position  taken  up  by  the  supporting 
party,  or  in  collecting  wagons,  carts,  carriages,  &c.,  capable  of  being 
made  into  a  barricade ;  7.  Either  on  the  supposition  that  the  success 
of  the  assault  is  doubtful,  or  that  there  is  a  check  or  repulse,  the  re- 
serve, in  case  of  doubtful  success,  to  render  the  attack  doubly  sure, 
should  move  forward  under  the  officer  commanding  the  whole  assault- 
ing force,  and  relieve  the  assailants,  who  take  their  places  as  the  reserve 
as  soon  as  order  can  be  restored  ;  the  artillery  brought  into  position  in 
the  openings,  between  the  advancing  columns,  would  be  directed  upon 
the  retreating  or  resisting  forces  ;  and  if  success  is  finally  complete,  the 
cavalry,  in  the  event  cf  their  being  employed,  will  move  forward,  either 
through  the  openings  cleared,  or  by  a  detour,  if  a  fortified  town,  in 
pursuit. 

In  the  second  case — that  of  a  check — the  reserve,  on  the  reconnois- 
sance  of  the  officer  commanding,  will  either  march  forward  in  support 
of  the  attack,  or  to  cover  the  retreat,  if  further  perseverance  in  the 
assault  is  deemed  impracticable — the  artillery  and  cavalry  being 
warned  as  to  the  intention.  In  the  event  of  the  assault  being  repulsed, 
the  reserve,  which  should  be  in  echelon,  having  advanced  guards  in 
front, 'will  allow  the  retreating  party  to  move  through  the  intervals, 
and  the  advanced  guard  will  endeavor  to  check  the  pursuit ;  if  over- 
powered, they  will  fall  back  on  the  reserve,  and  the  whole  may  in  that 


72  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [Ass. 

manner  retreat  until  beyond  gun  shot,  endeavoring  to  make  a  stand, 
repulse  the  garrison,  and  if  possible  convert  failure  into  success,  if  the 
pursuit  has  been  badly  conducted  and  without  due  caution.  As  an 
important  rule  in  all  assaults,  except  in  partial  attacks,  as  an  outwork, 
or  any  particular  work  in  which  a  lodgement  is  to  be  made,  the  com- 
position of  the  forces  should  be  by  regiments  and  corps,  and  not  by  de- 
tachments ;  and  each  non-commissioned  officer  should  be  provided  with 
the  means  of  spiking  a  gun,  for  which  purpose  even  an  old  nail  is  suf- 
ficient. Assaults,  if  feasible,  would  seldom  fail  with  these  precautions, 
and  there  are  few  posts  not  open  to  assault,  by  taking  the  proper  op- 
portunity, an  officer  intrusted  with  the  defence  of  a  place  should  there- 
fore exercise  the  most  unremitting  vigilance.  (Consult  DUFOUR,  Tac- 
tique  des  Trois  Armes  ;  Aide  Memoire  by  British  Officers.) 

ASSEMBLY.  Drum  beat  to  order  troops  to  assemble  ;  assembly 
for  skirmishers,  a  bugle  sound. 

ASSIGNMENT.  If,  upon  marches,  guards,  or  in  quarters,  differ- 
ent corps  of  the  army  shall  happen  to  join,  or  do  duty  together,  the 
officer  highest  in  rank  of  the  line  of  the  army,  marine  corps,  or  militia, 
by  commission,  there  on  duty  or  in  quarters,  shall  command  the  whole, 
and  give  orders  for  what  is  needful  to  the  service,  unless  otherwise  spe- 
cially directed  by  the  President  of  the  United  States,  according  to  the 
nature  of  the  case  ;  (Anx.  62,  Rules  and  Articles  of  War.) 

It  has  been  contended  that  the  last  clause  of  this  article  enables  the 
President  to  make  rank  in  the  army  vary  at  his  pleasure,  by  an  order  of 
assignment.  But  inasmuch  as  the  authority  given  to  the  President  by 
the  last  clause  of  Article  62  is  equally  applicable  to  all  commissions  in 
the  line  of  the  army,  marine  corps,  or  militia,  it  would  follow,  under 
such  a  construction,  that  the  laws  creating  rank  did  not  fix  a  range  of 
subordination ;  or,  in  other  words,  that  Congress,  after  creating  rank, 
or  a  range  of  subordination,  and  establishing  rules  of  appointment  and 
promotion,  which  require  seniority  or  gallant  and  meritorious  services, 
and  the  sanction  of  the  Senate  for  the  attainment  of  such  promotion, 
have  undone  their  whole  work  by  giving  to  the  President  the  power  to 
deprive  rank  of  the  only  quality  which  gives  it  consideration.  The 
bare  statement  of  this  proposition  is  sufficient  to  show  that  such  could 
never  have  been  the  meaning  of  the  last  clause  of  Article  62  of  the 
Rules  and  Articles  of  War,  and  an  attentive  and  candid  examination  of 
the  article  will,  it  is  believed,  convince  all  that  its  purpose  was  to  de- 
clare that  the  officer  highest  in  rank  should  command  whenever  different 
corps  came  together,  "  unless  otherwise  specially  directed  by  the  President 
of  the  United  States,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  case"  That  is  to 


AST.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  73 

say,  unless  the  President,  in  any  special  case,  should  deem  the  highest 
officer  inefficient  or  incompetent ;  then  he  might  supersede  him,  by 
withdrawing  him  from  the  command.  Or,  in  other  cases,  the  Presi- 
dent might  desire  to  carve  out  of  the  general  command  particular 
trusts,  or  limit  the  discretion  of  the  commanding  officer  in  regard  to 
what  is  needful  for  the  service.  This  plain  interpretation  of  the  dis* 
puted  passage  in  no  case  permits  the  violation  of  the  rights  of  any 
officer,  by  placing  a  junior  over  a  senior ;  but  the  authority  which  it 
gives  the  President  is  indispensable  to  a  proper  administration  of  his 
great  office  of  commander-in-chief.  And  it  may  be  here  stated  that, 
during  the  Mexican  war,  Mr.  Polk's  administration  after  much  deliber- 
ation emphatically  disavowed  the  possession  of  any  legal  authority  to 
assign  a  junior  major-general  to  command  a  senior.  (See  article  RANK, 
for  a  statement  of  the  case  of  Major-general  Benton.  See  also  BREVET; 
DETACHMENT  ;  LINE  ;  PRESIDENT.) 

ASSIGNMENT  OF  PAY.  No  assignment  of  pay  made  by  a 
non-commissioned  officer  or  soldier,  is  valid ;  (Act  of  May  8,  1792.) 

ASTRAGAL — Small  convex  moulding  used  in  the  ornamental 
work  of  ordnance,  and  usually  connected  with  a,  fillet  or  flat  moulding. 

ASYLUM,  (MILITARY.)  The  persons  entitled  to  the  benefits  of  the 
Asylum,  or  Soldier's  Home,  as  it  is  now  called,  located  in  the  District  of 
Columbia,  are :  1.  All  soldiers,  and  discharged  soldiers  of  the  army  of 
the  United  States,  who  may  have  served  honestly  and  faithfully  for 
twenty  years.  2.  All  soldiers,  and  discharged  soldiers  of  the  regular 
army,  and  of  the  volunteers,  who  served  in  the  war.  with  Mexico,  and 
were  disabled  by  disease  or  wounds  contracted  in  that  service  and  in 
the  line  of  their  duty,  and  who  are,  by  their  disability,  incapable  of 
further  military  service.  This  class  includes  the  portion  of  the  marine 
corps  that  served  with  the  army  in  Mexico.  3.  Every  soldier,  and  dis- 
charged soldier,  who  may  have  contributed  to  the  funds  of  the  Soldier's 
Home  since  the  passage  of  the  act  to  found  the  same,  March  3,  1851, 
according  to  the  restrictions  and  provisions  thereof,  and  who  may  have 
been  disabled  by  disease  or  wounds  incurred  in  the  service  and  in  the 
line  of  his  duty,  rendering  him  incapable  of  military  service.  4.  Every 
pensioner  on  account  of  wounds  or  disability  incurred  in  the  military 
service — though  not  a  contributor  to  the  funds  of  the  Institution — who 
shall  transfer  his  pension  to  the  Soldier's  Home  during  the  period  ho 
voluntarily  continues  to  receive  its  benefits.  No  provision  is  made  for 
the  wives  and  children  of  those  admitted. 

No  mutineer,  deserter,  or  habitual  drunkard,  or  person  convicted 
of  felony  or  other  disgraceful  crime  of  a  civil  nature,  while  in  the  army 


74  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [ATT. 

or  after  his  discharge,  is  admitted  into  the  asylum  without  satisfactory 
evidence  being  shown  to  the  Commissioners  of  the  Soldier's  Home  of 
subsequent  service,  good  conduct,  and  reformation  of  character.  The 
Commissioners  are  :  the  adjutant-general,  the  commissary-general  of  sub- 
sistence, and  the  surgeon-general.  The  Soldier's  Home  has  its  governor, 
secretary,  and  treasurer,  appointed  from  the  army  ;  (Act  March  3, 1851.) 
ATTACK  AND  DEFENCE.  (See  REDOUBT.)  A  redoubt  may  be 
either  armed  with  cannon,  or  only  defended  by  infantry.  In  the  former 
case,  it  may  be  necessary  to  silence  cannon  by  cannon ;  in  the  latter, 
we  may  march  at  once  to  the  attack.  Light  infantry,  principally  rifle- 
men, envelop  the  work,  and  even,  at  a  distance  of  1,000  yards,  direct 
their  fire  upon  the  interior  of  the  work  and  crest  of  the  parapet,  so  as 
to  prevent  the  defenders  from  showing  themselves,  or  at  least  to  cause 
them  to  fire  hurriedly.  Gradually  approaching  and  converging  their 
fire,  the  riflemen  groove  the  parapet,  and  assert  the  superiority  of  their 
•arm.  Arrived  at  a  short  distance  from  the  ditch,  they  run  and  leap 
into  it,  unless  prevented  by  obstacles  such  as  palisades,  abatis,  and 
trous-de-loup.  In  that  event,  they  get  rid  of  the  obstacles  by  means  of 
their  axes,  or  fill  the  trous-de-loup  with  fascines,  with  which  they  have 
previously  provided  themselves.  The  whole  number,  however,  do  not 
throw  themselves  into  the  ditch,  a  portion  remain  upon  the  counter- 
scarp, to  fire  upon  any  one  daring  to  show  himself  behind  the  parapet. 
When  the  troops  have  taken  breath  at  the  bottom  of  the  ditch,  they 
assault,  and  to  do  this  the  soldiers  aid  each  other  in  mounting  upon 
the  berme.  From  thence  they  mount  together  upon  the  parapet,  leap 
into  the  redoubt,  and  force  the  defenders  to  ground  their  arms.  If  the 
redoubt  is  armed  with  cannon,  and  is  of  greater  strength  than  has  been 
supposed,  it  might  be  necessary  at  first  to  cannonade  in  such  a  manner 
as  to  break  the  palisades,  dismount  the  pieces,  and  plough  up  the  par- 
apet. Favorable  positions  for  the  cannon  used  in  the  attack  will  be 
sought :  these  positions  should  command  the  work,  or  be  on  the  pro- 
longation of  its  faces,  so  as  to  give  an  enfilading  fire.  If  the  redoubt  is 
pierced  with  embrasures,  it  is  necessary  to  direct  one  or  two  pieces 
upon  each  embrasure  so  as  to  dismount  the  pieces,  and  to  penetrate  into 
the  interior  of  the  work,  in  order  to  demoralize  the  defenders.  Some 
good  riflemen  will  also  approach  towards  the  embrasures,  shunning  their 
direct  range,  and  fire  upon  the  artillerymen,  who  may  attempt  to  re- 
load their  pieces. 

It  is  only  after  the  attacking  artillery  has  produced  its  desired  effect, 
that  the  light  infantry  envelop  the  work,  and  do  what  has  been  already 
indicated.  When  infantry  of  the  line  take  part  in  the  attack,  it  is 


ATT.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  75 

formed  in  as  many  columns  as  there  are  salients  of  attack.  Each  of 
these  columns  is  preceded  by  men  armed  with  axes  and  carrying  lad- 
ders. It  is  a  wise  precaution  to  give  to  front  rank  men,  fascines,  which 
not  only  serve  as  bucklers,  but  are  also  useful  in  filling  up  part  of  the 
ditch.  The  light  infantry  open  to  allow  the  passage  of  the  columns, 
but  redouble  their  fire  to  sustain  the  attack  at  the  moment  that  the 
assailants  begin  to  climb  the  parapet.  The  essential  thing  in  this  de- 
cisive moment  for  the  assailants  is  unity  of  effort,  and  to  leap  into  the  work 
from  all  sides  at  once.  It  is  necessary,  then,  that  the  troops  stop  a 
moment  upon  the  berme,  and  await  the  concerted  signal  to  clamber  up 
the  exterior  slope,  in  order  to  mount  upon  the  parapet.  If  the  redoubt 
be  not  aided  by  other  troops,  or  strengthened  by  works  upon  its  flanks, 
it  will  be  difficult  to  resist  an  attack  thus  directed  when  valiantly  ex- 
ecuted. Whatever  may  be  the  result,  it  is  the  first  duty  of  the  com- 
mandant of  a  post  to  sustain  and  invigorate  the  morale  of  his  soldiers, 
by  his  own  confident  air,  his  valiant  resolutions,  and  his  activity  in 
putting  every  thing  in  the  best  order.  If  the  attack  is  not  immediate, 
the  commandant  will  surround  the  redoubt  with  abatis ;  he  will  pro- 
vide heavy  stones  for  the  defence  of  the  ditches ;  he  will  endeavor  to 
procure  bags  of  earth,  to  make  embrasures  upon  the  parapet.  Want- 
ing these  he  will  supply  himself  with  sods,  making  loopholes,  through 
which  the  best  marksmen  will  fire  upon  the  enemy.  A  beam  placed 
across  these  sods  may,  at  the  same  time,  serve  as  a  protection  to  the 
marksmen,  and  a  means  of  rolling  down  the  assailants.  Cannon  be- 
gins the  defence.  As  soon  as  the  batteries  of  the  enemy  are  discovered, 
the  fire  is  opened.  But  when  once  the  batteries  have  taken  their  po- 
sitions, when  their  pieces  are  partly  covered  by  the  ground,  and  their 
fire  begins  to  produce  an  effect,  the  struggle  is  *no  longer  equal.  It  is 
then  necessary  to  withdraw  the  cannon  of  the  work  into  its  interior,  or 
to  leave  those  pieces  only  which  are  covered  by  good  traverses,  throw- 
ing, however,  from  time  to  time,  some  canister  among  the  light  in- 
fantry, who  may  press  too  nearly.  The  artillery  is  at  first  only 
aided  by  a  few  good  marksmen  placed  in  the  angles,  behind  trav- 
erses, or  wherever  the  fire  of  the  enemy  is  least  felt.  But  when  the 
work  is  so  closely  pressed  that  the  artillery  of  the  assailants  cannot 
continue  its  fire  without  danger  to  their  own  men,  the  defenders  mount 
upon  the  banquettes,  the  guns  are  brought  back,  and  the  warmest  fire 
is  directed  upon  the  columns  of  attack,  and  upon  the  squads  of  light 
infantry,  who  seek  to  make  a  passage  through  the  abatis  to  the  coun- 
terscarp. This  is  the  moment  to  explode  such  small  mines  as  have  been 
previously  prepared  under  the  glacis,  or  in  the  interior  of  the  work. 


76  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [ATT. 

If,  notwithstanding  such  efforts,  the  enemy  reaches  the  ditch,  and 
collects  his  force  for  the  assault,  all  is  not  yet  lost.  The  defenders  roll 
upon  him  shells,  trunks  of  trees,  and  heavy  stones,  and  then  mounting 
upon  the  parapet,  stand  ready  to  receive  him  at  the  point  of  the  bay- 
onet, or  to  use  the  butt  of  the  rnusket.  History  records  the  failure  of 
more  than  one  attack  from  such  conduct  on  the  part  of  the  defenders ; 
and  if  we  reflect  upon  the  disorder  of  the  assailants,  and  the  physical 
advantage  which  those  standing  upon  the  parapet  must  possess,  it  is 
necessary,  for  the  success  of  the  attacking  force,  that  they  should  have 
a  great  moral  superiority.  This  does  often  exist,  but  the  commander 
of  a  work  may  infuse-his  own  indomitable  spirit  into  his  men. 

Temporary  works  may  be  attacked  by  SURPRISE  or  by  OPEN  FORCE. 
In  all  cases,  the  first  thing  to  be  done  is  for  the  commander  of  the  at- 
tack to  obtain  the  fullest  possible  information  that  circumstances  will 
admit,  of  the  character  of  the  work,  garrison,  ground  around  it,  defences, 
and  probable  aid  at  hand,  &c.  If  an  intrenched  village  is  to  be  attacked, 
it  should  be  ascertained  by  what  means  the  streets  and  roads  leading 
into  it  have  been  closed,  whether  by  stockades  or  breastworks ;  how 
these  obstacles  are  flanked ;  what  obstructions  are  placed  in  front  of 
them,  (fee.,  &c.  If  the  post  is  an  isolated  building,  such  as  a  country 
house  or  church,  attention  should  be  directed  to  the  mode  in  which  the 
doors  have  been  barricaded,  or  the  windows  blocked  up  ;  how  the  loop- 
holes are  arranged  ;  what  sort  of  flank  defence  has  been  provided  ;  how 
it  can  best  be  approached  ;  what  internal  preparations  have  been  made 
for  prolonging  the  defence,  &c.  Part  of  this  knowledge  may  be  ob- 
tained from  spies,  and  reconnoissance  must  do  the  rest.  In  the  attack 
of  military  posts,  infantry  are  frequently  thrown  upon  their  own  re- 
sources. They  have  no^uns  or  howitzers  for  tearing  up  and  destroy- 
ing stockades,  abatis,  palisading,  chevaux-de-frize,  &c.  Their  reliance 
must  therefore  be  their  own  activity  and  fertility  of  invention.  Abatis 
may  sometimes  be  fired  by  lighted  fagots,  or  else  passed  by  cutting 
away  a  few  of  the  smaller  branches.  Small  ditches  may  be  filled  up 
with  fagots  or  bundles  of  hay  ;  chevaux-de-frize  may  be  displaced  by 
main  force  with  a  rope,  and  a  good  pull  together,  or  they  may  be  cut 
up  or  blown  to  pieces  by  a  box  of  powder.  Stockade  work  or  palisad- 
ing may  be  escaladed  with  ladders  brought  up  in  a  line  under  the  pro- 
tection of  a  firing  party,  and  carried  by  two  or  four  men  according  to 
their  length ;  or  a  stockade,  barricaded  doors,  gates,  and  windows  may 
be  breached  by  a  bag  of  powder,  &c.  By  such  measures,  decisively 
and  boldly  used,  troops  would  be  a  match  for  any  of  the  ordinary  ob- 
structions which  might  oppose  their  advance,  whether  the  attack  were 


BAG.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  77 

made  by  night  or  day,  by  surprise  or  by  open  force.     (Consult  Du- 
FOUR;  Aide  Memoir e,  d*c.) 

ATTACK  AND  DEFENCE  OF  PERMANENT  FORTIFICATIONS.  (See 
SIEGE.)  .  ft 

k      ATTENTION — Cautionary  command   addressed   to   troops,  pre- 
paratory to  a  particular  exercise  or  manoauvre. 

ATTESTATION.  A  certificate,  signed  by  the  magistrate  before 
whom  a  recruit  is  sworn  in  as  a  soldier. 

AUDIT  OKS.  (See  ACCOUNTABILITY  for  their  duties.)  They  may 
administer  oaths  ;  (Act  March  3,  1817.) 

AUTHORITY,  (CiviL.)  Any  commissioned  officer  or  soldier  ac- 
cused of  a  capital  crime,  or  of  having  used  violence,  or  committed  any 
offence,  against  the  person  or  property  of  any  citizen  of  any  of  the 
United  States,  such  as  is  punishable  by  the  known  laws  of  the  land, 
must  be  delivered  over  upon  application  of  the  civil  authority ;  and  all 
officers  and  soldiers  are  required  to  use  their  utmost  endeavors  to  de- 
liver over  su^h  accused  persons,  and  likewise  to  be  aiding  and  assisting 
the  officers  of  justice  in  apprehending  and  securing  the  persons  so  ac- 
cused in  order  to  bring  them  to  trial.  Any  commanding  officer  or 
officers,  wilfully  neglecting  or  refusing  upon  application  to  deliver  over 
such  accused  persons,  or  to  be  aiding  and  assisting  the  officers  of  justice 
in  apprehending  such  persons,  shall  be  cashiered  ;  ART.  33.  (See  COM- 
MAND ;  EXECUTION  OF  LAWS.) 

AUXILIARY.     Forces  to  aid. 

AWARD.     The  decision  or  sentence  of  a  court-martial. 


B 

BAGGAGE  OF  AN  ARMY — Called  by  the  Romans  impedimenta, 
and  by  Bonaparte  embarras.  No  question  is  more  important  in  giving 
efficiency  to  an  army,  than  the  regulation  of  its  baggage.  Nothing  so 
.seriously  impairs  the  mobility  of  an  army  in  the  field  as  its  baggage- 
train,  but  this  baggage  is  necessary  to  its  existence;  and  the  important 
question  therefore  arises,  How  shall  the  army  be  sustained  with  least 
baggage  ?  Sufficient  attention  is  not  paid  by  Government  to  this  sub- 
ject in  time  of  peace,  and  in  war  the  commander  of  the  troops  finds 
himself  therefore  obliged  to  use  the  unstudied  means  which  his  Govern- 
ment hastily  furnishes.  In  respect  to  artillery  and  artillery  equip- 
ments, the  minutest  details  are  regulated.  It  should  be  the  same  with 
other  supplies.  In  the  United  States  Army,  the  quartermaster's  de- 
partment has  charge  of  transports,  and  some  steps  have  been  taken  to 


41 
78  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [BAK. 

regulate  the  subject ;  but  legislation  is  required  for  the  necessary  mil- 
itary organization  of  conductors  and  drivers  of  wagons,  and  perhaps, 
also,  unless  our  arsenals  may  be  so  used,  for  the  establishment  of  de- 
pots, where  a  studied  examination  of  field  transportation  may  be  made, 
which  will  recommend  rules,  regulating  the  kinds  of  wagons  or  carts 
be  used  in  different  circumstances ;  prescribing  the  construction  of 
wagon  and  its  various  parts  in  a  uniform  manner,  so  that  the  correspond- 
ing part  of  one  wagon  will  answer  for  another,  giving  the  greatest  pos- 
sible mobility  to  these  wagons  consistent  with  strength ;  prescribing  the 
harness,  equipment,  valises  of  officers,  blacksmith  forges,  tool  chests, 
chests  for  uniforms,  bales  of  clothing,  packing  of  provisions,  and,  gen- 
erally, the  proportion,  form,  substance,  and  dimensions  of  articles  of 
supply ;  what  should  be  the  maximum  weight  of  packages ;  the 
means  to  be  taken  for  preventing  damage  to  the  articles ;  the  grade, 
duties  and  pay  of  the  quartermasters,  wagon  masters,  and  drivers 
should  be  properly  regulated  ;  rules  for  loading  should  be  given  ;  and, 
finally,  a  complete  system  of  marks,  or  modes  of  recognition  should  be 
systematized.  With  such  rules,  and  the  adoption  of  a  kitchen  cart, 
(See  WAGON,)  together  with  small  cooking  utensils  for  field  service 
which  may  be  carried  by  the  men,  an  army  would  no  longer  always  be 
tied  to  a  baggage  train,  and  great  results  might  be  accomplished  by 
the  disconnection.  (See  CONVOY  ;  WAGON.) 

BAKING-.  Troops  bake  their  own  bread,  and  the  saving  of  33^ 
per  cent,  thus  made  in  flour  is  carried  to  the  credit  of  the  Post  Fund. 
(See  OVENS.) 

BALKS — are  joist-shaped  spars,  which  rest  between  the  cleats  upon 
the  saddles  of  two  pontoons,  to  support  the  chess  or  flooring. 

BALL.     (See  CHAIN  BALL  ;  NAIL  BALL  ;  SOLID  SHOT.) 

BALLISTICS— is  that  branch  of  gunnery  which  treats  of  the  Mo- 
tion of  Projectiles.  The  instruments  used  to  determine  the  initial 
velocity  of  projectiles  are  the  gun-pendulum,  the  ballistic  pendulum, 
and  the  electro-ballistic  machine.  By  the  latter  machine,  the  velocity 
of  the  projectile  at  any  point  of  its  trajectory  is  also  determined.  The 
initial  velocity  is  determined  by  the  gun  pendulum,  by  suspending  the 
piece  itself  as  a  pendulum,  and  measuring  the  recoil  impressed  on  it  by 
the  discharge ;  the  expression  for  the  velocity  is  deduced  from  the  fact, 
that  the  quantity  of  motion  communicated  to  the  pendulum  is  equal  to 
that  given  to  the  projectile,  charge  of  powder,  and  the  air.  The  second 
apparatus  is  a  pendulum,  the  bob  of  which  is  made  strong  and  heavy 
to  receive  the  impact  of  the  projectile ;  and  the  expression  for  the 
velocity  of  the  projectile  is  deduced  from  the  fact,  that  the  quantity  of 


BAB.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  79 

motion  of  the  projectile  before  impact,  is  equal  to  that  of  the  pendulum 
and  projectile  after  impact.  These  machines  have  been  brought  to 
great  perfection  in  France  and  in  the  United  States.  By  the  electro- 
ballistic  machines  wires  are  supported  on  target  frames,  placed  in  the 
path  of  the  trajectory,  which  communicate  with  a  delicate  time-keeper. 
The  successive  ruptures  of  the  wires  mark  on  the  time-keeper  the  in- 
stant that  the  projectile  passes  each  wire,  and  knowing  the  distances  of 
the  wires  apart,  the  mean  velocities,  or  velocities  of  the  middle  points 

can  be  obtained  by  the  relation  velocity  —  sPaCM^ 

time. 

The  electro-ballistic  machine  of  Capt.  Navaez  of  the  Belgian  service, 
has  been  found  too  delicate  and  complicated  for  general  service ;  that 
devised  by  Capt.  J.  G.  Benton,  Ordnance  Department,  is  used  at  the 
United  States  Military  Academy.  (For  description,  &c.,  consult  BEN- 
TON'S  Ordnance  and  Gunnery.) 

BAND.  Musicians,  as  Regimental  Band,  Post  Band,  &c.  They 
are  enlisted  soldiers,  and  form  a  band  of  musicians  under  the  direction 
of  the  adjutant,  but  are  not  permanently  detached  from  their  com- 
panies, and  are  instructed  in  all  the  duties  of  a  soldier. 

BANQUETTE — is  the  step  of  earth  within  the  parapet,  sufficiently 
high  to  enable  the  defenders,  when  standing  upon  it,  to  fire  over  the 
crest  of  the  parapet  with  ease. 

BARBETTE.  Guns  are  said  to  be  in  barbette  when  they  are 
elevated,  by  raising  the  earth  behind  the  parapet,  or  by  placing  them 
on  a  high  carriage,  so  that,  instead  of  firing  through  embrasures,  they 
can  be  fired  over  the  crest  of  the  parapet.  In  this  position,  the  guns 
have  a  wide  range,  instead  of  being  limited,  as  in  firing  through  em- 
brasures. 

BARRACKS — from  the  Spanish  barraca,  are  buildings  erected 
by  Government  for  lodging  troops.  Where  the  ground  is  suffi- 
ciently spacious,  they  are  made  to  enclose  a  large  area,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  exercising  and  drilling.  Barracks  should  be  very  commo- 
dious, comprising  mess-rooms,  cooking-houses,  guard-houses,  magazines, 
&c.  United  States  troops  are  generally  badly  quartered,  sometimes 
in  casemates  of  fortifications,  and  often  in  cantonments  constructed  by 
themselves.  Officers  and  soldiers'  quarters  should  be  properly  fur- 
nished by  the  Government ;  but  in  the  United  States,  officers'  quarters 
are  bare  of  all  conveniences  when  assigned  to  them  for  occupancy. 
The  quarters  of  soldiers  are  provided  with  bunks,  tables,  &c.  (Con- 
sult, for  detailed  information  upon  the  proper  construction  of  Barracks, 


80 


MILITARY  DICTIONARY. 


and  their  necessary  furniture,  &c.,  BARDIN'S  Dictionnaire  de  TArmee  de 
Terre  ;  Spectateur  Militaire,  <&c.  ;  British  Regulations.) 

BARRICADES.  The  following  series  of  Barricades  afford  means 
of  closing  openings  in  various  ways,  most  of  them  practicable  under  all 
circumstances  : 

1.  Palisading;  movable  or  fixed.  )  Loopholed;    the  bottom  of  the 

2.  Stockade  of  trees.          .  f  loophole   not  less    than   8    feet 
9  3.  Stockade  of  squared  baulk.        )  above  ground  outside. 

4.  Abatis  ;  with  or  without  parapet  of  earth  and  ditch  behind. 
(See  PALISADES  ;  STOCKADE  ;  AND  ABATIS.) 


Fig.  64  represents  a  barricade  in  a  street,  with  its  means  of  com- 
munication. 

FIG.  65. 


Fig.  65.  Barricade  made  in  haste  with  tierces,  boxes,  wagon  bodies, 

&c.,  and  filled  with  earth  or  dung,  avoiding  parapets  of  paving  stones. 

Fig.  66.    Barricades  made  with  bales  of  merchandise,   barrels  of 


BAS.] 


MILITARY  DICTIONARY. 


81 


sugar,  with  the  approaches  also  obstructed.     Sand-bag  parapets  may 
also  be  used  as  barricades.     (See  REVETMENT.) 


BARRIER.  Carpentry  obstructions  in  fortifications.  The  pur- 
pose regulates  the  construction.  If  the  barrier  is  to  be  permanently 
defensible,  it  should  be  musket-proof,  and  then  becomes  a  Stockade. 
If  occasionally  defensible,  palisading  will  suffice,  with  a  sand-bag  or 
other  temporary  parapet  when  required,  behind  and  near  enough  to 
fire  between  the  palisades.  The  gates  in  both  the  above  should,  if  pos- 
sible, be  of  palisading,  as  the  heavy  stockade  gate  is  unwieldy.  Barrier 
gates  should  never  be  left  unprotected. 

BASE  OF  OPERATIONS.  That  secure  line  of  frontier  or  for 
tresses  occupied  by  troops,  from  which  forward  movements  are  made, 
supplies  furnished,  and  upon  which  troops  may  retreat,  if  necessary. 

BASTION.  A  work  consisting  of  two  faces  and  two  flanks,  all  the 
angles  being  salient.  Two  bastions  are  connected  by  means:  of  a  CUB- 
TAIN,  which  is  screened  by  the  angle  made  by  the  prolongation  of  the 
corresponding  faces  of  two  bastions,  and  flanked  by  the  line  of  defence. 
Bastions  contain,  sheltered  by  their  parapets,  marksmen,  artillery, 
platforms,  guards.  They  are  protected  by  galleries  of  mines,  and  by 
demi-lunes  and  lunettes  outside  the  ditch,  and  by  palisades,  if  the  ditch 
is  inundated.  Bastions  should  be  large,  and  contain  five  or  six  hundred 
infantry,  with  the  necessary  artillery.  The  boyaux  of  the  besiegers  are 
directed  towards  the  CAPITAL  of  the  Bastion.  The  FACES  of  the  BAS- 
TION are  the  parts  exposed  to  being  enfiladed  by  ricochet  batteries,  and 
also  to  being  battered  in  breech.  (See  FORTIFICATION  ;  SIEGES.) 

Bastion  (Demi) — is  that  which  has  only  one  face  and  one  flank,  cut 
off  by  the  capital — like  the  extremities  of  horn  and  crown  works. 

Bastion  (Empty).  When  the  mass  of  rampart  and  parapet  follows 
6 


82  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [BAT. 

the  windings  of  the  faces  and  flanks,  leaving  an  interior  space  in  tho 
centre  of  the  bastion,  on  the  level  of  the  ground,  it  is  called  a  hollow 
or  empty  bastion.  In  standing  in  a  bastion,  and  looking  towards  the 
country,  the  face  and  flank  on  the  right  hand  are  called  the  right  face 
and  flank ;  and  on  the  left  hand,  the  left  face  and  flank. 

Bastion  (Flat).  When  the  demi-gorges  and  gorge  are  in  the  same 
line,  and  the  former  is  half  of  the  latter,  the  work  is  called  a  flat 
bastion. 

Bastion  (Forts') — are  the  most  perfect  of  closed  field  works,  with 
reference  to  flanking  defences,  as  each  side  or  front  consists  of  two 
faces,  two  flanks,  and  a  curtain. 

Bastion  (Full].  \Vhcn  the  interior  space  is  filled  up  to  the  level 
of  the  terre  plcin  of  the  rampart,  the  construction  is  called  a  full 
bastion. 

BAT,  BAT  MEN,  BAT  HORSE,  BAT  AND  FORAGE  ALLOWANCE.  Men 
who  take  charge  of  the  baggage  of  officers  and  companies.  Allowance 
given  at  the  beginning  of  a  campaign  in  the  English  army  is  called  Bat 
and  Forage  allowance. 

BATARDEAU — is  a  strong  wall  of  masonry  built  across  a  ditch, 
to  sustain  the  pressure  of  the  water,  when  one  part  is  dry  and  the 
other  wet.  To  prevent  this  wall  being  used  as  a  passage  across  the 
ditch,  it  is  built  up  to  an  angle  at  top,  and  armed  with  iron  spikes ; 
and  to  render  the  attempt  to  cross  still  more  difficult,  a  tower  of 
masonry  is  built  on  it.  In  the  batardeau  is  the  sluice-gate,  by  the 
opening  or  closing  of  which  the  manoeuvres  of  the  water  can  be  regu- 
lated. (See  DITCH.) 

BATTALION.  An  aggregation  of  from  two  to  ten  companies  in 
the  United  States  Service.  Their  instruction  is  regulated  by  Infantry 
and  Light  Infantry  tactics. 

BATTERY.  A  battery  consists  of  two  or  more  pieces  of  artillery 
in  the  field.  The  term  Battery  also  implies  the  emplacement  of  ord- 
nance destined  to  act  offensively  or  defensively.  It  also  refers  to  the 
company  charged  with  a  certain  number  of  pieces  of  ordnance.  The  ord- 
nance constitutes  the  Battery.  Men  serve  the  Battery.  Horses  drag  it, 
and  epaulments  may  shelter  it.  A  battery  may  be  with  or  without 
embrasures.  In  the  latter  case  it  is  en  barbette,  and  the  height  of  the 
genouillere  varies  according  to  the  description  of  the  gun  carriage  used. 
The*  ordnance  constituting  the  battery  requires  substantial  bearings 
either  of  solid  ground  for  field-pieces,  or  of  timber,  plank,  or  masonry 
platforms,  for  heavy  artillery.  Batteries  are  sometimes  designated  as 
follows :  Barbette  battery,  one  without  embrasures,  in  which  the  guns 


BAT.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  83 

are  raised  to  fire  over  the  parapet;  Ambulant  battery,  heavy  guns 
mounted  on  travelling  carriages,  and  moved  as  occasion  may  require, 
cither  to  positions  on  a  coast,  or  in  besieged  places ;  Covered  battery, 
intended  for  a  vertical  fire,  and  concealed  from  the  enemy  ;  Breaching 
battery;  Joint  batteries,  uniting  their  fire  against  any  object ;  Counter 
battery,  one  battery  opposed  against  another ;  Coast  battery ;  Direct 
battery  ;  Cross  batteries,  forming  a  cross  fire  on  an  object ;  Oblique  bat- 
tery forms  an  angle  of  20°  or  more,  with  the  object  against  which  it  is 
directed,  contradistinguished  from  direct  battery  ;  Raised  battery,  one 
whose  terre  plein  is  elevated  considerably  above  the  ground ;  Sunken 
battery,  where  the  sole  of  the  embrasures  is  on  a  level  with  the  ground, 
and  the  platforms  are  consequently  sunk  below  it ;  Enfilading  battery r, 
when  the  shot  or  shell  sweeps  the  whole  length  of  a  line  of  troops  or 
part  of  a  work  ;  Horizontal  battery,  when  the  terre  plein  is  that  of  the 
natural  level  of  the  ground,  consequently  the  parapet  alone  is  raised 
and  the  ditch  sunk  ;  Open  battery,  without  epaulment,  or  other  covering 
wholly  exposed  ;  Indented  battery,  or  battery  a  cremaillere,  battery  con- 
structed with  salient  and  re-entering  angles  for  obtaining  an  oblique,  as 
well  as  a  direct  fire,  and  to  afford  shelter  from  the  enfilade  fire  of  the 
enemy  ;  Reverse  battery,  that  which  fires  upon  the  rear  of  a  work  or 
line  of  troops ;  Ricochet  battery,  whose  projectiles,  being  fired  at  low 
angles,  graze  and  bound  without  being  buried  ;  Masked  battery,  arti- 
ficially concealed  until  required  to  open  upon  the  enemy. 

Field  Batteries,  in  sieges,  are  usually  of  two  kinds,  viz.,  Elevated 
Batteries  and  Sunken  Batteries,  and  they  are  placed  either  in  front  of  the 
parallel,  in  the  parallel  itself,  or  in  rear  of  it.  In  an  elevated  ^battery, 
the  platforms  for  the  guns  or  mortars  to  stand  upon,  are  laid  on  the 
natural  level  of  the  ground,  and  the  whole  of  the  covering  mass,  or 
parapet,  is  raised  above  that  level,  the  earth  for  forming  it  being  ob- 

FIG.  67. 


tained  from  a  ditch  in  front ;  (Fia.  67.)  In  a  sunken  battery,  the  whole 
interior  of  the  battery  is  excavated  about  three  feet  deep,  and  the  platforms 
laid  on  the  bottom,  the  earth  is  thrown  to  the  front,  and  the  parapet  is 


84  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [BAT; 

formed  out  of  it ;  (Fio.  68.)  An  inspection  of  these  figures  will  show 
the  difference ;  and  it  will  be  obvious  that  the  whole  of  the  parapet 
in  the  elevated  battery  has  to  be  raised,  and  that  in  a  sunken  battery 
part  of  the  cover  is  obtained  by  taking  advantages  of  the  excavation 

FIG.  68. 


made  for  forming  the  mass.  This  construction  is  frequently  used  in 
turning  the  portion  of  a  parallel  into  a  battery,  by  increasing  the  width 
of  the  interior  excavation  of  the  trench  so  as  to  make  room  for  the 
platforms  of  the  guns.  Great  care  must  be  taken  that  no  rise  in  the 
ground  before  the  battery  obscures  the  view  from  the  soles  of  the  em- 
brasures ;  for  this  purpose,  the  officer  laying  out  the  battery  should  lie 
down  and  look  along  the  ground,  in  order  to  be  sure  that  his  guns  can 
range  freely  from  their  embrasures,  before  he  fixes  his  details  for  con- 
struction. When  guns  are  fired  with  an  elevation — when  the  soil  is 
sandy  or  gravelly — when  the  weather  is  dry — or  the  ground  elevated, 
this  construction  is  approved.  The  depth  of  the  excavation  for  the  in- 
terior must  depend  on  the  height  of  the  carriages  upon  which  the 
guns  are  mounted  :  it  should  be  deeper  in  rear  than  in  front,  that  it 
may  be  drained.  The  interior  slopes  of  these  batteries,  and  the  cheeks 
of  the  embrasures,  must  be  supported  by  field  revetments  of  gabions, 
fascines,  sand-bags,  casks,  or  sods.  In  batteries  exposed  to  a  heavy  fire, 
especially  of  shells,  it  is  necessary  to  provide  as  much  cover  as  possible 
for  the  men  serving  in  them  ;  for  this  purpose,  traverses  are  usually 
placed  between  every  two  guns  ;  and  as  these  masses  serve  to  protect  the 
men  from  the  splinters  of  the  bursting  shells,  they  are  generally  called 
splinter-proof  traverse.  There  is  nearly  twice  as  much  work  in  the  elevated 
as  in  the  sunken  battery.  (JEBB'S  Attack  and  Defence  ;  see  EMBRASURE.) 

BATTERY  WAGON.  A  battery  wagon  accompanies  each  field- 
battery.  (See  FORGE.) 

BATTLE.  Battles  are  either  parallel  or  oblique,  and  they  are 
strategic  when,  in  consequence  of  a  plan  of  campaign,  they  are  fought 
upon  a  given  and  objective  point,  as  the  battles  of  Marengo  or  Austerlitz. 

The  following  preparations  for  battle  are  usually  made  by  great 
commanders  :  All  disposable  troops  are  held  in  hand  ;  the  readiness  of 
the  troops  is  ascertained  by  inspection  of  arms ;  proper  nourishment  is 
given  to  them  before  going  into  battle ;  the  projects  of  the  day  are 


BAT.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY. 

communicated  from  grade  to  grade  ;  the  points  for  the  arfi^i^ances  /  i  . 
and  caissons  are  indicated  ;  the  rendezvous  for  rallying  or  retreatin|^e> 
made  known;  measures  are  taken  to  secure  the  rear  and  communicaXV/ 
tions,  in  order  to  retain  the  mastery  of  the  base  of  operations  ;  the  " 
army  is  ranged  ordinarily  in  two  lines,  and  the  position  of  reserves  ^ 
given  in  the  order  of  battle  ;  the  three  arms  are  disposed  according  to 
the  nature  of  the  ground  ;  decisive  points  are  occupied  ;  open  or  flank- 
ing batteries  are  established  on  proper  elevations  ;  the  front  and  flanks 
of  the  army  are  furnished  with  artillery,  in  number,  kind,  and  calibre 
according  to  circumstances.  These  are  preparations  for  battle  ;  the 
action  commences  ordinarily  as  follows  :  Marksmen  are  thrown  for- 
ward, sometimes  acting  in  conjunction  with  artillery.  Either  the 
enemy  shows  an  equal  disposition  to  attack,  or  else  one  party  insults 
the  other  to  bring  on  a  combat.  When  the  advanced  guards  have  /eft 
each  other,  the  army  disposed  to  make  battle  begins  or  increases  its 
cannonade,  to  constrain  the  adversary  to  deploy  his  MASSES,  show  his 
different  arms,  and  thus  make  known  the  composition,  number,  im- 
portance, and  the  direction  to  be  given  to  the  adverse  forces.  The  re- 
serves remain  stationary,  while  the  cavalry,  properly  sheltered  from 
fire,  watch  their  opponents,  and  throw  themselves  upon  weakened  or 
staggered  lines  of  infantry.  When  the  affair  has  begun,  and  the  po- 
sition and  dispositions  of  the  enemy  are  known,  and  the  proper  effect 
has  been  produced  by  firing,  the  infantry  may  march  to  the  charge, 
with  the  arms  at  a  carry  or  on  the  right  shoulder,  leaving  to  the  in- 
stinct of  the  soldier  the  determination  of  the  proper  moment  of  bring- 
ing the  musket  to  the  position  of  charge  bayonet. 

These  details,  however,  constitute  the  mechanical  parts  of  a  battle. 
The  art  and  science  of  battles  consist,  according  to  Professors  of 
STRATEGY,  in  the  subordination  of  tactical  movements  to  the  rule  of 
attacking  only  with  such  FORCES,  as  can  overthrow  those  of  the  enemy, 
either  by  numbers,  position,  or  vigor  ;  in  creating  alarm  upon  many 
points  to  induce  your  adversary  to  take  false  steps  ;  in  surprising  him 
in  the  midst  of  his  bold  movements,  and  punishing  him  in  his  irresolute 
ones  ;  in  penetrating  his  designs  to  neutralize  their  effects,  or  taking 
advantage  of  his  faults  ;  in  occupying  commanding  positions  ;  in  avoid- 
ing masks  or  curtains,  and  in  acting  always,  if  possible,  on  the  OFFEN- 
SIVE. When  the,  action  has  seriously  begun,  the  important  business 
of  the  general  is  to  follow  it  up  to  advantage.  If  he  is  skilful  and 
valiant,  he  will  preserve  the  ALLIGNMENT  and  intervals  of  his  battalions, 
by  standing  firm,  or  by  marching  ;  he  will  strengthen  his  flanks  by  en- 
terprises against  those  of  the  enemy  ;  by  employing  his  fire  so  as  not 


86  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [BAY. 

to  stop  the  fire,  at  the  same  time,  of  all  arms ;  by  filling  up,  at  the 
expense  of  the  cavalry  or  second  line,  the  holes  made  in  the  first  line  ; 
by  reinforcing  or  reanimating  all  corps  which  give  way  or  falter ;  by 
leaving  none  in  unfavorable  positions  ;  by  sheltering  the  reserves  from 
cannon  shot ;  by  bringing  up,  at  opportune  moments,  fresh  troops  ;  by 
preserving  the  rear  lines  from  being  broken,  while  opening  a  free  pas- 
sage to  repulsed  troops ;  by  exposing,  when  needed,  his  own\  person, 
securing  united  efforts  in  attacks,  vigor  in  charges,  and  promptitude  in 
rallying.  Such  is  the  theory  of  battles  ;  but  GENIUS  and  experience  are 
necessary  to  apply  the  theory,  and  victory  will  be  in  vain  sought  from 
the  mechanical  application  of  any  dogma  whatever.  Battles  upon  the 
same  ground  rarely  occur,  and  never  with  soldiers  of  the  same  morale, 
the  same  arms,  the  same  numbers,  and  the  same  relative  proportions. 
It  is  by  study  of  the  campaigns  of  great  commanders,  by  his  own 
experience,  and  his  own  genius,  that  battles  are  properly  initiated 
and  won  by  a  skilful  general.  (See  MANCEUVRES  IN  COMBAT.) 

BAYONET.  At  the  battle  of  Spires,  in  1703,  charges  of  infantry 
were  first  made  with  fixed  bayonet.  From  that  time,  however,  until  the 
wars  of  the  French  Kevolution,  the  bayonet  was  more  threatening  than 
murderous.  Since  then  it  has  changed,  throughout,  the  whole  system 
of  the  military  art ;  cavalry  has  ceased  to  be  the  terror  of  foot ;  and 
the  fire  of  lines  of  battle,  even  with  new  arms  effective  in  range  at  1,000 
yards,  does  not  impair  the  usefulness  of  the  bayonet ;  and  although  Su- 
warof  s  maxim  that  "  La  balle  est  folle  "  cannot  be  admitted,  yet  it  is 
true  that  "  la  bayonnette  est  sage."  (Consult  Manual  of  Bayonet  Exer- 
cise, by  CAPT.  G.  B.  MCCLELLAN.) 

BED.  Straw  and  bedsacks  are  allowed  to  soldiers  for  bedding. 
The  introduction  of  single  iron  bedsteads  will  make  it  necessary  to  in- 
crease the  allowance  of  bed  furniture.  In  Prussia  and  other  countries, 
hammocks  are  used  in  place  of  bedsteads.  Bed  has  also  other  applica- 
tions, as  mortar  bed  ;  camp  bed  ;  bed  of  a  gun  lock  ;  bed  of  sand  ;  bed 
of  a  river  ;  to  separate  the  beds  of  stone  in  a  quarry,  &c. 

BELT.     (See  ACCOUTREMENTS.) 

BERME.  Narrow  path  round  fortifications,  between  the  parapet 
and  the  ditch,  to  prevent  the  earth  from  falling  in. 

BESIEGE.     (See  SIEGE.) 

BILLET.  No  soldier  shall,  in  time  of  peace  bef  quartered  in  any 
house  without  the  consent  of  the  owner  ;  nor  in  time  of  war,  but  in  the 
manner  to  be  prescribed  by  law  ;  (ART.  3,  Amendments  to  the  Consti- 
tution.) The  manner  of  quartering  soldiers  in  time  of  war  is  usually  by 
Billets,  but  no  manner  has  been  prescribed  by  law  in  the  United  States. 


BLA.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  87 

.The  constables  and  other  persons  duly  authorized  in  England  are  re- 
quired to  billet  the  officers  and  soldiers  of  the  army,  arid  also  the  horses 
belonging  to  the  cavalry,  staff,  and  field-officers,  in  victualling  and- 
other  houses  specified  in  the  mutiny  act ;  and  they  must  be  received 
by  the  occupiers  of  these  houses,  and  provided  with  proper  accom- 
modations. They  are  to  be  supplied  with  diet  and  small  beer,  and 
with  stables,  hay,  and  straw,  for  the  horses ;  paying  for  the  same 
the  several  rates  prescribed  by  law.  Troops,  whether  cavalry  or  in- 
fantry, are  in  no  case  to  be  billeted  above  one  mile  from  the  place 
mentioned  in  the  route.  Where  cavalry  are  billeted,  the  men  and 
their  horses  must  be  billeted  in  the  same  house,  except  in  case  of 
necessity.  One  man  must  always  be  billeted  where  there  are  one 
or  two  horses ;  and  less  than  two  men  cannot  be  billeted  where 
there  are  four  horses ;  and  so  in  proportion  for  a  greater  num- 
ber. No  more  billets  are  at  any  time  to  be  ordered  than  there  are 
effective  soldiers  and  horses  present ;  and  all  billets  are  to  be  delivered 
into  the  hands  of  the  commanding  officjr.  Commanding  officers  may, 
for  the  benefit  of  the  service,  exchange  any  men  or  horses  billeted  in 
the  same  town,  provided  the  number  of  men  and  horses  so  exchanged 
does  not  exceed  the  number  at  the  time  billeted  on  each  house ;  and 
the  constables  are  obliged  to  billet  those  men  and  horses  accordingly. 
Any  justice  may,  at  the  request  of  the  officer  or  non-commissioned 
officer  commanding  any  soldiers  requiring  billets,  extend  the  routes  or 
enlarge  the  district  within  which  billets  shall  be  required,  in  such  man- 
ner as  may  be  most  convenient  to  the  troops.  In  Scotland,  officers  and 
soldiers  are  billeted  according  to  the  provisions  of  the  laws  in  force  in 
that  country  at  the  time  of  its  union  with  England ;  and  no  officer  is 
obliged  to  pay  for  his  lodging,  where  he  shall  be  regularly  billeted, 
except  in  the  suburbs  of  Edinburgh. 

BILL  HOOK.     An  instrument  for  cutting  twigs. 

BIVOUAC.     (See  CAMP.) 

BLACKING.  (For  SHOES.)  Take  three  ounces  of  molasses,  three 
ounces  of  ivory  black,  one  ounce  muriatic  acid,  one  ounce  sulphuric 
acid,  and  a  spoonful  of  olive  oil.  Mix  the  ivory  black  and  molasses, 
then  add  the  muriatic  acid,  and  subsequently  the  oil ;  when  the  paste 
is  well  formed,  incorporate  with  it  the  sulphuric  acid. 

BLACKING,  LIQUID.  (For  SHOES,  &c.)  Three  parts  of  white  wax, 
seven  and  a  half  parts  essence  of  turpentine ;  one  and  a  half  parts  of 
ivory  black.  The  wax  is  cut  into  small  pieces  and  put  into  a  glazed  ves- 
sel. Spread  the  turpentine  over  it,  and  leave  it  for  24  hours.  Then 
mix  it  by  degrees  with  ivory  black.  To  use  it,  spread  it  with  a  rag  in 
a  thin  layer  on  the  leather,  and  afterwards  rub  with  a  soft  brush. 


88 


MILITARY  DICTIONARY. 


[BLA. 


BLACKING.  (For  HARNESS.)  Yellow  wax,  four  parts  in  weight, 
six  parts  essence  of  turpentine,  one  part  of  mutton  suet,  and  one  part 
'of  ivory  black.  Cut  the  wax  into  small  pieces,  and  leave  it  to  soak  twenty- 
four  hours  in  the  essence  of  turpentine ;  grind  in  separately  the  ivory 
black  and  suet  until  there  is  a  perfect  mixture  of  the  whole  mass. 
When  the  leather  has  lost  its  color,  it  may  be  restored  by  the  mud  of 
ink,  or  by  sulphate  of  iron  in  a  thick  solution,  spread  upon  the  edges. 

BLACKSMITH  AND  FARRIER— Allowed  to  cavalry  regiments. 
(See  FORGE;  ARMY  ORGANIZATION.) 

BLINDAGE.  A  siege  work  contrived,  when  defilement  is  im- 
possible, as  a  shelter  against  a  cross  or  ricochet  fire  of  artillery.  It  is 
also  used  to  guard  against  the  effects  of  shells.  The  powder  magazines, 
the  hospitals,  the  cisterns,  certain  doors  and  windows  are  thus  blinded 
by  means  of  carpentry  work,  or  shelters  loaded  with  earth,  dung,  &c. 
Blindage  of  the  trenches  is  also  necessary,  particularly  when  the  be- 
siegers begin  the  crowning  of  the  covered  way  by  means  of  the  sap. 
Blindages  are  thus  used  to  guard  against  stones  or  hand  grenades 
thrown  by  the  besieged.  This  blindage  is  entirely  exposed  to  sorties, 
and  also  to  the  danger  of  being  burned  by  the  besieged. 

BLOCK  AND  TACKLE.  The  power  is  equal  to  the  weight  di- 
vided by  the  number  of  ropes  attached  to  the  lower  block,  or  by  twice 
the  number  of  raising  pulleys. 

BLOCK-HOUSE  (Redoubt  of  wood.)  A  common  defence  against 
Indians — at  two  diagonal  angles  of  a  picket  work.  Fi-s.  GO  and  70, 

FIG.  69. 


FIG.  70. 


BOM.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  gg 

with  dimensions  in  metres,  show  the  construction  used  by  the  French 
in  Algiers;  or  it  may  be  built  of  logs  18  inches  square  on  tne  ground 
floor,  and  12  inches  square  in  the  upper  story.  Height  of  each  story 
fen  feet ;  loopholed  ;  the  upper  story  projecting  all  round,  beyond  the 
ground  story,  as  machicoulis.  Hatches  should  be  made  in  the  roof  for 
the  escape  of  smoke,  and  be  grated. 

BOARDS.  A  board  composed  of  ordnance  officers,  designated  by 
the  Secretary  of  War,  as  the  Ordnance  Board,  decides,  with  the  ap- 
proval of  the  secretary,  on  the  models  and  patterns  of  all  ordnance  and 
ordnance  stores  for  the  land  service  of  the  United  States. 

Boards  of  Examination — are  instituted  to  determine  upon  appoint- 
ments in  regiments,  composed  of  army  officers,  and  for  appointments 
and  promotion  in  the  medical  staff. 

Boards  of  Survey — are  to  examine  injured  stores,  &c.,  and  to  take 
an  inventory  of  the  public  property  in  charge  of  a  deceased  officer. 

Boards  of  Inspectors — determine  upon  the  fitness  of  recruits  for  service. 

BOAT.  A  boat  has  been  invented  by  Colonel  R.  C.  BuchanaTi,  of 
the  army,  which  has  been  used  in  several  expeditions  in  Oregon  and  in 
Washington  Territory,  and  has  been  highly  commended  by  several  ex- 
perienced officers,  who  have  had  the  opportunity  of  giving  its  merits  a 
practical  service  test.  It  consists  of -an  exceedingly  light  framework  of 
thin  and  narrow  boards,  in  lengths  suitable  for  packing,  connected  by 
hinges,  the  different  sections  folding  into  so  small  a  compass  as  to  be 
conveniently  carried  upon  mules.  The  frame  is  covered  with  a  sheet 
of  stout  cotton  canvas,  or  duck,  secured  to  the  gunwales  with  a  cord 
running  diagonally  back  and  forth  through  eyelet-holes  in  the  upper 
edge.  When  first  placed  in  the  water  the  boat  leaks  a  little,  but  the 
canvas  soon  swells  so  as  to  make  it  sufficiently  tight  for  all  practical 
purposes.  The  great  advantage  to  be  derived  from  the  use  of  this 
boat  is,  that  it  is  so  compact  and  portable  as  to  be  admirably  adapted 
to  the  requirements  of  campaigning  in  a  country  where  the  streams  are 
liable  to  rise  above  a  fording  stage,  and  where  the  allowance  of  trans- 
portation is  small.  It  may  be  put  together  or  taken  apart  and  packed 
in  a  very  few  minutes,  and  one  mule  suffices  to  transport  a  boat  with 
all  its  appurtenances,  capable  of  sustaining  ten  men.  Should  the  can- 
vas become  torn,  it  is  easily  repaired  by  putting  on  a  patch,  and  it 
does  not  rot  or  crack  like  india-rubber  or  gutta-percha ;  moreover,  it 
is  not  affected  by  changes  of  climate  or  temperature. — MARCY'S  Prairie 
Traveller.  (See  BRIDGE  ;  PONTON.) 

BOMB.  The  shell  thrown  by  a  mortar  is  called  a  bomb-shell ;  and 
the  shelters  made  for  magazines,  &c.,  should  be 


90  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [BOM. 

BOMBARDMENT.  A  shower  of  shells  and  other  incendiary 
projectiles.  Properly  employed  against  fortifications,  but  not  against 
open  commercial  cities. 

BOOKS.  Regimental  books  to  be  kept,  are:  1.  General  order 
book  ;  2.  Regimental  order  book  ;  3.  Letter  book  ;  4.  Index  of  Letters ; 
5.  Size  or  descriptive  book ;  6.  Monthly  returns.  Company  books  re- 
quired are  :  1.  Descriptive  book ;  2.  Clothing  book ;  and  3.  Order  book. 

The  following  rules  for  keeping  books  at  the  head-quarters  of  the 
army  and  in  the  adjutant-general's  office  may,  with  modifications  that 
will  readily  occur,  be  used  with  armies  in  the  field,  at  the  head-quar- 
ters of  divisions,  departments,  regiments,  &c. : 

1.  LETTERS  RECEIVED. — (7  quires,  demy-Russia,  with  spring  back.) 
1.  All  official  communications  received  will  be  entered  in  this  book, 
excepting  only  such  letters  of  mere  transmittal  of  orders,  returns,  cer- 
tificates of  disability,  requisitions,  &c.,  as  need  not  be  preserved.     The 
orders,  returns,  certificates,  requisitions,  &c.,  themselves,  will  be  appro- 
priafely  entered  in  other  books  specially  provided  for  the  purpose. 

2.  Preliminary  to  being  entered  every  letter  will  be  folded  and  en- 
dorsed.   Letter  paper  will  be  folded  in  three  equal  folds — Cap  paper  in 
four.     The  endorsement  will  give  the  place  and  date  of  letter,  name, 
and  rank  of  writer,  and  a  summary  of  its  contents,  and  if  other  papers 
accompany  the  letter,  the  number  transmitted  will  also  be  noted  on  the 
back,  in  red  ink.     Each  enclosure  will  be  numbered  and  bear  the  same 
office  marks  as  the  letter  transmitting  it.     Figures  A,  b,  c,  exemplify 
the  manner  of  endorsing. 

3.  Every  letter  required  to  be  preserved  will  be  entered  alphabeti- 
cally and  numbered — the  series  of  numbers  beginning  and  terminating 
with  the  year,  and  including  all  letters  dated  (whether  received  or  not) 
within  the  year.     Only  one  number  will  be  given  to  each  letter  re- 
ceived with  its  enclosures,  so  that  the  sum  of  the  numbers  under  each 
alphabetical  entry  in  the  book  of  "  Letters  Received,"  during  any  year, 
will  show  the  number  of  letters  received  in  that  year. 

4.  As  a  general  rule,  every  letter  will  be  entered  in  the  name  of  its 
writer ;  but  there  are  cases  where  it  is  preferable,  for  convenience  of  ref- 
erence, to  enter  it  in  the  name  of  the  person  who  forms  the  subject  of 
the  letter  and  not  in  that  of  the  writer.     Applications  from  citizens  for 
the  discharge  of  soldiers,  &c.,  are  of  this  nature.     Usually,  a  single 
entry  of  each  letter  and  its  enclosures  will  suffice,  but  it  may  sometimes 
be  necessary,  in  addition,  to  make  entries  in  the  names  of  one  or  more 
of  the  individuals  to  whom  it  relates.     Such  entries,  however,  will  not 
be  numbered,  but  merely  contain  the  date  of  receipt,  name  of  individual, 


Boo.] 


MILITARY  DICTIONARY. 


91 


Fig.  A.                                    Jiff-  b.                               fig.  c. 

G.  1 

FOET  ADAMS,  E.  I.,  i 

May  8,  1849.     j 

Col.  , 

3d  Artillery,  Com'd'g. 

Relative  'to  unhealthi- 

ness  of  quarters  at  the 

Post,  and  enclosing  Sur- 

on    the    subject,    dated 

Apr.  30,  1849  ;  forwards 

also  a  copy  of  a  report, 

dated  Aug.  16,  1840,  of 

1. 

2. 

a  Board  of  Officers  as- 

G. 1.  (Hd.  Qrs.) 

G.  1.  (Hd.  Qrs.) 

sembled  to  examine  into 
the    condition    of    the 

May  11,  1849. 

May  11,  1849. 

quarters. 

[Two  enclosures.] 

Rec'd  (Hd.  Qrs.) 

May  11,  1849. 

place  and  date  of  the  letter  concerning  him,  with  a  reference,  in  red  ink, 
to  the  number  of  that  letter.  Fig.  E  is  an  illustration  of  an  entry  of 
this  kind. 

5.  The  book  of  "  Letters  Received  "  will  contain  a  side  index  ex- 
tending throughout,  and  will  be  divided  among  the  several  letters  of 
the  alphabet  according  to  the  probable  space  required  for  entries  under 
each  letter.  The  book  will  be  paged,  and  each  page  divided  into  three 
columns,  headed  "  When  received,"  "  Name,"  "  Date  and  purport  of 
letter,"  respectively,  as  shown  by  figure  Z>,  which  also  exhibits  the 
entry  in  the  book  of  the  letter  represented  by  figure  A. 


MILITARY  DICTIONARY. 


[Boo. 


S. 


1849. 


Fig.  E. 
LETTERS   RECEIVED. 


When  received. 

Name. 

Date  and  purport  of  letter. 

May  llth. 

[Surgeon  -.] 

Fort  Adams,  R.  I,  May  8,  1849. 

See  No.  1,  Letter  G. 

Fig.  D. 
LETTERS  RECEIVED. 


1849. 


When  received. 


Name. 


Date  and  purport  of  letter. 


May  llth. 

1 


Col.  , 

3d  Artillery,  command'g. 


FORT  ADAMS,  R.  I., 

May  8,  1849. 

Relative  to  unbealthiness  of  quar- 
ters  at  the  Post,  and   enclosing 

Surgeon  's  report  on   the 

subject,  dated  April  30,  1849 ;  for- 
wards also  copy  of  a  report,  dated 
Aug.  16,  1840,  of  a  Board  of 
Officers  assembled  to  examine  into 
the  condition  of  the  quarters. 


Boo.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  93 

6.  Each  entry  will  be  separated  from  the  one  preceding  it  by  a  red 
ink  line  ;  and  where  two  or  more  letters  relate  to  the  same  subject  they 
will  be  either  filed  together,  or  made  to  refer  to  each  other  by  their 
numbers,  and  the  filing  or  reference  be  noted  in  the  book  as  well  as  on 
the  letters  themselves. 

7.  Letters  from  the  Executive  and  Staff  Departments  and  other 
public  offices  in  Washington,  will  be  entered   alphabetically  in  the 
names  of  the  departments  or  offices  themselves,  but  the  entry  will  al- 
ways exhibit  the  writers'  names  likewise  ;  —  thus,  communications  from 
the  War  Department  would  be  entered  in  the  letter  W,  as  follows  : 
"  War,  Secretary  of,  (Hon.  -  ,)  &c." 

8.  Communications  from  the  President  will  be  entered  in  the  letter 
P  —  from  State  Department,  in  S  —  Treasury,  T  —  War,  W  —  Navy,  and 
its  bureaux,  N  —  Post  Office  and  its  bureaux,  P  —  Interior,  /  —  Attorney- 
general,   A  —  Adjutant-general's    office,   A  —  Quartermaster-general,    Q 

—  Subsistence,    S  —  Surgeon-general,    S  —  Paymaster-general,    P  —  En- 
gineer Department,  E  —  Topographical  Engineers,  E  —  Ordnance,   0  — 
Recruiting  service,  Superintendent  of,  R  —  Pension  Office,  P  —  Comp- 
trollers, (1st  and  2d,)  C—  The  several  Auditors,  A  —  Treasurer  U.  S.,  T 

—  Commissioner  Indian  Affairs,  /  —  General  Land  Office,  L  —  Solicitor's 
Office,  S—  and  Patent  Office,  P. 

9.  Communications  from  Governors  of  States  will  Be  entered  in  the 
names  of  the  States,  the  entry  showing  likewise  the  Governors'  names  ; 

—  thus  a  letter  from  the  Governor  of  New  York  would  be  entered  in 
the  letter  N",  as  follows  :    "  New  York,  Governor  of,  (His  Excellency 


10.  Letters  from  Staff  Officers,  written  by  direction  of  their  gen- 
erals, will  be  entered  in  the  names  of  the  Generals  themselves  ;  —  thus  a 
communication  from  General  K  -  's  Staff  Officer  would  be  entered  in 
the  letter  K,  as  follows  : 

"  Bvt.  Major  Gen'l  --  ,  comd'g  West'n  Div'n," 
"  (by  Assist.  Adjt.  Gen'l  —  '  -  .)" 

11.  Communications  addressed  to  the  War  Department  or  Adju- 
tant-general's office,  and  thence  referred,  without  an  accompanying  letter, 
to  head-quarters  for  report,  or  to  be  disposed  of,  will  be  entered,  in 
the  ordinary  way,  in  the  names  of  their  writers,  a  note  (in  red  ink) 
being  simply  made  in  the  second  column  of  the  book,  to  show  the  fact 
of  reference,  thus  —  "  (from  A.  G.  0.)" 

12.  Where  letters  are  referred  from  the  office  for  report,  &c.,  a  note 
of  the  fact  must  be  made  (in  red  ink)  in  this  book  with  a  citation  of  the 
page,  (or  number  of  the  letter,)  in  the  "  Endorsement  "  or  "  Letter 


94  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [Boo- 

Book  "  where  the  reference  is  recorded,  thus — Ref 'd  for  report  to 
Comd'g  Offi'r  Fort  T.,  May  11— see  Book  of  "Endorsements,"  p.  3, 
— (or,  "  see  Letter  No.  7,  vol.  1st.")  When  the  communication  is 
returned,  a  memorandum  to  this  effect  will  be  made  in  the  book — "  Re- 
turned with  report,  May  25th." 

13.  Should  the  portion  of  this  book  appropriated  to  any  particular 
letter  of  the  alphabet  prove  insufficient  for  entries  under  that  letter,  they 
will  be  transferred  to  a  few  of  the  last  leaves  allotted  to  some  other 
letter  of  the  alphabet,  where  there  is  more  space  than  will  probably  be 
required.  The  fact  of  transfer  will  be  noted  in  large  characters,  (in 
red  ink,)  at  the  bottom  of  the  page  from  which  transferred,  and  at  the 
top  of  the  page  to  which  carried,  as  follows  : 

"  TRANSFERRED  TO  PAGE  250,"  and  "  BROUGHT  FROM  PAGE  60." 

II.  LETTER  BOOK. — (7  quires,  demy-Russia,  with  spring  back.}  1. 
Every  letter  recorded  in  this  book  is  numbered,  (in  red  ink,)  the 
numbers  commencing  and  terminating  with  the  year,  and  each  letter  is 
separated  from  the  one  which  follows  it  by  a  red  line. 

2.  The  address  of  all  letters  should  be  at  the  top,  the  surname  being 
written  conspicuously  in  the  margin,  followed  by  the  official  title  (if 
any)  and  Christian  name,  thus  : 

Bvt.  Maj.  Gen'l . 

Comd'g,  &c.,  &c.,  &c.,  or 
Esq.  Samuel  H. 

3.  Each  letter  should  be  signed  in  the  record  book  by  its  writer. 

4.  Whenever  copies  of  letters  are  furnished,  the  names  of  the  per- 
sons to  whom  they  are  sent  should  be  noted  in  red  ink  in  the  margin 
with  the  date,  when  the  last  differs  from  the  date  of  the  letter  itself.    In 
like  manner,  when  a  letter  is  addressed  to  one  officer,  under  cover  to  his 
commander,  &c.,  this  fact  should  also  be  noted  in  red  ink  in  the  margin. 

5.  The  name  of  every  person  to  whom  a  letter  is  addressed  is  in- 
dexed alphabetically,  in  black  ink,  and  the  names  of  the  individuals 
whom  it  principally  concerns  are  indexed  in  red  ink.     A  red  ink  line 
is  drawn  in  the  body  of  the  letter  under  the  names  so  indexed,  to  facil- 
itate a  reference  to  them.     In  the  margin,  immediately  under  the  name 
of  the  person  to  whom  a  letter  is  addressed,  there  are  two  references, 
above  and  below  a  short  red  line,  the  one  above  (in  red)  indicates  the 
last  preceding  letter  to  the  same  individual,  and  the  one  below   (in 
black)  the  next  following.     A  detached  index  is  used  until  the  record 
book  is  full,  when  the  names  are  arranged  under  each  letter  as  in  City 
Directories,  and  thus  classified  they  are  transferred  to  the  permanent 
index  attached  to  the  record  book. 


Boo.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  95 

III.  GENERAL  ORDERS. — (7  quires,  demy-Russia,  with  spring  back.) 
1.  Every  order  recorded  in  this  book  should  be  signed  by  the  staff 
officer  whose  signature  was  attached  to  the  originals   sent  from  the 
office,  and  each  order  should  be  separated  from  the  one  following  by  a 
red  line. 

2.  The  mode  of  numbering,  distribution,  and  general  form  of  orders 
are  prescribed  by  the  Regulations — (see  paragraphs  904,  905,  and  908, 
edition  of  1847;)  but  the  distribution  in  each  particular  case  should  be 
noted  in  red  ink  in  the  margin  to  show  that  the  Regulations  have  been 
complied  with;  and  where  orders  are  sent  to  one  officer,  under  cover 
to  his  commander,  (which  course  ought  always  to  be  pursued,)  or  fur- 
nished at  a  date  subsequent  to  that  of  their  issue — these  facts  should 
likewise  be  added  :  where  the  order  has  been  printed,  it  will  be  suffi- 
cient to  write  the  word  "printed"  in  red  ink  in  the  margin,  to  indicate 
that  the  widest  circulation  has  been  given  to  it. 

3.  There  are  two  indexes  attached  to  the  book — one  of  names,  the 
other  of  subjects — every  order  will  be  indexed  in  the  latter  immediately 
after  being  copied. 

For  names,  a  detached  index  will  first  be  used  until  the  record  book 
is  full,  when  they  will  be  arranged  under  each  letter  as  in  City  Directo- 
ries, and  thus  classified,  transferred  to  the  permanent  alphabetical  index 
attached  to  the  record  book.  Every  proper  name  will  be  indexed  and 
a  red  line  drawn  in  the  body  of  the  order  under  it,  to  facilitate  a  refer- 
ence to  it. 

IV.  SPECIAL  ORDERS. — (7  quires,  demy-Russia,  with  spring  back.) 
1.  Every  order  recorded  in  this  book  should  be  signed  by  the  staff 
officer  whose  signature  was  attached  to    the  originals  sent  from  the 
office,  and  each  order  should  be  separated  from  the  one  following  by  9, 
red  line. 

2.  The  mode  of  numbering,  distribution,  and  general  form  of  orders 
are  prescribed  by  the  Regulations — (see  paragraphs  904,  905,  and  908, 
edition  of  1847 ;)  but  the  distribution  in  each  particular  case  should  be 
noted  in  red  ink  in  the  margin,  to  show  that  the  Regulations  have  been 
complied  with  ;  and  where  orders  are  sent  to  one  officer,  under  cover 
to  his  commander,  (which  course  ought  always  to  be  pursued,)  or  fur- 
nished at  a  date  subsequent  to  that  of  their  issue — these  facts  should 
likewise  be  added. 

3.  There  are  two  indexes  attached  to  the  book — one  of  names,  the 
other  of  subjects — every  order  will  be  indexed  in  the  latter  immediately 
after  being  copied. 

For  names,  a  detached  index  will  first  be  used  until  the  record  book 


96  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [Boo. 

is  full,  when  they  will  be  arranged  under  each  letter  as  in  City  Directo- 
ries, and  thus  classified,  transferred  to  the  permanent  alphabetical  index 
attached  to  the  record  book.  Every  proper  name  will  be  indexed  and 
a  red  line  drawn  in  the  body  of  the  order  under  it,  to  facilitate  a  refer- 
ence to  it. 

V.  ENDORSEMENTS  AND  MEMORANDA. — (5  quires,  Cap — Russia,  with 
spring  back.}     1.  Every  endorsement  made  on  letters  or  other  communi- 
cations sent  from  the  office  will  be  copied  in  this  book,  and  be  signed  by 
the  staff  officer  whose  signature  was  attached  to  the  endorsement  itself.    A 
brief  description  of  the  communication  sent  out  (the  name  of  its  writer, 
date,  subject,  and  office  marks)  should  precede  the  record  of  the  en- 
dorsement, to  render  the  latter  intelligible ;  and  where  such  communica- 
tion has  been  entered  in  the  book  of  "  letters  received,"  the  disposition 
made  of  it  should  also  be  noted  in  that  book,  with  a  citation  of  the  page 
where  the  endorsement  is  recorded.      Should  the  communication  be 
returned  to  head- quarters,  a  memorandum  will  be  made  to  that  effect, 
with  the  date  when  received  back,  in  all  the  books  where  the  fact  of  the 
reference  from  the  office  may  have  been  noted. 

2.  In  the  case  of  such  papers  as  proceedings  of  general  courts-mar- 
tial, certificates  of  disability  for  the  discharge  of  soldiers,  requisitions 
for  ordnance,  &c.,  which  are  not  filed  at  head-quarters,  but  forwarded 
thence  for  deposit  in  other  offices,  it  will   generally  suffice   to  make 
a  brief  memorandum  of  the  general-in-chief's  action  upon  them,  in- 
stead of  copying  the  endorsements.     Where  the  endorsement,  however, 
settles  any  rule  or  principle,  it  ought,  of  course,  to  bo  copied  in  full. 

3.  The  name  arid  address  of  every  officer  to  whom  a  communication 
is  referred  will  be  written  in  the  margin,  and  all  proper  names,  no 
matter  in  what  connection  employed,  must  be  indexed. 

4.'  The  name  of  the  person  to  whom  a  communication  is  sent  will 
be  indexed  in  black  ink,  and  the  names  mentioned  in  the  description 
prefixed  to  the  endorsement  on  the  communication,  as  well  as  in  the 
endorsement  itself,  will  be  indexed  in  red  ink.  To  facilitate  a  refer- 
ence to  these  last  names,  a  red  line  will  be  drawn  under  them.  In 
the  margin,  immediately  under  the  name  of  the  person  to  whom  a 
communication  is  addressed,  there  are  two  references,  above  and  below 
a  short  red  line ;  the  one  above  (in  red)  indicates  the  last  preceding 
reference  to  the  same  individual,  and  the  one  below  (in  black)  the  next 
following. 

VI.  BOOK  OF  RETURNS. 

Besides  the  foregoing  blank  books  of  appropriate  sizo  according  to 
circumstances,  the  following  books  of  reference  are  necessary  :  HETZEL'S 


Boo.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  97 

Military  Laws ;  Army  Regulations  ;  Ordnance  Manual ;  Artillery 
Manual ;  Prescribed  Tactics  for  Infantry,  Artillery,  and  Cavalry  ;  Me- 
CLELLAND'S  Bayonet  Exercise ;  Aide  Memoire  du  Genie ;  Aide  Memoire 
d'Etat  Major  ;  WHEATON'S  International  Law  ;  KENT'S  or  STORY'S  Com- 
mentaries ;  MAIIAN'S  Field  Fortifications  ;  Military  Dictionary. 

BOOM — is  a  chain  of  masts,  or  a  large  cable,  or  other  obstacles 
stretched  over  a  river  for  the  protection  of  a  military  bridge  which  has 
been  thrown  across,  or  under  the  fire  of  fortifications  to  bar  access 
within  a  harbor. 

BOOTY.  (SAXON,  lot,  bote,  lawful  profit,  gain,  advantage,  distin- 
guished from  plunder  or  pillage.)  Despoiling  a  people  or  city  is  barbar- 
ous and  not  tolerated  in  civilized  warfare,  but  legitimate  subjects  of  booty 
are  well  described  in  an  act  of  the  British  Parliament  (2  William  IV., 
c.  53)  : — as  arms,  ammunition, -stores  of  war,  goods,  merchandise,  and 
treasure  belonging  to  the  state  or  any  public  trading  company  of  the 
enemy,  and  found  in  any  of  the  fortresses  or  possessions,  and  all  ships 
*  and  vessels  in  any  road,  river,  haven,  or  creek  belonging  to  any  such  for- 
tress or  possession.  It  should  be  the  duty  of  commanding  generajs  to 
cause  an  exact  account  of  such  captures  to  be  kept,  in  order  that  the 
captors  may  be  remunerated  by  the  government  for  such  stores  as  are 
reserved  for  the  public  service,  and  in  order  that  all  such  prizes  of  war 
may  be  legally  and  equitably  divided  amongst  the  captors.  Such  is  the 
practice  in  England.  There  land  prizes  are  divided  according  to  an 
established  rule  of  division.  In  the  Piedmontese  army  the  administra- 
tion of  booty  is  intrusted  to  a  special  staff  corps  ;  the  French  laws  (says 
Bardin,  Dictionnaire  de  1'Armee  de  Terre)  are  silent  on  this  subject,  or 
else  those  which  are  in  force  announce  nothing  positive ;  and  in  their 
silence,  there  is  inhumanity,  hypocrisy,  and  mental  reserve.  In  a 
memorial  presented  by  the  Duke  of  Wellington  he  claimed  of  his 
government  for  the  English  army,  more  than  a  million  sterling  which 
had  been  used  in  the  king's  service  from  captures  made  by  the  British 
army  in  Spain  and  France,  and  the  English  budget  of  1823  shows  that 
the  amount  so  claimed  was  given  to  the  army.  The  58th  article  for 
the  government  of  the  armies  of  the  United  States  provides,  that  "  All 
public  stores  taken  in  the  enemy's  camp,  towns,  forts,  or  magazines, 
whether  of  artillery,  ammunition,  clothing,  forage,  or  provisions,  shall 
be  secured  for  the  service  of  the  United  States  ;  for  the  neglect  of  which 
the  commanding  officer  is  to  be  answerable."  This  article  of  war  is 
borrowed  from  a  corresponding  British  article,  which  directs  that  the 
same  stores  shall  be  secured  for  the  king's  service.  But  by  proclamation 
in  Great  Britain  the  money  value  of  all  captures  is  invariably  divided 
7 


98  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [Boo. 

amongst  the  captors.  No  practice  can  be  more  wise  and  just,  for  al- 
though it  is  necessary  to  proscribe  marauding  or  pillage,  it  is  impos- 
sible to  extirpate  the  desire  of  gain  from  the  human  heart,  and  it  is 
therefore  necessary  that  the  law  should  frankly  provide  for  an  equit- 
able distribution  of  captures  amongst  the  army.  The  absence  of  a  law 
of  division  tends  to  introduce  into  an  army  the  greatest  evils :  sol- 
diers disband  themselves  in  search  of  pillage,  and  their  cupidity  leads 
to  the  greatest  horrors.  These  great  evils  are  avoided  by  a  legal  divi- 
sion of  booty,  when  all  soldiers,  animated  by  the  hope  of  sharing  the 
fruits  of  victory,  are  careful  not  to  abandon  to  the  greedy,  the  cowardly, 
and  the  wicked  amongst  themselves  advantages  properly  belonging 
to  the  gallant  victors.  In  the  hope  that  Congress  may  yet  do  justice  to 
our  army  in  respect  to  captures  made  in  the  war  with  Mexico,  the  rules 
established  in  Great  Britain  are  annexed  in  a  series  of  prize  procla- 
mations taken  from  Prendergast's  Law  Relating  to  Officers  of  the 
Army : — 

1.— Prize   Warrants. 
I 

1.— SCINDE    BOOTY. 
VICTORIA  R. 

Victoria,  by  the  Grace  of  God,  of  the  United  Kingdom  of  Great  Britain 
and  Ireland,  Queen,  Defender  of  the  Faith,  To  all  to  whom  these  pres- 
ents shall  come,  Greeting:  Whereas  the- Commissioners  of  our  Treas- 
ury have  represented  unto  us,  that  certain  hostilities  were  carried  on  in 
the  year  1843  against  the  Ameers  of  Scinde  by  our  land  forces  and  the 
land  forces  raised  and  paid  by  the  East  India  Company,  in  which  a  por- 
tion of  the  Indus  Flotilla  co-operated  :  and  that  during  the  said  hostili- 
ties certain  battles  were  fought,  and^a  quantity  of  booty  and  plunder 
captured  or  taken  possession  of,  consisting  of  gold  and  silver  bars  and 
coins,  of  ornaments,  jewels,  and  ornamented  arms,  and  of  guns,  cattle, 
and  other  property,  of  which  the  following  schedule  or  account  has  been 
rendered  to  our  said  commissioners,  (that  is  to  say,) 

RUPEES. 
Paid  in  to  the  Public  Treasury  in  Scinde  )  ^oq  AQQ 

on  account  of  the  articles  sold,  about  f 
Realized  at  Kurrachie  ......        17,743 

Value  of  Silver 2,564,337 

Gold  sold 1,713,537 

Gold  remaining  unsold,  estimated  at .         .         .          123,273 

Lead,  valued  at 15,000 

to  which  are  to  be  added  the  sum  due  from  the  Government  for  articles 


Boo.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  99 

transferred  to  public  departments,  the  sum  due  from  individuals  for 
articles  sold  in  Scinde,  and  the  sum  which  may  be  produced  by  the  sale 
of  the  jewels,  &c.,  which  are  at  present  in  deposit  at  Bombay,  but  have 
been  ordered  to  be  sold ; 

And  whereas  it  has  been  further  represented  unto  us  that  the  said 
booty  and  plunder  do  of  right  belong  to  us  in  virtue  of  our  Royal  pre- 
rogative, and  that  the  said  booty  and  plunder  should  be  given  and 
granted  in  such  manner  as  to  us  may  seem  meet  and  just ; 

And  whereas  our  said  commissioners,  under  all  the  circumstances 
of  this  case,  have  recommended  unto  us  to  give  and  grant  the  said  cap- 
tured booty  and  plunder,  or  the  produce  or  value  thereof,  as  before 
stated,  according  to  the  following  scheme,  (that  is  to  say  :) 

Such  articles  of  personal  use  and  ornament  to  be  reserved  for  the 
Ameers  as  may  be  selected  for  that  purpose  by  the  Governor-general 
of  India  in  council,  with  the  approbation  of  the  Commii^oners  of  our 
Treasury ; 

The  remaining  property  to  be  divided  into  sixths  : 

One-sixth  to  be  given  to  all  such  of  the  troops  stationed  at,  or  be- 
tween Shikarpoor,  Seikkur,  and  Kurrachie,  and  all  such  of  the  Indus 
Flotilla  stationed  between  Seikkur  and  Kurrachie  on  any  day  between 
the  17th  of  February  and  24th  of  March,  1843,  both  included,  as  shall 
not  be  otherwise  entitled  to  share  in  the  booty ; 

The  Major-general  commanding  in  Scinde,  and  the  officers  of  the 
general  staff  of  the  forces  serving  under*his  orders  in  the  above-men- 
tioned operations,  to  share  in  this  portion  as  well  as  in  the  other  por- 
tions hereinafter  specified. 

The  remaining  five-sixths  (subject  to  the  deductions  hereinafter  speci- 
fied) to  be  divided  in  two  equal  parts,  one  moiety  to  be  given  to  the 
troops  who  fought  at  Meanee,  and  the  other  to  those  who  fought  at 
Hyderabad  j  the  troops  who  were  in  both  battles  receiving  a  share  of 
each  moiety  ;  and  from  the  share  or  shares  accruing  to  each  individual 
under  the  distribution  to  be  made  of  this  portion  of  the  booty  there 
should  be  deducted  and  repaid  into  the  Company's  Treasury  the  amount 
of  the  Donation  of  Batta,  which  the  individual  entitled  to  the  said  share 
or  shares  has  received  under  the  general  order  of  the  Government  of  In- 
dia, dated  28th  of  February,  1844,  as  having  been  present  at  the  battles 
of  Meanee  or. Hyderabad; 

And  our  said  Commissioners  likewise  recommend  that  the  troops 
under  Lieutenant-colonel  Outram,  who  were  detached  previously  to  the 
battle  of  Meanee,  and  directed  to  fire  the  Shikargah  on  upon  the  right 
flank  of  the  army,  as  well  as  the  detachment  which  so  gallantly  defend- 


100  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [Boo. 

ed  the  British  Eesidency  on  the  15th  of  February,  and  also  such  portion 
of  the  Indus  Flotilla  as  was  engaged  in  that  defence,  or  co-operated  with 
the  detachment  under  Colonel  Outram,  or  was  in  any  other  way  in  im- 
mediate connection  with  the  army  that  achieved  the  victory  of  Meanee> 
should  share  as  if  they  had  all  been  actually  present  at  the  battle  of 
Meanee ;  and  in  like  manner  the  garrison  of  Hyderabad  should  be 
entitled  to  share  in  the  sum  alloted  to  those  engaged  in  the  second 
battle ; 

.  Now  know  ye  that  We,  taking  the  premises  into  our  Royal  consider- 
ation, are  graciously  pleased  to  approve  the  said  scheme,  and  do,  with 
the  advice  and  recommendation  of  our  said  Commissioners,  by  this  our 
Royal  Warrant,  under  our  Royal  sign-manual,  give  and  grant  the  said 
captured  booty  and  plunder,  or  the  produce  or  value  thereof  as  before 
stated,  unto  the  Directors  of  the  East  India  Company,  or  to  such  person 
or  persons  as  they  shall  appoint  to  receive  the  same,  upon  the  trust 
following,  (that  is  to  say,)  upon  trust,  after  making  the  reservations  and 
deductions  above  stated,  to  distribute  the  remainder  among  our  land 
forces,  and  the  land  forces  of  the  said  Company,  and  the  officers  and 
crews  of  the  Indus  Flotilla,  engaged  in  the  aforesaid  hostilities  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  scheme  hereinbefore  mentioned  and  set  forth,  and 
with  the  usage  of  the  army  of  India  ; 

And  we  are  graciously  pleased  to  order  and  direct  that,  in  case  any 
doubt  shall  arise  respecting  the  claims  to  share  in  the  distribution  afore- 
said, or  respecting  any  deman^  upon  the  said  captured  booty  or  plunder, 
the  same  shall  be  determined  by  the  Directors  of  the  East  India  Com- 
pany, or  by  such  person  or  persons  to  whom  they  shall  refer  the  same, 
which  determination  thereupon  made  shall,  with  all  convenient  speed, 
be  notified  in  writing  to  the  Commissioners  of  our  Treasury,  and  the 
same  shall  be  final  and  conclusive  to  all  intents  and  purposes,  unless, 
within  three  months  after  the  receipt  thereof  at  the  office  of  the  Com- 
missioners of  our  Treasury,  We  shall  be  graciously  pleased  otherwise 
to  order,  hereby  reserving  to  ourselves  to  make  such  orckr  therein  as 
to  us  shall  seem  meet. 

Given  at  our  Court  at  Windsor  Castle,  this  llth  day  of  November, 
in  the  9th  year  of  our  reign,  and  in  the  year  of  our  Lord  1845. 
By  Her  Majesty's  Command, 

(Signed)     HENRY  GOULBURN, 
J.  MILNES  GASKELL, 
WILLIAM  CRIPPS. 


Boo.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  101 

2.— TARRAGONA  BOOTY. 

{Conjunct  Expedition  of  British  Land  and  Sea  forces.) 
GEORGE  R. 

Whereas  ordnance  arms,  stores,  magazines,  and  other  booty  have  been 
captured  from  the  enemy  during  the  year  1813,  at  Tarragona,  by  that 
part  of  the  British  army  under  Field-marshal  the  Duke  of  Welling- 
ton, in  Spain,  which  was  under  the  immediate  orders  of  Lieutenant- 
general  Lord  William  Bentinck,  and  by  PI. M.S.  Malta,  Fame,  Invin- 
cible, Merope,  Buzzard  and  Volcano,  forming  part  of  the  fleet  under  Ad- 
miral Lord  Exmouth,. then  under  the  immediate  orders  of  Admiral  Sir 
Benjamin  Hallowell,  and  appropriated  to  the  public  service ;  And 
whereas  an  Act  passed  in  the  54th  year  of  the  reign  of  our  late  Royal 
Father,  entitled  an  Act  for  regulating  the  payment  of  Army  prize- 
money,  and  to  provide  for  the  payment  of  unclaimed  and  forfeited 
shares  to  Chelsea  Hospital ;  And  whereas  application  hath  been  made 
to  us  by  the  said*  F.M.  the  Duke  of  Wellington  and  Admiral  Lord  Ex- 
mouth  to  grant  the  sum  of  £31,531  IBs.  (being  the  estimated  value  of 
such  ordnance  and  stores)  in  trust,  to  be  distributed  as  booty  to  the  of- 
ficers, non-commissioned  officers,  and  privates  serving  in  that  part  of  the 
British  army  under  his  command  in  Spain,  which  was  under  the  immediate 
orders  of  Lieutenant-general  Lord  William  Bentinck,  and  to  the  officers, 
non-commissioned  officers,  seamen,  and  marines,  on  board  H.M.S.  Malta, 
Fame,  Invincible,  Merope,  Buzzard  and  Volcano,  placed  by  Admiral 
Lord  Exmouth  under  the  immediate  orders  of  Admiral  Sir  Benjamin 
Hallowell,  at  Tarragona ;  And  whereas  the  said  Field-marshal  the  Duke 
of  Wellington,  having  expressed  his  wish  not  to  participate  in  the  dis- 
tribution of  the  booty  as  Commander-in-chief  of  the  British  army  serv- 
ing in  Spain ;  We,  taking  the  same  into  our  Royal  consideration,  are 
graciously  pleased  to  give  and  grant,  and  do  hereby  give  and  grant,  to 
the  said  Lieutenant-general  Lord  William  Bentinck  and  Admiral  Lord 
Viscount  Exmouth  the  said  sum  of  £31,531  IBs. ;  and  that  the  said  sum 
be  issued  and  paid  without  any  fee  or  other  deduction  whatsoever,  in 
trust,  for  the  benefit  of  the  said  Lord  William  Bentinck  and  the  officers, 
non-commissioned  officers,  and  privates  serving  under  him,  and  of  Ad- 
miral Lord  Viscount  Exmouth,  and  the  officers,  non-commissioned 
officers,  seamen,  and  marines  actually  on  board  of  our  before-mentioned 
ships  employed  in  that  service,  as  booty  and  prize,  or  bounty  money 
in  the  nature  of  prize-money,  under  the  provisions  of  the  -said  Act 
passed  in  the  54th  year  of  the  reign  of  our  late  Royal  Father,  to  be 
distributed  under  the  provisions  of  the  said  Act  of  Parliament,  and 


102  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [Boo. 

agreeably  to  our  Proclamation  for  the  distribution  of  prize,  in  force  at 
the  time  of  the  said  expedition,  and  this  our  Royal  grant,  in  manner  and 
in  the  several  proportions  following,  (that  is  to  say,)  such  sums  being 
divided  into  eight  equal  parts  : 

To  the  said  Lieut. -general  Lord  Wm.  Bentinck,  Admiral,  Lord  Viscount 
Exmouth,  and  such  General  Officers  and  Admirals  under  their  com- 
mand, who  were  actually  present  at  the  capture  of  the  said  booty,  so 
that  the  said  Lieut.-gen.  Lord  Wm.  Bentinck  and  Admiral  Lord  Vis- 
count Exmouth  shall  take  one  moiety,  and  the  other  General  Officers 
and  Admirals  who  were  actually  present  at  the  capture  of  the  said 
booty,  the  other  moiety  in  equal  proportions — One-eighth. 
To  the  Colonels,  Lieut.-colonels,  and  Majors  in  the  army,  and  Captains 
and  Commanders  in  the  navy,  who  were  actually  present  at  the 
capture  of  the  said  booty,  to  be  equally  distributed  among  them, 
and  the  persons  entitled  by  the  usage  of  our  army  to  share  with 
them —  Two-eigh  ths. 

To  the  Captains  in  the  army  and  Lieutenants  in  the  navy,  and  other 
description  of  persons  entitled  by  the  usage  of  our  army  and  navy 
respectively  to  share  with  them — One-eighth. 

To  the  Lieutenants,  Cornets,  Ensigns,  and  Quartermasters  in  the  army, 
and  Warrant  and  other  Officers  in  the  navy,  and  other  description 
of  persons  entitled  by  the  usage  of  our  army  and  navy  to  share  with 
them —  One-eighth. 

To  the  Sergeants  in  the  army  and  Petty  Officers  in  the  navy,  and  other 
description  of  persons  entitled  by  the  usage  of  our  army  and  navy 
respectively  to  share  with  them — One-eighth. 

To  the  Trumpeters  and  Soldiers,  Seamen,  and  Marines,  and  other  descrip- 
tion of  persons  entitled  by  the  usage  of  our  army  and  navy  respect- 
ively to  share  with  them. —  Two-eighths 

And  we  are  further  pleased  to  direct  that  all  such  respective  sums 
of  money  shall  be  distributed  as  prize  or  bounty  money,  or  money  in 
the  nature  of  prize-money,  according  to  the  provisions  of  the  said  Act 
of  Parliament  of  the  54th  year  of  the  reign  of  our  Royal  Father,  and 
the  several  Acts  relating  to  the  distribution  of  prize-money  in  our  navy, 
and  our  said  Proclamation,  and  this  our  grant,  and  the  rules  and  cus- 
toms heretofore  used  and  observed  in  our  army  and  navy  respectively 
in  that  behalf,  and  the  agents  intrusted  with  the  distribution  thereof  by 
fthe  said  Lieutenant-general  Lord  William  Bentinck  and  Admiral  Lord 
Viscount  Exmouth  shall  give  all  such  notices,  and  make  such  notifica- 
tions of  such  distribution,  as  are  required  by  the  said  Act  of  Parliament 
and  the  several  Acts  of  Parliament  in  force  relating  to  the  distribution 


Boo.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  103 

of  prize-money  in  our  army,  and  our  said  Proclamation,  and  pay  over 
all  unclaimed  shares  to  Chelsea  and  Greenwich  Hospitals  respectively, 
to  be  hereafter  paid  to  the  persons  entitled  thereto,  or  remain  for  the 
benefit  of  the  said  respective  Hospitals  according  to  the  provisions  and 
regulations  of  the  said  Act  of  Parliament  and  the  several  Bills  in  force 
relating  to  the  distribution  of  prize-money  in  our  navy  ;  And  We  are 
further  graciously  pleased  to  order  and  direct  that  in  case  any  doubt 
shall  arise  respecting  the  said  distribution,  or  with  respect  to  any  other 
matter  or  thing  relating  thereto,  the  same  shall  be  determined  by  the 
said  commanders  of  the  said  land  and  sea  forces,  Lieutenant-general 
Lord  William  Bentinck  and  Admiral  Lord  Viscount  Exmouth,  or  by 
such  person  or  persons  to  whom  the  said  commanders  of  the  said  land 
and  sea  forces  shall  refer  the  same ;  and  such  determination  shall  be 
final  and  conclusive  upon  all  persons  concerned,  and  as  to  all  matters 
and  things  relating  to  the  said  distribution. 

Given  at  our  Court,  at  Carlton  House,  this  7th  day  of  June,  1820, 
in  the  first  year  of  our  reign. 

By  his  Majesty's  command, 

(Signed)  BATHURST. 

3.— GENOA    BOOTY. 

(Conjunct  Expedition  of  British  and  Allied  Forces.} 

In  the  name  and  on  behalf  of  His  Majesty, 
GEORGE  P.  R. 

Whereas  it  has  been  represented  to  us  that,  at  the  capture  of  the  Terri- 
tory and  City  of  Genoa  and  its  dependencies,  on  the  18th  of  April,  1814, 
a  quantity  of  ordnance,  military  and  naval'  stores,  ships  and  vessels,  and 
other  booty,  being  public  property  belonging  to  the  enemies  of  the 
Crown  of  Great  Britain,  was  seized  and  taken  possession  of  by  our  sea 
and  land  forces,  under  the  command  of  Vice-admiral  Sir  Edward  Pel- 
lew,  Bart,  (now  Lord  Exmouth,)  and  Lieutenant-general  Lord  William 
Cavendish  Bentinck,  Knight  of  the  Bath,  commanding  our  naval  and 
military  forces  in  and  upon  the  coasts  of  the  Mediterranean,  assisted  by 
certain  Sicilian  and  Italian  troops,  and  troops  in  British  pay,  and  has 
been  condemned  to  us  as  good  and  lawful  prize  taken  in  the  said  conjunct 
expedition  ;  And  whereas  no  instructions  were  given  by  us  for  the  divi- 
sion or  distribution  of  the  booty  to  be  captured  on  the  said  conjunct 
expedition ;  And  whereas  application  hath  been  made  to  us  that  we 
would  be  graciously  pleased  to  order  and  direct  that  the  same  ordnance, 
military  and  naval  stores,  ships,  vessels  and  other  booty  may  be  dis- 
tributed between  the  officers  and  crews  of  our  ships,  and  those  of  our 


104  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [Boo. 

Ally  the  King  of  the  Two  Sicilies,  and  the  officers  and  men  of  our  land 
forces,  and  those  of  our  Ally  the  King  of  the  Two  Sicilies,  according  to 
any  plan  of  distribution  We  shall  be  graciously  pleased  to  approve : 
We,  taking  the  premises  into  our  Royal  consideration,  are  graciously 
pleased  to  give  and  grant,  and  do  hereby  give  and  grant,  to  the  said 
Vice-admiral  Sir  Edward  Pellew  (now  Lord  Exmouth),  Commander- 
in-chief  of  our  fleet  and  vessels  employed  on  the  said  expedition,  and 
Lieutenant-general  Lord  William  Cavendish  Bentinck,  Knight  of  the 
Bath,  Commander-in-chief  of  our  land  forces  employed  on  the  said  ex- 
pedition, the  said  ordnance,  military  and  naval  stores,  ships,  vessels,  and 
other  booty,  so  as  aforesaid  taken  and  condemned  to  us,  in  trust,  to 
distribute  the  same  amongst  the  commanders-in-chief,  general  and  flag 
officers,  and  all  other  officers  serving  on  the  said  expedition  in  the  fol- 
lowing manner,  (that  is  to  say),  that  the  division  of  the  booty  between 
the  arrny  and  navy  and  the  said  Sicilian  and  Italian  ships  and  troops 
serving  in  the  said  expedition,  shall  be  made  according  to  the  following 
scheme  or  schemes  :  the  whole  being  first  divided  into  equal  parts  : 

1  To  the  Commanders-in-chief  and  to  the  Flag  and  General  Officers 

serving  in  the  said  expedition,  one-eighth,  to  be  distributed  amongst 
them,  so  that  each  Commander-in-chief  shall  take  double  that  share 
which  each  General  and  Flag  Officer  (not  being  Commander-in- 
chief)  shall  take  ;  but  if  the  number  of  Flag  and  General  Officers, 
exclusive  of  the  two  Commanders-in-chief,  shall  exceed  four,  in  that 
case  a  moiety  of  the  said  one-eighth  shall  be  divided  between  the 
two  Commanders-in-chief,  and  the  other  moiety  amongst  the  other 
Flag  and  General  Officers — One-eighth. 

2  To  the  Colonels,  Lieutenant-colonels,  and  Majors  in  the  army,  and 

Post  Captains,  and  Masters  and  Commanders  in  the  navy,  and  to 
the  persons  of  like  rank  belonging  to  the  said  Sicilian  and  Italian 
ships  and  troops,  to  be  equally  distributed  amongst  them —  One-eighth. 

3  To  the  Captains  of  Marines  and  land  forces,  and  the  sea  Lieutenants, 

and  other  description  of  persons  entitled  by  our  Proclamation  for  the 
distribution  of  prize  of  the  llth  November,  1807,  or  by  the  usage 
of  our  army,  to  share  writh  them,  and  to  the  persons  in  like  rank  be- 
longing to  the  said  Sicilian  and  Italian  ships  and  troops — One-eighth. 

4  To  the  Lieutenants  and  Quartermasters  of  marines,  and  Lieutenants, 

Ensigns,  and  Quartermasters  of  land  forces,  and  the  Boatswains, 
Gunners,  Pursers  in' the  navy,  and  other  description  of  persons  en- 
titled by  our  said  Proclamation  or  by  the  usage  of  our  army,  to 
share  with  them,  and  to  the  persons  in  like  rank  belonging  to  the  said 
Sicilian  and  Italian  ships  and  troops —  One-eighth. 


Boo.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  105 

5  To  the  Midshipmen,  Captains'  Clerks,  Sergeants  of  marines  and  land 

forces,  and  the  other  description  of  persons  entitled  by  our  said 
Proclamation  or  by  the  usage  of  our  army,  to  share  with  them,  and 
to  the  persons  in  like  rank  belonging  to  the  said  Sicilian  and  Italian 
ships  and  troops — One-eighth. 

6  To  the  Trumpeters,  Quarter-gunners,  Seamen,  Marines,  arid  Soldiers, 

and  the  other  description  of  persons  entitled  by  our  said  Proclama- 
tion, or  by  the  usage  of  our  army,  to  share  with  them,  and  to  the 
persons  in  like  rank  belonging  to  the  said  Sicilian  and  Italian  ships 
and  troops — One-eighth. 

And  that  the  portion  of  the  said  booty,  so  belonging  to  our  said  land 
forces  employed  on  the  said  expedition,  and  the  persons  belonging  to  the 
said  Sicilian  and  Italian  troops,  shall  be  distributed  between  the  Com- 
manders-in-chief,  officers,  and  privates  composing  the  same,  according  to 
the  rule  heretofore  used  and  observed  by  the  army,  under  the  above 
scheme  or  schedule ; 

And  that  the  portion  of  the  said  booty  so  as  aforesaid  belonging 
to  our  naval  forces  employed  in  the  said  expedition,  and  the  persons 
belonging  to  the  said  Sicilian  and  Italian  ships,  be  distributed  amongst 
the  Commander-in-chief,  flag  and  other  officers,  and  men  belonging  to 
our  navy  employed  on  the  said  expedition,  and  the  persons  belonging  to  * 
the  said  Sicilian  and  Italian  ships,  agreeably  to  our  Proclamation  for 
the  distribution  of  prize  in  force  at  the  time  of  the  said  expedition. 

And  we  are  graciously  pleased  to  order  and  direct  that,  in  case  any 
doubt  shall  arise  respecting  the  said  distribution,  or  respecting  any 
charge  or  demand  upon  the  said  captured  property,  the  same  shall  be 
determined  by  the  Commanders-in-chief,  and  flag  and  general  officers,  or 
such  of  them  as  can  conveniently  be  assembled,  or  by  such  person  or 
persons  to  whom  they,  or  a  majority  of  them,  shall  agree  to  refer  the 
same ;  which  determination  so  thereupon  made,  shall,  with  all  convenient 
speed,  be  notified  in  writing  to  the  Clerks  of  our  Council,  and  the  same 
shall  be  final  and  conclusive  to  all  intents  and  purposes,  unless  within 
three  months  after  the  receipt  thereof  at  our  Council  Office,  we  shall  be 
pleased  otherwise  to  order  ;  hereby  reserving  to  ourself  to  make  such 
orders  therein  as  to  us  shall  seem  fit.  Given  at  our  Court  at  Carlton 
House,  this  second  day  of  August,  1815,  in  the  55th  year  of  our  reign. 
By  command  of  H.R.H.  the  Prince  Regent,  in  the  name,  and  on  the 
behalf  of,  His  Majesty.  (Signed)  BATHURST. 

II. — India  Prize-Money. 
The  following  is  the  present  standing  scale  of  distribution  of  prize- 


106  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [Boo. 

money  in   India,  to   European   commissioned   and   non-commissioned 
officers,  privates,  &c. 

SHARES. 

Commander-in-chief      .....  -J  of  the  whole. 

General  Officers 1,500 

Colonels 600 

Lieut.-colonels,  Adjutant-gen,  and  Quartermaster- 
general  of  Her  Majesty's  and  the  Hon.  Company's 
troops,  Commissary -general,  Members  of  the 
Medical  Board,  Inspector  of  Hospitals  of  Her 
Majesty's  Troops 360 

Majors,  Deputy  Adjutant-general,  and  Deputy  Quar- 
termaster-general of  Her  Majesty's  and  the  Hon. 
Company's  Troops,  Deputy  Commissary-general, 
and  Superintending  Surgeons  ....  240 

Captains,  Surgeons,  Assistant  Adjt.-general,  and  As- 
sistant Quartermaster -general  of  Her  Majesty's 
and  the  Hon.  Company's  Troops,  Assistant  Com- 
missary-general, Deputy  Assistant  Adjutant-gen- 
eral, Quartermaster-general  and  Commissary-gen., 
Paymaster,  Surgeon  to  His  Excellency  the  Com- 
mander-in-chiaf,  Brigade-majors,  Aides-de-camp  to 
His  Excellency  the  Commander-yi-chief  and  Gen- 
eral Officers,  and  Commissaries  of  Ordnance .  .  120 

Lieutenants,  Assistant-surgeons,  Cornets,  Ensigns, 
Adjutants  and  Quartermasters  of  Her  Majesty's 
Dragoons  and  Infantry,  Veterinary  Surgeons,  Dep- 
uty Commissaries,  and  Deputy  Assistant  Commis- 
saries of  Ordnance  ......  60 

Conductors,  Riding  Masters,  Apothecaries,  Stewards, 
Sub-assistant  and  Veterinary  Surgeons  and  Provost 
Martial 15 

Sub-conductors,  Assistant-apothecaries,  Assistant- 
stewards,  Regimental  Sergeant-majors,  Staff-brigade 
and  Farrier-sergeants  of  Horse  Artillery,  Park  Ser- 
geant, Armorer,  and  Sergeants  of  Artillery  .  3 

Trumpet-majors,  Paymaster-sergeants,  Saddler-ser- 
geants, Schoolmaster-sergeants,  Hospital-sergeants, 
Drill-sergeants,  Color-sergeants,  Armorer-ser- 
geants, Drum-majors,  Brigade  and  Staff-sergeants 
of  Foot  Artillery,  Magazine-sergeants,  Laboratory- 
sergeants,  and  Sergeants  .....  2 


Boo.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  107 

SHARES. 
Fife-majors,   Corporals,    Bombardiers,    Trumpeters, 

Farriers,  Rough  Riders,  Gunners,  Drummers,  and 
Privates       ........  1 

Volunteers  ........  1 

The  following  scale  of  distribution  of  prize-money,  for  the  several 
classes  and  ranks  of  native  troops,  has  been  adopted  at  all  the  Presi- 
dencies of  India. 

SHARES. 

Subedar,  Syrang        .......)      /> 

Woordee,  Major,  Russaldar  . 

Jemedar,  Tindal 

Naib  Russaldar     .... 

Havildar,  Native  Doctor . 
Naik,  Drummer    . 
Trumpeter,  Gun  Lascar     . 
Private,  Puckallie         .     ,    . 
Native  Farrier,  Duffadar  , 
Nishan  Burder,  Nuggurchee . 
Vakell  and  Hirkarrah 
Gun-driver,  Bheestie 
Nakeeb 

For  the  Royal  Army  there  is  no  standing  scale  of  distribution, 
though,  by  the  foregoing  Prize  Warrants,  it  will  be  seen  that  a  uniform 
practice  is  generally  observed. 

III. — Prize  Proclamation  for  the  Russian  War  0/1854. 
VICTORIA  R. 

Whereas  by  our  Royal  Proclamation,  bearing  date  the  Twenty-ninth 
day  of  March,  One  thousand  eight  hundred  and  fifty-four,  We  have 
ordered  and  directed  that  the  net  proceeds  of  all  prizes  taken  during  the 
present  War  with  Russia,  by  any  of  our  ships  or  vessels  of  war,  after 
the  same  shall  have  been  to  us  finally  adjudged  lawful  prize,  shall  be 
for  the  entire  benefit  of  the  officers  and  crews  of  such  ships  and  vessels 
of  war  (save  as  therein  excepted),  in  which  Proclamation  We  have 
directed  in  what  proportion  the  land  forces,  doing  duty  as  Marines} 
shall  be  entitled  to  share :  And  whereas  in  the  said  Proclamation  We 
have  reserved  to  ourselves  the  division  and  distribution  of  all  prize  and 
booty  taken  on  any  conjunct  expedition  of  our  ships  and  vessels  of  war 
with  our  army  ;  and  it  is  desirable  that  We  should  provide  for  the 
division  and  distribution  of  all  prize  and  booty  taken  on  such  conjunct 


108 


MILITARY  DICTIONARY. 


[Boo. 


expedition,  as  also  by  our  army  alone  :  We  therefore  hereby  order  and 
direct,  that  in  such  cases  the  net  proceeds  of  the  share  which  shall  be 
assigned  by  us  to  our  army,  under  our  Royal  Sign  Manual,  shall  be 
divided  and  distributed  in  the  following  manner  and  proportions,  viz. : — 

i  One-fourth  of  One- 
Commander  of  the  Forces  .  <  tenth  part  of  the 

(      net  proceeds. 


General  Officers  : 

1st  Class. — General  Officers  command- 
ing Divisions,  and  other  Officers,  &c., 
holding    equivalent     Staff   Appoin 
ments  ...... 

2d  Class. — Other  G^eral  Officers,  and 
all  other  Officers,  &c.,  holding  equiva- 
lent Staff  Appointments  . 


Field  Officers : 

1st  Class. — Colonels,  Lieutenant-colonels, 
and  Brevet  Lieutenant-colonels,  and  other  Of- 
ficers holding  Staff  Appointments  equivalent 
thereto  ....... 

2d  Class. — Brevet  Lieutenant-colonels 
not  holding  an  Appointment  qualifying  them  to 
share  in  the  preceding  Class  of  Field  Officers, 
and  all  Majors,  Regimental  or  Brevet,  and  all 
other  Officers  holding  Appointments  equivalent 
thereto  , 


The  remaining  Three 
fourths  of  One- 
tenth  part  of  the 
net  proceeds;  the 
same  to  be  so  divid- 
ed that  a  General 
Officer,  dec.,  of  the 
1st  Class  shall  re- 
ceive One-half  more 
in  amount  than  a 
General  Officer, &c. , 
of  the  2d  Class. 

One-eighth  of  the  re- 
mainder of  the 
net  proceeds;  the 
same  to  be  so  divid- 
ed that  a  Field  Of- 
ficer, d-c.,  of  the 
1st  Class  shall  re- 
ceive One-half  more 
in  amount  than  a 
Field  Officer,  &c.> 


of  the  2d  Class. 

The  remainder  of  the  net  proceeds  shall  be  distributed  in  the  follow- 
ing Classes,  so  that  every  Officer,  Non-commissioned  Officer,  &c.,  shall 
receive  shares  or  a  share  according  to  his  Class,  as  set  forth  in  the  fol- 
lowing scale : 

1st  Class. — Captains,  and  all  other  Officers 
entitled  according  to  the  usage  of  our 
army  to  share  in  that  rank 
2d  Class.— Subalterns,  and  all  other  Of- 
ficers entitled  according  to  the  usage  of 
our  army  to  share  in  that  rank 


Thirty-jive  Shares 
each. 

Twenty  Shares 
each. 


BRE.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  109 

3d  Class.  —  Sergeant    majors,   Quartermas- 

ter Sergeants,  and  all  other  Staff  Ser- 

geants, and   others   holding   equivalent    | 

rank         ...... 

4th   Class.  —  Sergeants,  and  others  holding 

' 


equivalent  rank  ,...  Shares  eack. 

5th  Class.  —  Corporals  ....  Four  Shares  each. 

6th  Class.  —  Private  Soldiers,  Trumpeters,  ) 

Drummers,  &c  .....  [    Three  Shares  each. 

And  in  the  event  of  any  difficulty  arising  with  respect  to  the  Class 
in  which  any  Officer,  &c.,  shall  be  entitled  to  share,  our  will  arid  pleasure 
is,  that  the  same  shall  be  determined  and  adjusted  by  the  Commander- 
in-chief  of  our  land  forces  for  the  time  being. 

Given  at  our  Court  at  Buckingham  Palace,  this  Eleventh  day  of 
August,  in  the  year  of  our  Lord  One  thousand  eight  hundred  and  fifty' 
four,  and  in  the  eighteenth  year  of  our  reign. 

GOD  SAVE  THE  QUEEN, 

B  OUNT  Y.  "  Every  able-bodied  musician  or  soldier,  re-enlisting  m 
his  company  or  regiment  within  two  months  before,  or  one  month  after 
the  expiration  of  his  term  of  service,  shall  receive  two  months'  extra 
pay,  besides  the  pay  and  allowances  due  him  on  account  of  the  unex- 
pired  period  of  his  enlistment  ;  "  (Act  March  2,  1833.)  Bounty  lands 
have  also  been  given  by  Congress  for  military  service.  The  principal 
characteristic  of  those  acts  has  been  to  reward  alike  all  grades,  and  to 
make  no  distinction  of  service,  except  by  granting  forty  acres  for  the 
minimum  degree  of  service,  and  one  hundred  and  sixty  acres  for  the 
maximum  of  service.  A  very  marked  and  utterly  indefensible  departure 
from  the  principle  upon  which  such  rewards  of  merit  and  services  were 
made  by  the  several  States  immediately  after  the  Revolutionary  War. 

BOYAU  —  is  a  small  trench,  or  a  branch  of  a  trench,  leading  to  a 
magazine,  or  to  any  particular  point.  They  are  generally  called  boyaus 
of  communication. 

BREACH.  Rupture  made  in  a  fortification  to  facilitate  the  as- 
sault. The  best  mode  of  doing  this  is  by  dividing  the  wall  up  into 
detached  parts  by  making  one  horizontal  'and  several  vertical  cuts,  and 
battering  each  part  down.  The  easiest  way  to  make  the  cut  is  to  direct 
the  shots  upon  the  same  line,  and  form  a  series  of  holes  a  little  greater 
than  a  diameter  apart,  and  then  fire  at  the  intervals  until  the  desired 
cut  is  made.  The  horizontal  cut  is  finished  first.  The  vertical 
cuts  are  then  commenced  at  the  horizontal  cut,  and  raised  until  the 


110  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [But 

wall  sinks,  overturns,  and  breaks  into  pieces.  The  effective  breach- 
ing power  of  rifle  cannon  has  been  shown  by  recent  successful  experi- 
ments in  England,  against  a  martello  tower  30  feet  high  and  48  feet 
diameter,  the  walls  being  of  good  solid  brick  masonry,  from  7  to  10 
feet  thick.  Armstrong  guns  with  40  and  80-pounder  solid  shot,  and 
100-pounder  percussion  shells  were  used  at  a  distance  of  1,032  yards, 
more  than  twenty  times  the  usual  breaching  distance.  The  80-pounder 
shot  passed  completely  through  the  masonry,  (7  feet  3  inches,)  and  the 
40-pounder  shot  and  100-pounder  percussion  shells  lodged  in  the  brick- 
work, at  a  depth  of  five  feet.  After  firing  170  projectiles,  a  small  por- 
tion of  which  were  loaded  shells,  the  entire  land  side  of  the  tower  was 
thrown  down,  and  the  interior  space  was  filled  with  the  debris  of  the 
vaulted  roof,  forming  a  pile  which  alone  saved  the  opposite  sideWfrom 
destruction.  The  superior  breaching  power  of  rifle  projectiles  depends 
not  only  on  penetration,  but  on  accuracy  of  flight  and  consequent  con- 
centration on  any  desired  point ;  (BENTON.) 

BREACH  OF  ARREST.  Any  arrested  officer  who  shall  leave 
his  confinement,  before  he  shall  be  set  at  liberty  by  his  commanding 
officer,  or  by  a  superior  officer,  shall  be  cashiered  ;  (ART.  77,  Rules  and 
Articles  of  War.) 

BREAK  GROUND — is  to  commence  the  siege  of  a  place  by  open- 
ing trenches,  &c. 

BREASTWORK — is  a  hastily  constructed  parapet,  not  high 
enough  to  require  a  banquette,  or  at  least  generally  without  one  ;  (See 
FIELD  WORKS.) 

BREECH.  The  mass  of  solid  metal  behind  the  bottom  of  the  bore 
of  a  gun  extending  to  the  rear  of  the  base  ring.  The  base  of  (he  breech 
is  a  frustum  of  a  cone  or  spherical  segment  in  rear  of  the  breech. 

Breech  of  a  musket ;  Breech  screw  ;  Breech  pin.  (For  breech-load- 
ing arms,  See  CARBINES  ;  PISTOL.) 

BREVET.  (French.)  It  is  derived  from  Latmjreve,  brevia,  which 
signify  a  brief ;  a  parchment  containing  an  annotation  or  notification ; 
(BARDIN,  Dictionnaire  de  TArmeede  Terre.)  So  also,  according  to  Ains- 
worth,  To  issue  out  a  writ,  Mandatum,  vel  BREVE  emittere.  This  Latin 
word  breve,  brevia,  is  also  still  preserved  in  English  law,  as  signifying 
a  writ,  or  mandatory  precept  issued  by  the  authority,  and  in  the  name 
of  the  sovereign  or  state.' — See  Breve,  a  writ,  Breve  de  Recto,  a  writ  of 
right,  Brevia  Formata,  the  register  of  writs ;  (BOUVIER'S  Law  Dictionary.) 
So  also  in  Scots  Law,  Breve  Testatum  (Lat.)  an  acknowledgment  in  writ- 
ing, which,  by  the  ancient  practice,  was  made  out  on  the  land  at  the  time 
of  giving  possession  to  the  vassal,  and  signed  by  the  superior ;  (OGILVIE.) 


BKI.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  HI 

The  word  brevet  in  French  signifies,  when  applied  to  officers  in  the 
army  or  navy,  commission  ;  (SPIERS  and  SURENNE.)  Brevet  was  taken  by 
the  English  from  the  French  with  this  meaning.  As  used  in  the  United 
States  army,  brevet  was  borrowed  with  our  Articles  of  War  from 
England,  and  in  the  British  service  it  means  a  commission  in  the  army 
at  large,  distinctive  of  a  commission  in  a  particular  regiment  or  corps. 
But,  as  both  in  the  British  service  and  our  own,  payments  are  made  for 
the  authorized  number  of  officers  of  the  various  grades  in  the  several 
corps  composing  an  army,  ordinary  English  lexicographers  have  set  down 
the  meaning  of  brevet  as  a  commission  which  gives  an  officer  title  and 
rank  in  the  army  above  his  pay  ;  (WEBSTER,  WORCESTER,  and  OGILVIE.) 
This  would  be  the  true  meaning  of  brevet,  if  there  was  no  legislation 
on  the  subject  of  rank  by  brevet  other  than  that  authorizing  such  rank 
to  be  conferred.  But  as  rank  by  brevet  is  given  in  the  army  of  the 
United  States,  by  and  with. the  advice  and  consent  of  the  Senate,  for 
"  gallant  actions  or  meritorious  services,"  the  laws  have  justly  provided 
that,  whenever  an  officer  is  on  duty,  and  exercises  a  command  according 
to  his  brevet,  he  shall  be  entitled  to  the  pay  of  such  grade ;  (Acts  of 
1812  and  1818.)  Brevets,  however,  being  commissions  in  the  army  at 
large,  it  would  also  follow,  if  there  was  no  further  legislation,  that  such 
commissions  would  be  exercised  in  the  particular  regiment  in  which  an 
officer  was  mustered.  To  avoid  this,  and  also  to  give  efficacy  to  com- 
missions in  particular  corps  where  different  corps  come  together,  the 
61st  and  62d  Articles  of  War  have  regulated  the  whole  subject.  The 
61st  Article  provides  that  within  a  regiment  or  corps  officers  shall  take 
rank  and  do  duty  according  to  the  commissions  by  which  they  are 
mustered  in  their  regiments  or  corps,  but  brevets  or  former  commis- 
sions may  take  effect  in  detachments  and  courts-martial  composed  of 
different  regiments  or  corps.  As  rank,  however,  means  a  range  of  sub- 
ordination in  the  body  in  which  it  is  held,  it  is  manifest  that  rank  in  any 
particular  body,  as  a  regiment,  corps,  or  the  army  at  large,  would  not 
of  itself  give  the  right  to  command  out  of  that  particular  body,  without 
being  enabled  by  further  legislation.  Hence  the  necessity  of  the  62d 
Article  of  War,  which  provides  that,  when  different  corps  come  together, 
the  officer  highest  in  rank  of  1^  line  of  the  army,  marine  corps,  or  mili- 
tia, by  commission  there  on  duty  or  in  quarters  shall  command  the 
whole,  and  give  orders  for  what  is  needful  for  the  service,  unless  other- 
wise specially  directed  by  the  President  of  the  United  States,  according 
to  the  nature  of  the  case ;  (See  COMMAND  ;  DETACHMENT  ;  LINE  ; 
PRESIDENT  ;  RANK.) 

BRIBE  AT  MUSTER.     Art.  16  of  the  Rules  and  Articles  of 


112  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [Bui. 

War  provides  that  any  officer  convicted  of  taking  any  bribe  on  mus- 
tering, or  on  signing  muster  rolls,  shall  be  displaced  from  his  office,  and 
be  utterly  disabled  from  ever  after  holding  any  office  or  employment 
in  the  service  of  the  United  States. 

BRIG  OLE.  Men's  harness  for  dragging  guns,  length  18  feet — used 
for  harnessing  men  to  guns  when  horses  cannot  be  used. 

BRIDGE.  If  you  are  at  the  side  of  a  narrow  but  deep  and  rapid 
river,  on  the  banks  of  which  trees  grow  long  enough  to  reach  across, 
one  or  more  should  be  felled,  confining  the  trunk  to  its  own  bank,  and 
letting  the  current  force  the  head  round  to  the  opposite  side ;  but  if 
"  the  river  be  too  wide  to  be  spanned  by  one  tree — and  if  two  or  three 
men  can  in  any  manner  be  got  across — let  a  large  tree  be  felled  into  the 
water  on  each  side,  and  placed  close  to  the  banks  opposite  to  each  other, 
with  their  heads  lying  up-streamwards.  Fasten  a  rope  to  the  head  of 
each  tree,  confine  the  trunks,  shove  the  heads  off  to  receive  the  force  of 
the  current,  and  ease  off  the  ropes,  so  that  the  branches  may  meet  in 
the  middle  of  the  river,  at  an  angle  pointing  upwards.  The  branches 
of  the  trees  will  be  jammed  together  by  the  force  of  the  current,  and 
so  be  sufficiently  united  as  to  form  a  tolerable  communication,  espe- 
cially when  a  few  of  the  upper  branches  have  been  cleared  away.  If  in- 
sufficient, towards  the  middle  of  the  river,  to  bear  the  weight  of  men  cross- 
ing, a  few  stakes,  with  forks  left  near  their  heads,  may  be  thrust  down 
through  the  branches  of  the  trees  to  support  them  ;  "  (SiR  II.  DOUGLAS.) 

When  a  river,  which  cannot  be  forded,  must  be  crossed  by  animals 
and  carriages,  a  bridge  becomes  necessary ;  and  in  all  cases  it  is  better, 
if  possible,  to  cross  by  a  bridge  than  by  a  ford,  unless  the  latter  be  ex- 
ceedingly shallow.  Military  bridges  may  bo  of  three  kinds :  1st.  Fixed 
structures  of  timber.  2d.  Floating-bridges.  3d.  Flying-bridges.  Timber 
bridges  may  be  either  supported  on  piles  or  on  trestles.  Pile-bridges  are 
the  most  secure,  and  where  bridges  are  required  to  remain  in  use  for  a 
considerable  period,  as  those  which  may  be  constructed  on  the  lines  of 
communication  of  an  army,  with  its  base  of  operations,  this  form  of 
bridge  will  generally  be  adopted.  To  construct  a  good  pile-bridge  over  a 
considerable  river,  much  skilled  labor  is  necessary,  and  an  ample  supply 
of  materials  essential.  When  the  botto^of  the  channel  is  firm,  and 
the  river  not  subject  to  floods,  a  pile-bridge  may  be  constructed  with- 
out dfficulty,  and  will  be  very  durable.  The  piles  must  be  driven  by 
an  engine,  which  may  be  constructed  of  an  8-inch  or  10-inch  shell  run 
full  of  lead,  suspended  by  a  rope  over  a  pulley.  This  may  be*  worked 
by  hand,  and  will  drive  piles  to  a  depth  sufficient  to  allow  of  the 
passage  of  the  heaviest  artillery  over  the  bridge.  The  pulley  of  the 


BRI.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  113 

pile  engine  should  be  supported  on  a  framework,  some  16  feet  high, 
which  may  be  made  to  act  as  a  guide  to  the  shell  during  its  fall,  and 
also  for  the  pile  while  it  is  being  driven.  This  framework  should  be 
erected  upon  a  large  flat-bottomed  boat.  If  such  a  boat  is  not  to  be 
procured,  a  raft  must  be  made  to  answer  the  purpose.  When  timber 
of  a  considerable  length  can  be  procured  for  the  joists  of  the  bridge,  it 
will  be  advisable  to  make  the  intervals  between  the  piers  or  rows  of 
piles,  as  great  as  the  length  of  the  joists  will  allow,  so  that  the  current 
of  the  river  may  be  impeded  as  little  as  possible,  and  its  action  on  the 
bridge  be  reduced  to  a  minimum.  By  this  arrangement,  too,  as  much 
space  as  possible  is  given  for  the  passage  of  floating  bodies,  and  the 
danger  of  their  damaging  the  bridge  is  proportionately  diminished. 
When  all  the  piles  have  been  driven  as  far  as  the  power  of  the  engine 
can  accomplish,  they  must  be  sawn  off  to  the  same  level,  and  the  super- 
structure of  timber  be  strongly  and  carefully  fitted.  With  bays  of  20 
feet,  and  a  roadway  14  feet  wide,  there  must  be  at  least  five  or  six 
beams  not  less  than  7  inches  by  8.  With  wider  bays,  timbers  of 
larger  dimensions  will  be  necessary.  The  planking  should  not  be  less 
than  2  inches  thick  laid  transversely.  Bridges  on  piles,  for  the  passage 
of  infantry  over  shallow  rivers  only,  may  be  expeditiously  constructed, 
as  the  piles  may  be  slight,  6  inches  in  diameter  would  suffice,  and  they 
can  be  driven  by  hand  by  heavy  mauls,  or  by  two  menusing  a  beetle. 

See  diagram,  Fig.  71. 

FIG.  71. 


Here  the  pile  is  set  and  kept  in  its  place  by  means  of  two  spars  of 
planks  resting  their  extremities  upon  a  stool  placed  on  the  bank.  A 
plank  is  then  laid  across,  on  which  one  or  two  men  may  stand  to  drive 
the  pile.  The  weight  of  the  men  may  be  increased,  if  necessary, 


114 


MILITARY  DICTIONARY. 


[BRi. 


by  stones  placed  on  the  platform  assisting  to  force  the  piles  into  the 
ground.  When  one  row  of  piles  is  placed,  and  the  floor  laid  to  a  cross 
beam  fixed  upon  them,  another  row  may  be  set  and  driven  in  the  same 
manner,  fixing  the  stool  on  that  part  of  the  floor  which  will  thus  have 
been  completed.  Piles  driven  in  this  way  may  be  safely  depended 
upon  to  bear  infantry  with  a  front  of  two  or  three  files  in  open  ranks, 
not  keeping  step. 

Bridges  on  Trestles. — When  rivers  are  shallow,  and  not  liable  to 
sudden  floods,  and  when  their  channels  are  firm  and  even,  very  useful 
bridges  may  be  constructed  on  trestles.  Trestles  for  this  purpose 
should  each  consist  of  a  stout  transom  or  ridge  piece  some  8  inches 
square  and  16  feet  long ;  to  this  should  be  fitted  four  legs  adapted 
to  the  depth  of  the  river  slanting  outwards  from  the  vertical,  and 
strengthened  by  diagonal  bracing,  (Fig.  72.)  For  large  bridges  it  will 

be  found  advantageous  to  add 
an  additional  pair  of  legs  to 
each  trestle.  These,  from  the 
difficulty  of  fitting  six  legs  to 
the  uneven  surface  of  the  bot- 
tom of  the  river,  should  not 
be  attached  until  the  trestle  is 
placed  in  position ;  they  should 
then  be  driven  into  the  bed 
of  the  river,  and  their  upper 
extremities  should  be  firmly 
nailed  to  the  ridge  piece.  When 

the  different  parts  of  the  trestles  are  all  prepared  beforehand,  they 
can  be  speedily  put  together  and  the  bridge  completed  with  great 
expedition.  Fascines  may  be  used  for  flooring,  where  plank  cannot 
be  obtained.  When  the  intervals  or  bays  are  ten  feet,  the  dimensions 
of  the  trestle  and  beams  may  be  as  follows  : — 


FIG.  72. 


Length. 

Breadth. 

Thickness. 

(  1  Head  beam  

Ifi 

g 

3 

Trestles,  -j  4  Legs  

* 

4-1 

44- 

(  6  Braces  

Balks  

12 

44- 

44 

Planks  for  floor 

12 

1° 

2 

If  there  bo  a  strong  current,  a  cable  should  be  stretched  across  the 
river  on  each  side  of  the  bridge,  and  the  trestles  be  firmly  lashed  to 
them.  It  may,  moreover,  sometimes  be  necessary  to  load  the  trestles 


BEL]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  H5 

with  shot  or  stones,  to  keep  them  in  their  position  until  the  flooring  is 
laid  upon  them. 

Floating-Bridges  are  those  generally  adopted  for  the  passage  of  troops 
over  rivers.  They  may  be  very  expeditiously  constructed,  and  can  be 
made  strong  enough  to  carry  the  heaviest  artillery.  During  the  last 
century  boats  were  generally  used  for  this  purpose ;  and,  although  on 
navigable  rivers,  boats  are  readily  found,  it  was  frequently  a  work  of 
time  and  difficulty  to  collect  a  sufficient  number,  particularly  if  the 
enemy  had  had  the  opportunity  of  removing  or  destroying  them  pre- 
viously. The  inconveniences  and  delays  resulting  from  this  cause,  al- 
ways hazardous  and  often  fatal  to  the  success  of  an  expedition,  led  to 
the  introduction  of  regular  bridge  equipages  or  pontoon  trains,  duly 
organized  to  accompany  the  march  of  armies.  An  efficient  pontoon 
train  renders  an  army  independent  of  the  rivers  which  may  intersect 
its  route.  By  its  aid  rivers  of  very  considerable  magnitude*  may  be 
bridged  in  a  few  hours,  and  a  march  of  a  given  distance  may  thus  be 
with  certainty  completed  in  a  given  time — a  matter  often  of  momentous 
importance  to  the  success  of  military  operations. 

Bridges  of  Boats. — Boats  of  almost  any  kind  will  make  a  serviceable 
bridge.  For  wide  rivers  the  boats  should  be  large.  The  boats  of  which 
a  bridge  is  constructed  should,  if  possible,  be  nearly  of  the  same  size, 
unless  they  are  all  very  large,  and  then  variations  in  dimensions  will 
be  of  little  consequence.  Should  some  be  large  and.  some  small,  the 
passage  of  large  bodies  of  troops,  of  heavy  guns  and  ammunition 
wagons  will  depress  them  unequally,  causing  the  flooring  of  the  bridge 
to  assume  an  irregular  line,  straining  and  injuring,  and  in  some  cases 
fracturing,  the  timber  and  destroying  the  bridge.  When  boats,  all  of 
the  same  size,  cannot  be  obtained,  the  larger  boats  should  be  placed  at 
wider  intervals,  so  that  they  may  sustain  a  heavier  weight,  proportioned 
to  their  greater  capacity,  during  the  passage  of  troops,  and  be  depressed 
to  an  equal  distance  with  the  smaller.  The  superstructure  will  consist 
of  balks  of  timber  laid  across  the  gunwales  of  the  boats,  and  securely 
fastened,  and  the  flooring  of  planks  laid  transversely  over.  A  certain 
rigidity  results  from  this  arrangement,  by  which,  if  the  boats  were 
subject  to  much  motion,  the  bridge  would  be  speedily  destroyed.  In 
tidal  rivers,  where  a  considerable  swell  must  generally  be  encountered, 
this  manner  of  securing  the  timbers  will  not  answer.  In  this  case,  it 
will  be  found  advantageous  to  erect  a  trestle  or  support  in  the  centre 
of  each  boat,  over  which  the  timbers  may  be  bolted  to  each  other  :  thus 
each  boat  will  be  allowed  independent  motion,  and  this  will  not  en- 
danger  the  fracture  of  the  bridge. 


116 


MILITARY  DICTIONARY. 


[Bui. 


The  boats  should  be  moored  head  and  stern,  and  should  be  kept  at 
their  relative  distances  by  timbers  fixed  at  the  head  and  at  the  stern, 


Fro.  73. 


stretching  across  the  bays,  so  as  to  remove  unnecessary  strain  from 
the  timbers  of  the  bridge.  The  timbers  should  be  as  nearly  as  possible 
square,  and  of  dimensions  proportioned  to  the  space  of  the  intervals. 
With  good  timbers,  8  inches  by  6,  twenty  feet  may  be  allowed  from 
trestle  to  trestle.  The  width  of  the  bridge  should  also  be  proportioned 
to  the  dimensions  of  the  timbers.  With  five  balks  of  7  inches  by  8, 
the  bridge  should  not  exceed  14  feet  in  width.  If  too  wide  there  will 
be  danger  of  the  beams  being  broken  by  the  overcrowding  of  troops  on 
the  bridge. 

When  there  is  no  regular  pontoon  train,  and  boats  cannot  be  pro- 
cured, rafts  may  be  used  in  place  of  boats.  These  rafts  may  be 
made  of  casks,  which,  if  properly  arranged  and  securely  lashed,  will 
answer  all  the  purposes  of  pontoons.  Eight  or  ten  casks,  all  of  the 
same  size,  should  be  placed  side  by  side  on  a  level  piece  of  ground, 
touching  each  other,  bung-holes  uppermost.  Two  stout  balks,  4J  inches 
square,  and  about  2  feet  longer  than  the  sum  of  the  diameters  of  the 
casks  which  are  to  form  the  pier,  must  then  be  prepared  and  laid  along 
the  upper  surface  of  the  casks,  parallel  to  each  other,  and  each  about 
a  foot  distant  from  the  line  of  the  bung-holes.  A  piece  of  3-inch  rope 
should  then  be  attached  to  one  end  of  each  of  these  balks,  passed  under 
all  the  casks,  and  secured  to  the  other  end  of  the  same  balk. 

These  ropes  are  then  drawn  up  towards  the  balks  and  tightly  lashed 
by  small  ropes  between  every  pair  of  casks,  and  the  smaller  ropes  of 
the  one  side  are  again  lashed  across  to  those  of  the  other  side  (Fig. 
74.)  The  whole  pier  thus  becomes  so  compact  that  it  may  be  rolled 


BRI.] 


MILITARY  DICTIONARY. 


117 


and  launched  and  rowed  with  as  little  danger  of  breaking  up  as  though 
it  were  a  single  pontoon.  Piers  of  casks  constructed  in  this  way  may 
be  used  exactly  like  pontoons,  and  will  form  a  most  efficient  bridge. 


FIG.  74. 


Pontoons  are  vessels  of  various  forms  and  dimensions,  and  are  made 
of  various  materials.  They  are  generally  boat-shaped,  of  wood,  of 
copper,  or  of  tin,  sometimes  with  decks,  and  sometimes  without.  Each 
boat,  or  pontoon,  is  carried  on  a  suitable  wagon,  which  also  conveys 
the  portion  of  superstructure  necessary  for  one  bay  or  interval. 

Fly  ing -Bridges. — A  flying-bridge  is  an  arrangement  by  which  a 
stream  with  a  good  current  may  be  crossed,  when,  from  a  want  of  time 
or  a  deficiency  of  materials,  it  may  not  be  possible  to  form  a  bridge. 
It  consists  of  a  large  boat  or  raft  firmly  attached  by  a  long  cable  to  a 
mooring  in  the  centre  of  the  stream,  if  the  channel  be  straight,  or  on 
the  bank  if  the  channel  be  curved.  By  hauling  the  boat  or  raft  into 
proper  positions,  it  will  be  driven  across  the  stream  in  either  direction 
as  may  be  desired. 

The  bridge  is  made  usually  of  two, 
(Fig.  75,)  three,  and  sometimes  six  boats, 
connected  together,  and  very  solidly 
floored  over,  the  beams  being  fastened 
to  the  gunwales  of  the  boats  with  iron 
bolts  or  bands,  and  the  flooring  planks 
nailed  down  upon  them.  The  floor  is 
sometimes  surrounded  with  a  guard-rail.  The  most  suitable  boats  are 
long,  narrow,  and  deep,  with  their  sides  nearly  vertical,  in  order  to  offer 
greater  resistance  to  the  action  of  the  current.  At  the  end  of  the  rope 
is  fixed  an  anchor  X,  which  is  moored  in  the  channel,  if  this  is  in  the 
middle  of  the  stream.  If  the  channel  is  not  in  the  middle,  the  anchor 
is  placed  a  little  on  one  side  of  it  toward  the  most  distant  shore.  By 
means  of  the  rudder,  the  bridge  is  turned  in  such  a  direction  that  it  is 
struck  obliquely  by  the  current,  and  the  force  resulting  from  the  de- 
composition of  the  action  of  the  current  makes  it  describe  an  arc  of  a 


118 


MILITARY  DICTIONARY. 


FIG.  76. 


circle  around  the  anchor  as  a  centre,  and  this  force  acquires  its  max. 
imum  effect  when  the  sides  of  the  boats  make  an  angle  of  about  55° 
with  the  direction  of  the  current. 

Suppose  M  N  (Fig.  76)  to  represent  the  side  of  the  boat,  and  A  B 
the  resultant  of  the  forces  of  the  current  against  it.    The  force  A  B  will 
be  decomposed  into  two  forces ;  the  one,  A  C,  will  act  in  the  direction 
M  N  as  friction,  and  may  be  neglected,  and  the  other,  A  D,  will  act  per- 
pendicularly to  the  side  of  the 
boat.     Were   the   boat   free  to 
move,  and  headed  in  the  same 
direction,  it  would  descend  the 
river,  at  the  same  time  crossing 
it.     A  D    is    then  decomposed 
into  two  other   forces,  the  one 
A  E,  in  the  direction  of  the  cur- 
rent, causing  the  boat  to  drift,  the 

other  A  F,  perpendicular  to  this,  which  pushes  the  boat  across.  If  the 
boat  is  now  attached  to  a  fixed  point  by  the  rope  A  X,  the  force  A  E 
will  be  neutralized,  and  all  the  effort  of  the  current  will  be  reduced  to 
the  force  A  F,  which  makes  the  boat  revolve  around  the  point  X.  The 
length  of  rope  used  should  be  once  and  a  half  or  twice  the  width  of  the 
river.  With  a  shorter  rope  the  arc  described  by  the  bridge  is  too 
great,  and  it  performs  the  ascending  branch  with  difficulty  ;  with  a 
longer  one,  the  rope  becomes  too  heavy,  sinks  in  the  water,  and  fetters 
the  movement.  Generally,  the  arc  described  by  the  bridge  should  not 
be  more  than  90°.  To  prevent  the  rope  from  dragging  over  the  deck, 
which  would  interfere  with  the  load,  it  is  held  up  by  an  arrangement 
such  as  is  indicated  in  Fig.  76,  and  buoyed  out  of  the  water  nearly  to 
the  anchor  by  skiffs,  empty  casks,  or  other  floating  bodies.  When  the 
stream  to  be  crossed  is  not  very  wide,  a  flying-bridge  may  be  made 
with  two  ropes,  one  fastened  on  each  shore,  the  ropes  being  used  al- 
ternately. If  the  stream,  on  the  contrary,  is  very  wide,  several  boats 
are  fastened  together,  floored  over,  and  anchored  in  the  middle,  and 
communication  kept  up  with  each  shore  by  a  flying-bridge,  like  the  one 
already  described.  In  about  one  hour  36  men  can  construct  a  flying 
bridge  composed  of  6  bridge-boats,  and  capable  of  carrying  250  in- 
fantry, or  2  pieces  of  artillery  and  12  horses.  At  least  one  spare 
anchor  should  always  be  carried  on  the  bridge,  to  anchor  it  in  case  the 
rope  should  break  or  become  detached  ;  and  oars,  a  small  boat,  and  a 
long  rope,  should  also  be  provided.  A  flying-bridge  may,  in  case  of 
emergency,  be  made  of  any  kind  of  boats  with  the  means  of  fixing  rud- 


BRI.] 


MILITARY  DICTIONARY. 


110 


FIG.  77. 


ders  to  them.  For  want  of  an  anchor,  a  large  stone,  mill-stone,  or  a 
bag  or  box  of  sand  may  be  made  use  of.  A  flying-bridge  may  be  made 
of  a  raft,  the  best  form  being  lozenge-shaped,  with  the  front  angle  about 
55°.  It  is  attached  to  a  rope  stretched  across  the  stream  by  three 
others  with  pulleys,  which  slide  along  the  first  rope,  this  being  tightly 
stretched  across  and  not  allowed  to  hang  in  the  water.  Buttresses  con- 
structed on  boats  or  trestles,  according  to  the  means  at  hand,  are 
formed  on  both  sides  of  the  river,  at  the  points  where  the  flying-bridge 
lands.  Wagons  impermeable  to  water  may,  by  means  of  a  rope  at- 
tached to  the  wagon  body,  be  used  to  pass  a  company  with  its  baggage. 

Where  large  bodies  are  to  be  crossed,  a  common  contrivance  is  the 
RAFT  of  logs,  but  it  is  the  last  expedient  to  be  adopted  from  its  want 
of  buoyancy  and  general  manage- 
ability, and  is  inapplicable  when  the 
passage  of  a  river  is  likely  to  be  con- 
tested with  animation.  Its  merits 
are  that,  at  the  expense  of  time, 
it  can  be  constructed  with  less  ex- 
perienced workmen ;  it  saves  car- 
riage, as  it  can  only  be  made  of  ma- 
terials near  the  spot.  It  is,  however, 
an  indifferent  substitute  for  boats, 
pontoons,  or  casks.  An  independent 
raft  will  require  two  rows  of  trees, 
at  least,  to  float  as  many  men  as  can 
stand  upon  it,  and  the  logs  are  best 
bound  together  by  withes,  or  ropes, 
and  stiffened  with  cross  and  diagonal 
traces. 

Timber  Bridges. — The  rudest  form 
of  arch  is  very  strong,  easy  of  con- 
struction, and    of  frequent    occurrence ;    the   timbers   being  roughly 
notched  into  each  other  as  in  log-houses,  and  gradually  jutting  over 

FIG.  78. 


120 


MILITARY  DICTIONARY. 


the  pier  or  abutment  near  each  other.  A  few  of  the  upper  courses 
may  be  trenailed  down.  Figure  79  shows  the  manner  of  construction 
with  hewn  or  rough  timber. 

FIG.  79, 


The  wagon  bodies  now  made  for  the  United  States  army  are  gal- 
vanized or  zincked  iron  ;  the  lower  and  upper  rails  are  of  oakwood,  cov- 
ered with  sheet  iron ;  wooden  supporters  are  framed  into  the  lower 
rails  like  the  usual  wagon  body,  the  tail  piece  is  hung  upon  hinges.  An 
important  application  of  these  iron  wagon  bodies,  (suggested  by  Lieuten- 
ant-colonel Grossman,  United  States  army,)  would  be  their  employment 
as  boats  in  bridging  rivers.  If  they  are  so  perfected  as  to  render  them 
water-tight,  they  might  be  readily  converted  into  a  system  of  pontoons, 
each  one  carrying  a  portion  of  the  string  pieces  and  planks  necessary 
to  construct  a  bridge,  without  materially  interfering  with  the  usual 
load.  Arranged  and  lashed  together  in  double  rows,  they  would  afford 
a  sufficient  breadth  of  roadway  for  the  passage  of  both  cavalry  and 
artillery  with  facility. 

Large  trees  may  be  felled  to  enable  infantry  to  cross  narrow  streams, 
placing  them  so  that  their  butts  may  rest  upon  the  banks  with  the 
top  directed  obliquely  up  the  stream  ;  if  one  is  not  long  enough,  others 
may  be  floated  down  so  as  to  extend  across,  being  guided  and  secured 
by  ropes :  a  footway  may  be  formed  by  laying  planks,  fascines,  or 
hurdles  over  them,  and  their  branches  should  be  chopped  off  nearly  to 
the  level  of  the  water  and  intertwined  below  ;  poles  also  may  be 
driven  into  the  bed  of  the  river,  to  aid  in  supporting  the  trees  by  at- 
taching the  boughs  to  them.  Wheel  carriages  used  to  form  a  foot 


BRL] 


MILITARY  DICTIONARY. 


121 


bridge  may  be  connected  by  beams ;  or  a  single  pair  of  wheels  with 
an  axle-tree  to  admit  two  strong  posts  may  be  attached  and  placed  in 
the  centre  of  the  stream  if  it  is  not  too  wide.  Poles  reaching  from  each 
bank  may  be  secured  to  the  posts,  and  the  wheels  would  .act  as  a 
trestle.  With  a  flooring  over  the  poles,  a  slight  bridge  could  be 

FIG.  80. 


rapidly  constructed  for  an  advanced  guard.  Hide  boats  are  made  of 
four  buffalo  hides  strongly  sewed  together  with  buffalo  sinew,  and 
stretched  over  a  basket  work  of  willow  8  feet  long  and  5  feet  broad, 
with  a  rounded  bow,  the  seams  then  being  covered  with  ashes  and  tallow. 
Exposed  to  the  sun  for  some  hours,  the  skins  contract  and  tighten  the 
whole  work.  Such  a  boat  with  four  men  in  it  draws  only  four  inches 
of  water.  Inflated  skins  have  been  used  since  the  earliest  times  for 
crossing,  and  if  four  or  more  are  secured  together  by  a  frame,  they 
form  a  very  buoyant  raft.  Canvas  (rendered  water-proof  by  a  com- 
position of  pitch  8  Ibs.,  beeswax  1  lb.,  and  tallow  1  lb.,  boiled  together 
and  laid  on  quite  hot)  will  serve  as  a  raft  or  pontoon,  if  placed  over 
framework  or  wicker  work  ;  (Consult  Memorial  des  Ojficiers  tflnfanterie 
et  Cavalerie  ;  Aide  Memoire  of  the  Military  Sciences  ;  DOUGLAS'S  Prin- 
ciples and  Construction  of  Military  Bridges ;  HYDE'S  Fortifications ; 
GIBBON'S  Manual;  HAILLOT,  Instruction  sur  le  Passage  des  JRivieres  et 
la  Construction  des  Ponts  Militaires.) 

BRIDGE-HEAD  (la  tete  du  pont) — is  a  work  consisting  of  one 
or  more  redans  or  bastions,  constructed  on  the  bank  of  a  river,  to 
cover  a  bridge,  to  protect  a  retiring  army  in  crossing  the  river,  and  to 
check  an  enemy  when  pressing  upon  it.  (See  REDAN.) 

BRIDOON.  The  snaffle  and  rein  of  a  military  bridle,  which  acts 
independently  of  the  bit,  at  the  pleasure  of  the  rider. 

BRIGADE.  Two  regiments  of  infantry  or  cavalry  constitute  a 
brigade.  (Act  March  3,  1799.) 

BRIGADIER-GENERAL.  Rank  next  below  major-general.  The 
commander  of  a  brigade.  Entitled  to  one  aide-de-camp. 

BRIGADE-INSPECTOR.     (See  MILITIA.) 


122  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [Bui. 

BRIGADE-MAJOR.  An  officer  appointed  to  assist  the  general 
commanding  a  brigade  in  all  his  duties.  (See  MILITIA.) 

BUILDING.     (See  BRIDGES  ;  CARPENTRY.) 

BUILDINGS,  DEFENCE  OF.  The  objects  now  under  consideration 
are  churches,  country-houses,  factories,  prisons,  or  other  substantial 
buildings ;  and  as  there  is  but  little  difference  in  the  mode  to  be  pur- 
sued for  placing  any  of  them  in  a  state  of  defence,  an  explanation  of  the 
details  applied  to  a  single  house  will  perhaps  be  sufficient  to  convey  an 
idea  on  the  subject.  A  building  proper  for  defensive  purposes,  should 
possess  some  or  all  of  the  following  requisites  :  1.  It  should  COMMAND 
all  that  surrounds  it.  2.  Should  be  SUBSTANTIAL,  and  of  a  nature  to 
furnish  materials  useful  for  placing  it  in  a  state  of  defence.  3.  Should 
be  of  an  EXTENT  PROPORTIONED  TO  THE  NUMBER  OF  DEFENDERS,  and  only 
require  the  TIME  AND  MEANS  which  can  be  devoted  to  completing  it.  4. 
Should  have  walls  and  projectings  that  mutually  FLANK  each  other.  5. 
Should  be  DIFFICULT  OF  ACCESS  on  the  side  exposed  to  attack,  and  yet 
have  a  SAFE  RETREAT  for  the  defenders.  6.  And  bo  in  a  situation  proper 
for  fulfilling  the  object  for  which  the  detachment  is  to  be  posted.  A 
church  will  be  found  usually  to  unite  all  these  good  properties  more 
than  any  other  building.  It  may  be  remarked  that  though  good  strong 
walls  are  an  advantage,  yet  their  thickness  should  be  limited  to  2  or  3 
feet,  from  the  difficulty  there  would  be  in  piercing  loopholes ;  unless 
when  they  are  likely  to  be  battered  by  artillery,  in  which  case  the  mus- 
ketry must  be  confined  to  the  windows,  and  the  more  solid  the  walls 
are,  the  better.  It  should  also  be  remembered  that  brick  houses  and 
walls  are  preferable,  on  several  accounts,  to  those  built  of  stone ;  for 
when  exposed  to  artillery,  a  round  shot  merely  makes  a  small  hole  in 
the  former,  but  stone  is  broken  up  in  large  masses,  and  dangerous 
splinters  fly  from  it  in  all  directions.  It  is  much  easier  also  to  make 
loopholes  through  brickwork  than  through  masonry.  Wooden  houses, 
or  those  made  of  plaster,  are  to  be  avoided,  from  the  facility  with  which 
an  enemy  can  set  fire  to  them,  and  they  are  frequently  not  even  musket- 
proof.  Thatched  houses  are  equally  objectionable,  on  account  of  fire, 
unless  there  is  time  to  unroof  them ;  and  after  all  it  must  not  be  for- 
gotten, that  earthen  works,  when  exposed  to  artillery,  are  to  be  pre- 
ferred to  houses,  as  far  as  affording  security  to  the  defenders  is  con- 
cerned. In  seeking  this  security,  however,  it  should  be  borne  in  mind 
that  they  are  not  so  defensible — for  troops  cannot  be  run  into  a  house ; 
but  they  are  not  exempt  from  such  an  intrusion  in  an  earthen  work  of 
the  nature  under  discussion.  The  two  together  can  be  made  to  form 
a  more  respectable  post  than  either  can  be  made  into  singly,  for  the 


JJui.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  123 

merits  of  both  will  be  enhanced,  and  the  defects  be  modified,  by  the 
union.  A  building  is  therefore  at  all  times  a  capital  base  to  go  to 
work  upon.  The  walls  may  be  partially  protected  from  cannon  shot 
by  throwing  up  earthen  parapets  round  it,  and  the  house  may  "  recip- 
rocate "  by  acting  the  part  of  a  keep,  and  afford  the  garrison  a  place 
of  refuge,  in  which  they  may  either  defend  themselves  with  advantage, 
or  if  it  "  suits  their  book,"  resume  the  offensive  and  drive  the  assailants 
out  again. 

An  officer  will  be  able  to  make  his  selection  at  first  sight,  with  ref- 
erence to  most  of  these  points,  but  it  requires  a  little  more  considera- 
tion to  determine  whether  a  building  and  its  appliances  are  convertible 
into  a  post,  of  a  size  proportioned  to  the  force  under  his  command. 
The  average  number  of  men,  however,  proper  for  the  defence  of  a 
house,  may  be  roughly  estimated  on  some  such  data  as  the  following  : 
— That  in  a  lower  story  it  might  generally  be  proper  to  tell  off  one 
man  for  every  4  feet  that  the  walls  measured  round  the  interior.  In 
the  second  story  one  man  for  every  6  feet,  and  in  an  attic  or  roof  one 
man  for  every  8  feet.  For  example,  if  a  house  of  three  stories  high 
were  found,  on  pacing  it,  to  measure  140  feet  round  the  interior  walls, 
the  number  of  men  for  its  defence  on  the  above  data  would  be  deter- 
mined thus  : — 
Feet. 

140  Would  give  35  ;  which  would  be  the  number  of  men  for  the  lower 
4  story. 

_  Would  be  about  23  men  for  the  second  floor. 
6 

—  Would  be  18  men  for  the  attic. 

8 

making  a  total  of  76  men  for  the  three  stories ;  to  which  about  one- 
sixth  of  the  whole,  say  14  men,  should  be  added  as  a  reserve,  making 
altogether  a  garrison  of  90  men.  If  there  were  out-buildings  or  walls 
in  addition,  the  number  of  men  required  for  their  defence,  would  be 
determined  in  a  similar  manner,  by  assuming  certain  data  adapted  to 
the  circumstances  as  a  guide  in  the  calculation.  These  numbers  are  not 
to  be  considered  definitive,  but  merely  to  convey  an  idea  on  the  subject ; 
for  if  a  detachment  were  much  weaker  in  proportion  to  the  extent,  a 
vigorous  defence  might  still  be  made.  The  force  might  be  concentrated 
where  most  required,  as  it  is  not  a  matter  of  course  that  a  place  will 
be  attacked  on  all  sides  at  once ;  or  if  a  building  were  found  so  large 
that  the  disposable  force  would  be  too  much  disseminated,  or  if  there 
were  a  want  of  materials  and  time  for  putting  the  whole  of  it  in  a  state 


124  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [Bui. 

of  defence,  a  part  of  it  only  might  be  occupied.  Should  there  exist  any 
doubt  about  having  sufficient  time  to  complete  all  that  might  be  wished, 
it  would  become  matter  for  consideration  what  were  the  points  which 
it  would  be  of  the  greatest  importance  to  secure  first,  so  as  to  be  in  a 
condition  to  repel  an  immediate  attack,  because  such  points  would  nat- 
urally claim  attention  to  the  exclusion  of  all  others.  In  such  a  case,  it 
might  be  well  to  employ  as  many  men  as  could  work  without  hindering 
each  other  by  being  too  crowded.  1.  To  collect  materials  and  barri- 
cade the  doors  and  windows  on  the  ground  floor,  to  make  loopholes  in 
them,  and  level  any  obstruction  outside  that  would  give  cover  to  the 
enemy,  or  materially  facilitate  the  attack.  2.  To  sink  ditches  oppo- 
site the  doors  on  the  outside,  and  arrange  loopholes  in  the  windows  of 
the  upper  story.  3.  To  make  loopholes  through  the  walls  generally, 
attending  first  to  the  most  exposed  parts,  and  to  break  communications 
through  all  the  party-walls  and  partitions.  4.  To  place  abatis  or 
any  feasible  obstructions  on  the  outside,  and  to  improve  the  defence  of 
the  post  by  the  construction  of  tambours,  &c.  5.  To  place  out-build- 
ings and  garden  walls  in  a  state  of  defence,  and  establish  communica- 
tions between  them.  To  make  arrangements  in  the  lower  story  espe- 
cially, for  defending  one  room  or  portion  after  another,  so  that  partial 
possession  only  could  be  obtained  on  a  sudden  rush  being  made.  These 
different  works  to  be  undertaken  in  the  order  of  their  relative  impor- 
tance, according  to  circumstances ;  and  after  securing  the  immediate  ob- 
ject for  which  they  were  designed,  they  might  remain  to  be  improved 
upon  if  opportunity  offered.  An  endeavor  will  now  be  made  to  explain 
the  mode  of  executing  these  works  in  the  order  in  wrhich  they  are  men- 
tioned. 

Collecting  Materials. — The  materials  that  will  be  found  most  useful 
in  barricading  the  passages,  doors,  and  windows,  are  boxes,  casks,  cart 
bodies,  bricks,  stones,  cinders,  dung,  &c.,  and  timber  of  any  sort  that 
comes  to  hand;  if  they  cannot  be  found  elsewhere  on  the  premises, 
the  roof  and  floors  must  be  stripped  to  furnish  what  is  required. 

Barricading  Doors. — In  the  application  of  these  materials,  the  boxes 
and  casks  filled  with  cinders  or  dung,  and  placed  against  the  doors  to  a 
height  of  6  feet,  will  prevent  their  being  forced  open,  and  loopholes 
may  be  made  through  the  upper  portions,  which  can  be  rendered  mus- 
ket-proof to  protect  the  men's  heads  ;  short  lengths  of  timber  piled  one 
upon  another  to  the  same  height,  leaving  a  space  between  any  two  of 
them  in  a  convenient  situation  for  firing  through,  and  their  ends  being 
secured  in  the  side  walls  of  a  passage,  or  propped  with  upright  pieces 
on  the  inside,  will  effect  the  same  object ;  or  a  door  may  be  loosely 


Bui.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  125 

bricked  up,  leaving  loopholes,  &c.  If  it  is  probable  that  artillery  will 
be  brought  up  for  knocking  away  these  barricades,  and  so  forcing  an 
entrance,  a  passage  may  be  partially  filled  with  dung  or  rubbish  to  the 
thickness  of  8  or  10  feet,  or  thick  beams  of  timber  may  be  reared  up 
on  the  outside  of  a  door,  and  the  interval  filled  with  the  same,  or  with 
earth  if  more  convenient.  A  hole,  about  3  feet  square,  may  be  left 
through  an  ordinary  barricade  for  keeping  up  a  communication  with 
the  exterior ;  but  for  effecting  a  retreat,  or  making  sorties,  it  will  be 
necessary  to  make  a  door  musket-proof,  by  nailing  on  several  additional 
thicknesses  of  plank,  and  arrange  it  so  as  to  open  as  usual,  or  contrive 
something  on  the  spot  which  shall  equally  protect  the  men  when  firing 
through  the  loopholes,  and  yet  be  removable  at  pleasure. 

Barricading  Windows. — Windows  do  not  require  to  be  barricaded 
so  strongly  as  doors,  unless  from  their  situation  an  entrance  may  easily 
be  effected,  or  an  escalade  be  attempted.  The  principal  object  is  to 
screen  and  protect  the  defenders  whilst  giving  their  fire ;  any  thing, 
therefore,  that  will  fill  up  the  window  to  a  height  of  6  feet  from  the 
floor,  and  that  is  musket-proof,  will  answer  the  purpose.  Thus  jtwo  or 
three  rows  of  filled  sand-bags,  laid  in  the  sill  of  a  window,/^ ig.  81,  or 


short  lengths  of  timber  would  do  ;  or  a  carpet,  a  mattrass,  or  blankets 
rolled  up,  would  be  ready  expedients.  Loopholes  would,  in  all  cases, 
be  arranged  whatever  materials  were  used.  If  time  presses,  and  win- 
dows could  not  be  blocked  up,  one  means  of  obtaining  concealment, 
which  is  the  next  best  thing  to  security,  would  be  to  hang  a  great  coat 
or  blanket  across  the  lower  part  of  them  as  a  screen,  and  make  the 
men  fire  beneath  it,  kneeling  on  the  floor.  The  glass  should  be  removed 
from  windows  before  an  attack  commences,  as  it  is  liable  to  injure  the 
defenders,  when  broken  by  musketry. 

Levelling   Obstructions  outside. — Any  shrubberies,  fences,  or  out- 
buildings, within  musket-shot,  which  would  favor  an  attack  by  affording 


126 


MILITARY  DICTIONARY. 


[Bui. 


cover  to  an  enemy,  and  allowing  him  to  approach  unperceived,  should 
be  got  rid  of  as  soon  as  possible.  The  trees  should  be  felled,  leaving 
the  stumps  of  different  heights,  so  as  to  encumber  the  ground,  and  the 
materials  of  walls,  &c.,  should  be  spread  about  with  the  same  view ; 
but  whatever  is  convertible  for  barricades  should  be  carried  to  the 
house.  The  thatch  from  roofs,  and  any  combustibles,  should  also  be 
removed  or  destroyed. 

Ditches  in  Front  of  the  Doors,  &c. — As  a  means  of  preventing  a  door 
being  forced,  a  ditch  may  be  dug  in  front  of  it,  about  7  feet  wide  and  5 
feet  deep  ;  such  a  ditch  is  also  necessary  in  front  of  the  lower  windows, 
if  the  loopholes  cannot  be  conveniently  made  high  enough  from  the  out- 
side to  prevent  an  enemy  reaching  them.  These  partial  ditches  may 
afterwards  be  converted  into  a  continued  ditch  all  round  a  house  if 
opportunity  offers,  as  it  would  contribute  to  the  defence  of  the  post. 
The  floors  may  also  be  taken  up  on  the  inside,  opposite  the  doors  or 
windows  open  to  attack. 

Loopholes. — If  the  walls  are  not  too  thick,  they  may  be  pierced  for 
loopholes,  at  every  3  feet,  in  the  spaces  between  the  windows,  &c. 
(Fig.  82.) 

FIG.  82. 


,  Two  tiers  of  these  loopholes  may  be  made  if  opportunity  offers,  and 
a  temporary  scaffolding  of  furniture,  benches,  casks,  or  ladders,  &c., 
erected  for  firing  from  the  upper  ones :  on  the  lower  story  a  row  of 
loopholes  may  be  made  close  to  the  ground.  The  floor  must,  in  this 
case,  be  partly  removed,  and  a  small  excavation  made  between  the 
beams  for  the  convenience  of  making  use  of  them.  Just  under  the 
eaves  of  a  roof  there  is  generally  a  place  where  loopholes  can  be  made 


Bui.] 


MILITARY  DICTIONARY. 


127 


with  great  facility,  and  a  tile  or  slate  knocked  out  here  and  there  with 
a  musket,  will  give  other  openings,  from  which  an  assailant  may  be 
well  plied  as  he  comes  up. 

Communications. — A  clear  communication  must  be  made  round  the 
4jrhole  interior  of  the  building,  by  breaking  through  all  partitions  that 
interfere  with  it :  and  for  the  same  purpose,  if  houses  stand  in  a  row 
or  street,  the  party  walls  must  be  opened,  so  as  to  have  free  access 
from  one  end  to  the  other.  Means  should  likewise  be  at  hand  for 
closing  these  openings  against  an  enemy,  who  may  have  obtained  any 
partial  possession.  Holes  may  also  be  made  in  the  upper  floors  to  fire 
on  the  assailants,  if  they  force  the  lower  ones,  and  arrangements  made 
for  blocking  up  the  staircases,  with  some  such  expedient  as  a  tree,  pre- 
pared in  the  same  manner  as  for  an  abatis,  or  by  having  a  rough  pali- 
sade gate  placed  across.  Balconies  may  be  covered  or  filled  up  in  front 
with  timber  or  sand-bags  and  made  use  of  to  fire  from  downwards. 
(Fig.  83.) 

FIG.  83. 


Abatis. — The  partial  levelling  of  any  object  on  the  outside,  that 
would  give  concealment  to  an  enemy,  and  favor  an  attack,  is  supposed 
to  have  been  already  attended  to :  but  if  time  admits,  after  loopholes, 
&c.  are  completed,  this  system  must  be  extended  and  perfected,  and 
the  formation  of  a  more  regular  abatis  should  be  commenced,  and  any 
other  obstruction  added  that  opportunity  permits.  The  best  distance  for 
such  obstructions,  if  they  are  continuous  and  cannot  be  turned,  is  within 
20  or  30  yards  of  a  work,  or  even  less,  so  that  every  shot  may  tell 


128 


MILITARY  DICTIONARY. 


[Bur. 


whilst  the  assailants  are  detained  in  forcing  a  passage  through  them  ; 
within  such  a  distance  also  of  defenders  securely  posted,  it  would  not 
be  pleasant  for  a  hostile  force  in  confusion,  to  "  Fall  in"  or  "  Re-form 
Column"  If  hand-grenades  are  to  play  their  part  in  the  defence  of  a 
post,  the  obstruction,  whatever  it  may  be,  should  be  placed  within  their 
influence.  A  man  will  easily  throw  them  20  yards,  but  a  trial  on  the  spot 
will  best  determine  the  distance  at  which  they  can  be  used  with  effect. 

Tambours. — If  the  building  that  has  been  selected  has  no  porches, 
wings,  or  projecting  portions  from  which  flank  defence  can  be  obtained, 
it  will  be  advisable  to  construct  something  of  a  temporary  nature  to 
afford  it.  Stockade  work  offers  a  ready  means  of  effecting  this  object ; 
it  may  be  disposed  in  the  form  of  a  triangle,  projecting  8  or  10  feet  in 
front  of  a  door  or  window,  planted  as  described  in  Article  STOCKADE, 
and  with  the  precautions  of  having  the  loopholes  high  enough.  A 
small  hole  should  be  left  in  the  barricade  of  the  door  or  window  to 
communicate  with  the  interior.  Three  or  four  loopholes  on  each  fac< . 
of  the  projection  cut  between  the  timbers  will  be  found  very  useful  in 
the  defence.  These  contrivances  are  usually  termed  tarrbours,  and  il 
constructed  at  the  angle  of  a  building,  will  flank  two  sides  of  it.  (Fig.  84.) 

FIG.  84. 


Out-buildings  and  Walls. — When  the  defences  of  the  main  building 
are  in  a  state  of  forwardness,  any  out-buildings  or  walls  which  have 
been  found  too  solid  to  be  levelled  at  the  moment,  or  which  have  been 
preserved  for  the  chance  of  having  time  to  fortify  them,  and  thus  to 
increase  the  strength  of  the  post,  must  be  looked  to.  They  may  be 
placed  in  a  state  of  defence  by  the  means  already  described,  and  sep-' 
arate  communications  should  be  established  between  them  and  the 


BUN.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  129 

principal  building  by  a  trench,  or  a  line  of  stockade  work,  and  by 
breaking  through  the  walls  when  necessary.  In  this  way  a  post  may 
be  enlarged  in  any  required  proportion,  by  turning  all  objects  that 
present  themselves,  such  as  out-buildings,  sheds,  walls,  hedges,  ponds, 
&c.,  to  the  best  account ;  first  taking  the  precaution  to  secure  what  is 
absolutely  necessary  for  immediate  protection,  and  for  placing  it  in  a 
state  to  be  defended  on  the 
shortest  notice.  An  exterior 
wall  or  fence,  tolerably  close 
to  a  house  and  parallel  to 
it,  may  be  retained  for  the 
purposes  of  defence,  with- 
out the  danger  of  afford- 
ing cover,  and  thus  facili- 
tating an  attack,  by  throwing  up  a  slope  of  earth  on  the  outside  of 
it,  or  planting  an  abatis  in  the  same  situation ;  (Fig.  85.)  An  enemy 
would  thus  remain  completely  exposed,  and  it  would  be  worse  than 
useless  to  him.  If  a  post  of  the  description  under  consideration  were 
composed  of  two  or  more  buildings,  and  it  were  to  be  left  to  itself,  and 
were  open  to  attack  on  all  sides,  the  stockades  or  trenches,  forming  the 
communications  between  them,  would  obviously  require  to  be  so  ar- 
ranged as  to  afford  cover,  and  the  means  of  resistance  on  both  sides. 
This  would  be  effected  by  merely  making  them  double,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  82  ;  but  for  greater  security,  the  exterior  of  such  communications 
should  be  laid  under  fire  from  the  buildings  at  their  extremities.  If 
cover  cannot  from  circumstances  be  obtained,  screens  should  be  con- 
trived that  will  conceal  the  movements  that  may  be  necessary.  In 
arranging  the  defences  of  such  posts,  it  is  an  essential  point  to  make 
each  portion  of  them  so  far  independent  of  the  others,  that  if  any  one 
part,  such  as  a  building  for  instance,  be  taken,  it  shall  not  compromise 
the  safety  of  the  remainder,  nor  materially  impair  the  defence  they  will 
make  by  themselves ;  so  that  whilst  free  communications  are  essential 
in  most  cases  to  a  vigorous  defence,  the  means  must  be  at  hand  for  in- 
stantly cutting  them  off  by  some  such  expedients  as  would  be  afforded 
by  a  loopholed,  musket-proof  door,  or  rough  gates,  or  by  letting  fall  a 
tree,  prepared  as  for  an  abatis,  and  which  till  wanted  might  be  reared 
on  its  end  in  the  situation  required,  the  means  of  bringing  a  close  fire 
upon  it  having  been  previously  secured  ;  (JEEB'S  Attack  and  Defence.) 

BULLET.     (See  AMMUNITION  ;  ARMS  ;  PERCUSSION  BULLET  ;  PRO- 
JECTILES;  RIFLED  ORDNANCE.) 

BUNK.     A  word  used  in  the  army,  a  place  for  bedding. 
9 


130  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [Bus, 

BUREAU — of  the  War  Department.  During  the  absence  of  the 
quartermaster-general,  or  the  chief  of  any  military  bureau  of  the  War 
Department,  his  duties  in  the  bureau,  prescribed  by  law  or  regulations, 
devolve  on  the  officer  of  his  department  empowered  by  the  President  to 
perform  them  in  his  absence;  (Act  July  4,  1836.) 

BURIAL.  The  funeral  honors  paid  to  deceased  officers  and  sol- 
diers are  prescribed  by  orders  from  the  President  contained  in  the 
Army  Regulations.  The  coffin  is  furnished  by  the  quartermaster's 
department. 

BUSHING  A  GUN— is  drilling  a  hole  into  the  piece  where  the 
vent  is  usually  placed,  about  one  inch  in  diameter,  and  screwing  therein 
a  piece  of  metal  which  had  previously  a  vent ;  the  metal  used  in  bushing 
is  pure  copper  for  brass  pieces. 

c 

CADET.  A  warrant  officer  ;  students  at  the  West  Point  Military 
Academy  are  cadets  of  the  Engineer  Corps.  The  number  of  cadets  by 
appointments  hereafter  to  be  made  shall  be  limited  to  the  number  of 
representatives  and  delegates  in  Congress  and  one  for  the  District  of 
Columbia ;  and  each  Congressional  District,  Territory,  and  District  of 
Columbia  shall  be  entitled  to  have  one  cadet  at  said  Academy  ;  nothing 
in  this  section  shall  prevent  the  appointment  of  an  additional  number 
of  cadets,  not  exceeding  ten,  to  be  appointed  at  large,  without  being 
confined  to  a  selection  by  Congressional  Districts ;  (Act  March  1, 
1843,  Sec.  2).  Pay  $30  per  month.  (See  ACADEMY.) 

CAISSON.  The  number  of  rounds  of  ammunition  carried  by  each 
caisson  and  its  limber  are  for  6-pounder  guns  150  rounds ;  12  pounder 
guns,  96  rounds;  12-pounder  howitzers,  117  rounds;  24-pounder 
howitzer  69  rounds,  and  32-pounder  howitzers  45  rounds.  The  num- 
ber of  caissons  with  field-batteries  are:  with  a  battery  of  12-pounders, 
8  caissons  for  guns,  and  4  for  howitzers ;  and  with  a  battery  of  6- 
pounders,  4  for  guns,  and  2  for  howitzers. 

CALIBRE.  The  calibre  of  bullets  is  determined  by  the  number 
required  to  weigh  a  pound.  The  calibre  of  guns  is  designated  by  the 
weight  of  the  shot ;  siege  and  sea-coast  howitzers,  columbiads,  mortars 
by  the  number  of  inches  of  their  respective  diameters.  (Consult 
ORDNANCE  MANUAL.) 

CALLING  FORTH  MILITIA.  Congress  shall  have  power  to 
provide  for  calling  forth  the  militia  to  execute  the  laws  of  the  Union, 
suppress  insurrections,  and  repel  invasions;  (Constitution,  Art.  1,  Sec. 
8,  Clause  15.)  By  Act  of  Congress,  Feb.  28,  1795,  the  President  is 


CAM.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  131 

authorized  to  call  forth  the  militia  whenever  :  1. — "  the  United  States 
shall  be  invaded  or  be  in  his  judgment  in  imminent  danger  of  invasion) 
.(from  any  foreign  nation  or  Indian  tribe  ;)  and  to  issue  his  orders  for  that 
purpose  to  such  officer  or  officers  of  militia  as  he  may  think  proper. 
2. — In  case  of  an  insurrection  in  any  State  against  the  government 
thereof,  on  application  of  the  Legislature  of  such  State,  or  of  the  Execu- 
tive, (when  the  Legislature  cannot  be  convened.)  3. — Whenever  the 
laws  of  the  United  States  shall  be  opposed,  or  the  execution  thereof 
obstructed  in  any  State,  by  combinations  too  powerful  to  be  suppressed 
by  the  ordinary  course  of  judicial  proceedings,  or  by  the  powers  vested 
in  the  marshals;  but  whenever  it  may  be  necessary,  in  the  judgment 
of  the  President,  to  use  the  military  force  hereby  directed  to  be  called 
forth  in  case  of  insurrection  or  obstruction  to  the  laws,  the  President 
shall  forthwith,  by  proclamation,  command  such  insurgents  to  disperse, 
and  retire  peaceably  to  their  respective  abodes  within  a  limited  time ;" 
(Act  Feb.  28,  1795.)  In  cases  where  it  is  lawful  for  the  President  to 
call  forth  the  militia,  it  shall  be  lawful  for  him  to  employ  for  the  same 
purposes,  such  part  of  the  land  or  naval  forces  of  the  United  States  as 
shall  be  judged  necessary,  having  first  observed  all  the  pre-requisites  of 
the  law  in  that  respect ;  (Act  March  3, 1807.)  (See  INVASION  ;  MARSHAL  ; 
OBSTRUCTION  ;  EXECUTION  OF  LAWS  ;  INSURRECTION.) 

CAMEL.  The  camel  is  used  in  the  East  as  a  beast  of  burthen 
from  3  to  about  16  years  of  age,  and  in  hot  sandy  plains,  where  water 
and  food  are  scarce,  is  invaluable.  With  an  army,  however,  generally 
speaking,  it  is  not  so  valuable  as  the  mule  or  horse.  The  camel  under 
a  burthen  is  very  slow-going,  about  half  the  pace  of  a  mule,  or  from 
1|-  to  2  miles  per  hour ;  he  can,  however,  travel  22  out  of  the  24  hours, 
and  only  requires  food  once  a  day.  His  load  varies  exceedingly  in  dif- 
ferent countries.  In  Egypt  it  is  as  high  as  10  cwt. ;  and  for  the  short 
distance  from  Cairo  to  Boulac,  even  15  cwt.  is,  it  is  said,  sometimes 
carried.  But  in  Syria  it  rarely  exceeds  500  Ibs.,  and  the  heaviest  load 
in  the  engineer  equipment  for  the  British  army  of  the  Indus  is  stated  to 
be  4  cwt.  48  Ibs.,  independent  of  the  pack-saddle.  About  400  Ibs.  is  a 
sufficient  load  on  the  march.  The  pack-saddle  or  pad  is  secured  in  its 
place  by  the  hump  on  the  back,  a  hole  being  made  in  the  pad  to  let  it 
come  through,  also  by  a  breast-plate  and  breeching ;  no  dependence  is 
placed  on  the  girth,  which  is  not  kept  tight.  From  the  great  size  of 
the  camel,  averaging  about  7  feet  to  the  top  of  the  hump,  and  8  feet 
from  his  nose  to  his  tail,  when  standing  in  a  natural  position,  he  is  capable 
of  carrying  light  field  artillery,  and  the  12-poundcr  mountain  howitzer, 
which,  with  its  side  arms,  weighs  from  330  to  350  Ibs.  The  bed  or  car- 


132  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [CAM. 

riage  is  carried  by  a  second,  and  the  ammunition  by  a  third  camel.  In 
rocky  or  slippery  ground  the  camel  is  apt  to  slip,  and  his  fore  feet  then 
are  frequently  spread  out  right  and  left  :  when  this  is  the  case,  he  split* 
up  inside  the  arms,  and  dies,  or  becomes  useless.  Though  patient  and 
obedient  to  his  keeper,  at  whose  command  he  lies  down  to  be  loaded,  he  is 
frequently  very  savage  with  strangers,  and  his  bite  is  very  severe.  The 
camels  introduced  into  the  service  of  the  United  States  on  our  Western 
frontiers,  carry  from  300  to  600  Ibs.  on  continuous  journeys,  depending 
on  the  kind  of  camel  employed.  These  weights  they  will  carry  from 
18  to  30  miles  a  day,  according  to  the  character  of  the  country.  With 
lighter  loads  they  travel  a  little  faster.  The  saddle  dromedary  will 
travel  50  miles  in  8  or  10  hours  ;  and  on  an  emergency  they  make  70 
or  90  miles  a  day,  but  only  for  a  day  or  two,  on  a  level  road.  Their  use 
in  the  United  States  is  still  an  experiment. 

CAMOUFLET — is  a  small  mine,  of  about  10  Ibs.  of  powder,  suf- 
ficient to  compress  the  earth  all  around  it,  without  disturbing  the  sur- 
face of  the  ground.  It  is  sometimes  formed  in  the  wall  or  side  of  an 
enemy's  gallery,  in  order  to  blow  in  the  earth,  and  to  cut  off  the  retreat 
of  the  miner. 

CAMP — is  the  temporary  place  of  repose  for  troops,  whether  for 
one  night  or  a  longer  time,  and  whether  in  tents,  in  bivouac,  or  with 
any  such  shelter  as  they  may  hastily  construct,  as  sheds,  bowers,  &c. 
.Troops  are  cantoned  when  distributed  at  any  time  among  villages,  or 
when  placed  in  huts  at  the  end  of  campaign.  Barracks  are  permanent 
military  quarters.  Tents  (says  Napoleon)  are  not  wholesome.  It  is 
better  for  the  soldier  to  bivouac,  because  he  can  sleep  with  his  feet 
towards  the  fire,  and  he  may  shelter  himself  from  the  wind  by  means 
of  sheds,  bowers,  &c.  In  woods  there  is  great  facility  in  making  warm 
encampments,  even  in  the  most  bitter  weather.  A  young  tree,  when 
felled,  yields  poles  to  support  branches  as  shields  against  weather,  and 
flooring  above  the  snow  or  damp.  A  common  arrangement  is  as  fol- 
lows : — A  cross-bar  is  support- 
ed by  two  uprights ;  against 
this  cross  bar  a  number  of 
poles  are  made  to  lean  ;  on 
the  back  of  the  poles  abun- 
dance of  fir  branches  are  laid 
horizontally ;  and,  lastly,  on 
the  back  of  the  fir  branches  are 
another  set  of  leaning  poles,  in  order  to  make  ajl  secure  by  their  weight. 
A  cloth  of  any  kind  is  made  to  give  shelter  by  an  arrangement  of  this 


'' 

CAM.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  133 

kind.  The  corners  of  the  cloth  should  be  secured  by  a  simple  hitch  in 
the  rope  and  not  by  a  knot.  The  former  is  sufficient  for  all  purposes 
of  security,  but  the  latter  will  jam,  and  you  may  have  to  injure  both 
cloth  and  string  to  get  it 

loose  again.    It  is  convenient  PiG  g7 

to  pin  a  skewer  in  the  mid- 
dle of  the  sides  of  the  cloth, 
round  the  ropes. 

Good  water  within  a  con- 
venient distance  is  essential 
in  the  selection  of  a  camp, 
as  is  also  the  proximity 
of  woods  for  firewood,  ma- 
terial for  shelter,  &c.  Good  roads,  canals,  or  navigable  streams  are 
important  to  furnish  the  troops  with  the  necessaries  of  life  if  troops  are 
encamped  for  long  periods.  The  ground  should  not  be  near  swamps 
or  stagnant  water.  This  requirement  is  essential  to  health.  The 
ground,  to  be  suitable  for  defence,  must  admit  the  manoeuvres  of 
troops.  The  front  of  the  camp  of  each  battalion  of  infantry  or  squadron 
of  cavalry  must,  therefore,  be  equal  to  the  front  of  the  battalion  or 
squadron.  And  as  far  as  possible  camps  for  cavalry  and  infantry 
should  be  established  on  a  single  line — the  cavalry  upon  the  wings,  the 
infantry  in  the  centre.  The  shelters  or  huts  are  alligned,  as  well 
as  the  nature  of  the  ground  admits,  from  one  extremity  of  the  camp 
to  the  other,  and  arranged  by  companies  in  streets,  perpendicular  to  the 
front.  The  general  thus  has  the  whole  extent  of  his  camp  in  view,  and 
order  can  be  better  preserved.  When  the  army  is  formed  upon  two 
lines,  there  are  two  camps — one  in  front  of  the  other.  The  reserve 
has  also  its  particular  camp.  Artillery  usually  encamps  behind  the  in- 
fantry, and  thus  forms  a  little  separate  camp  or  camps  of  its  own. 
In  establishing  a  camp,  however,  no  universal  rule  can  bo  laid  down ; 
but  it  is  necessary  (says  Napoleon)  that  the  genius  of  the  commander 
should,  according  to  circumstances,  decide  whether  an  army  ought 
to  be  confined  to  one  single  encampment  or  to  form  as  many  as 
it  has  corps  or  divisions ;  where  the  vanguard  and  flanks  should  be 
posted  ;  where  the  cavalry,  artillery,  and  wagons  should  be  placed,  and 
whether  the  army  should  occupy  one  or  more  lines ;  what  should  be 
the  distance  between  the  lines  ;  and  whether  the  cavalry  should  be  in 
reserve  behind  the  infantry,  or  should  be  placed  on  the  wings. 

Baron  Larrey  suggests  the  following  sanitary  considerations  in  relation 
to  camps:  A  camp,  especially  if  permanent,  should  be  selected  so  as  to  be 


134  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [CAU 

accessible  to  the  troops  by  easy  marches ;  it  should  occupy  a  spacious 
plain,  in  a  province  exempt  from  both  epidemical  and  endemical  diseases; 
the  soil  should  be  dry,  but  not  too  hard,  so  that  it  may  quickly  imbibe 
the  rain ;  because  it  then  becomes  fit  for  military  operations  a  few  hours 
after  the  most  violent  shower.  This  prompt  absorption,  moreover,  pre- 
serves the  troops  from  the  baneful  influence  of  dampness  without  ex- 
posing them  to  the  inconveniences  of  want  of  water,  since  in  such  a  soil 
wells  may  be  easily  dug  and  water  found  at  an  inconsiderable  depth, 
as  is  the  case  at  Chalons.  A  good  camp  should  not  be  intersected  by 
streams  or  ditches,  nor  enclosed  by 'large  forests.  The  tents  should  not 
be  too  closely  packed,  in  order  to  insure  good  ventilation  throughout, 
and  diminish  the  probability  of  epidemics.  When  a  river  is  too  near 
a  camp,  and  its  banks  are  somewhat  marshy,  the  breaking  out  of  inter- 
mittent fever  should  be  prevented  by  deepening  the  bed  of  the  river, 
cleansing  it  as  much  as  possible  of  all  putrefying  vegetable  and  animal 
substances,  raising  the  banks  and  giving  them  at  the  same  time  a  greater 
inclination,  making  channels  for  carrying  off  the  water,  and  establishing 
tents  and  barracks  at  a  sufficient  distance,  and  as  much  as  possible  on 
rising  ground.  When  the  supply  of  water  to  a  camp  is  derived  from 
a  river,  the  latter  ought  to  be  divided  into  three  sections  :  the  first  and 
upper  one  to  be  exclusively  used  for  drink  by  the  men,  the  second  to 
be  reserved  for  the  horses,  and  the  third  and  lowermost  for  washing 
the  linen  of  the  troops.  These  demarcations  should  be  strictly  guarded 
by  sentinels  stationed  at  the  proper  places.  To  drive  off  dampness, 
bivouac-fires  ought  to  be  lighted  in  the  evening ;  each  tent,  moreover, 
should  be  surrounded  with  a  gutter  communicating  with  a  main  ditch  to 
carry  off  rain-water ;  the  space  occupied  by  certain  corps  should  also  be 
sanded  over,  to  facilitate  the  absorption  of  humidity  by  the  soil.  In 
pitching  tents  care  should  be  taken  to  maintain  between  them  a  distance 
of  at  least  two  metres  ;  those  of  the  general  officers  should  be  situated 
in  the  healthiest  quarter.  Tents  made  of  white  stuff  are  prejudicial  to 
the  eyesight  in  summer,  and  should  be  therefore  discarded.  A  tent 
being  liable  to  infection  like  a  room,  it  ought  not  to  be  hermetically 
closed,  as  is  the  custom  with  soldiers,  but,  on  the  contrary,  well  aired ; 
and  the  ground  ought  not  only  to  be  scraped  and  swept,  but  should  also 
be  well  rammed.  The  men  ought  not  to  sleep  in  the  tents  with  their 
heads  near  the  centre  and  their  feet  towards  the  circumference,  but  in 
the  contrary  position,  else  they  breathe  a  vitiated  instead  of  a  pure  air.  A 
tent,  generally  calculated  for  16  men,  ought  never  to  contain  more  than 
12  or  13  infantry,  and  8. or  10  cavalry.  'Of  the  different  kinds  of  tents 
the  conical  Turkish  tent  is  the  best ;  for  ambulances  the  marquee  is  pref- 


CAM.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  135 

erable.  The  tente-tfabri,  which  is  made  by  joining  two  camp-sacks  to- 
gether by  means  of  a  wooden  pole,  and  keeping  them  stretched  by 
small  stakes  stuck  into  the  ground,  is  a  most  precious  invention.  Four 
men  can  find  shelter  under  it,  and  the  weight  it  adds  to  their  kit  is 
trifling,  but  it  can  only  be  used  in  provisional  encampments.  The 
tents  of  the  cavalry  ought  to  be  freed  from  the  encumbrance  of  saddles 
and  accoutrements,  which  vitiate  the  air,  and  should  be  placed  under  small 
sheds  in  front  of  the  tents,  or,  better  still,  in  the  stable-barracks.  The 
men  should  be  encouraged  to  cultivate  little  patches  of  ground  around 
their  tents  as  gardens ;  it  is  both  an  amusement  and  a  means  of  purifying 
the  air,  only  they  must  not  be  allowed  to  manure  the  soil.  As  regards 
sleeping,  each  soldier  should  fill  a  camp-sack  with  straw  and  lie  down 
on  it  as  on  a  mattress,  with  his  blanket  to  cover  him ;  or,  better  still,  he 
should  get  into  the  sack  filled  with  straw — a  much  better  plan  than  al- 
lowing the  men  to  sleep  together  in  couples  on  two  sacks  spread  out  or. 
the  straw,  and  with  the  same  blanket  to  cover  them.  The  ground  on 
which  the  men  sleep  ought  to  be  swept  daily  and  sanded  over,  for  it 
easily  gets  infected ;  in  which  case  it  becomes  necessary  to  shift  the  tents 
— a  measure  which  is  often  sufficient  to  stop  an  epidemic  at  its  outbreak. 
A  reserve  of  planks  and  trestles  ought  to  be  kept  in  store  for  extem- 
pore bedsteads  when  the  ground  has  become  too  damp ;  or  water-proof 
canvas  may  be  spread  over  to  protect  the  straw  from  humidity.  In 
autumn  a  single  blanket  is  not  sufficient,  each  man  should  be  provided 
with  two. 

The  guards  of  camps  are  :  1.  The  Camp-guard,  which  serves  to 
keep  good  order  and  discipline,  prevent  desertions  and  give  the  alarm  ; 
2.  Detachments  of  infantry  and  cavalry,  denominated  pickets,  in  front 
and  on  the  flanks,  which  intercept  reconnoitring  parties  of  the  enemy, 
and  give  timely  notice  of  the  approach  of  an  enemy  ;  and  3.  Grand- 
guards,  or  out-posts,  which  are  large  detachments  posted  in  surrounding 
villages,  farm-houses  or  small  field-works,  from  which  they  can  watch 
the  movements  of  the  enemy.  They  should  not  be  so  far  from  the  camp 
as  to  be  beyond  succor  in  case  of  attack,  and  not  so  near  as  to  prevent 
timely  notice  being  given  to  the  main  body  of  the  army  on  the  approach 
of  an  enemy.  If  the  camp  is  to  present  the  same  front  as  the  troops  in 
order  of  battle,  400  military  paces  will  be  necessary  per  regiment  of  500 
files  front.  Immediately  after  arriving  on  the  ground,  the  number  of 
men  to  be  furnished  for  guards  and  pickets  are  detailed  ;  the  posts  to 
be  occupied  by  them  are  designated  ;  the  places  of  distribution  of  pro- 
visions are  mentioned,  and,  in  general,  all  arrangements  made  con- 
cerning the  interior  and  exterior  police  and  service  of  the  camp. 


136 


MILITARY  DICTIONARY. 


[CAM. 


The  tente-cTabri  has  been  introduced  in  the  French  service  since 
1837,  when  first  used  at  the  camp  of  Compiegne.  These  tents  con- 
sist of  a  tissue  of  cotton  cloth  impregnated  with  caoutchouc,  and 
thus  made  water-proof.  Every  man  carries  a  square  of  this  cloth, 
with  buttons  and  button-holes  around  it,  by  which  it  is  attached  to  the 
squares  carried  by  his  comrades,  and  an  excellent  shelter  for  six 
soldiers  is  made  as  follows  : — Three  tent-sticks  are  fixed  into  the 
ground,  whose  tops  are  notched ;  a  light  cord  is  then  passed  round 
their  tops,  and  fastened  into  the  ground  with  a  peg  at  each  end ; 
(Fig.  88.)  Two  sheets,  A  and  B,  are  buttoned  together  and  thrown 
over  the  cord,  and  then  two  other  sheets,  C  and  D  ;  and  C  is  buttoned 
to  A,  and  D  to  B.  Lastly,  another  sheet  is  thrown  over  each  of  the 
slanting  cords,  the  one  buttoned  to  A  and  B,  and  the  other  to  C  and  D  ; 
(Fig.  89.)  The  sides  of  the  tent  are  of  course  pegged  to  the  ground. 

FIG.  88. 


FIG.  89. 


There  are  many  modifications  in  the  way  of  pitching  these  tents.     For 
want  of  sticks,  muskets  can  be  used. 

Preparations  for  a  Storm. — Before  a  storm,  dig  a  ditch  as  deep  as 
you  can,  round  the  outside  of  the  tent,  to  turn  aside  the  rain-water,  and 
to  •  drain  the  ground  on  which  the  tent  is  standing — even  a  furrow 
scratched  with  a  tent-peg  is  better  than  nothing  at  all.  Fasten  guy- 
ropes  to  the  spike  of  the  tent-pole  ;  and  be  careful  that  the  tent  is  not 
too  much  on  the  strain,  else  the  further  shrinking  of  the  materials,  under 
the  influence  of  the  rain,  will  certainly  tear  up  the  pegs.  Earth,  banked 
up  round  the  bottom  of  the  tent,  will  prevent  gusts  of  wind  from  find- 
ing their  way  beneath.  The  accompanying  sketch  shows  a  tent  pitched 


CAM.] 


MILITARY  DICTIONARY. 


137 


for  a  lengthened  habitation.     It  has  a  deep  drain,  a  seat  and -table  dug 


FIG.  90. 


out,  and  a  fireplace.     (Fig.  90.) 

Tent  Furniture. — A 
portable  bedstead,  with 
musquito-curtains,  is  a 
very  great  luxury,  raising 
the  sleeper  above  the  damp 
soil,  and  the  attacks  of 
most  creatures  that  creep 
on  it  ;  where  a  few  lux- 
uries can  be  carried,  it  is 
a  very  proper  article  of 
baggage.  It  is  essential 
where  white  ants  are  nu- 
merous. Hammocks  and 
cots  have  but  few  advo- 
cates, as  it  is  rare  to  find 

places  adapted  for  swinging  them ;  they  are  quite  out  of  place  in  a 
small  tent. 

Chairs  and  Tables. — It  is  advisable  to  take  very  low  strong  and 
roomy  camp-stools,  with  tables  to  correspond  in  height,  as  a  chamber  is 
much  less  choked  up  when  the  seats  are  low,  or  when  people  sit,  as  in 
the  East,  on  the  ground.  The ,  seats  should  not  be  more  than  1  foot 
high,  though  as  wide  and  deep  as  an  ordinary  footstool ;  but  without  a 
scat,  a  man  can  never  write,  draw,  nor  calculate  as  well  as  if  he  has 
one.  The  stool  represented  in  Fig.  91  is  a  good  one;  it  has  a  full- 
sized  seat  made  of  leather  or  canvas,  or  else  of  strips  of  dressed  hide. 
For  want  of  a  chair,  it  is  convenient  to  dig  a  hole  or  a  trench  in  the 
ground,  and  to  sit  on  one  side  of  it,  with  the  feet  resting  on  its  bottom  ; 
the  opposite  side  of  the  trench  serves  as  a  table,  for  putting  things  on, 
within  easy  reach. 

FIG.  91.  FIG.  92. 


To  tie  clothes,  or  any  thing,  up  to  a  smooth  tent-pole,  a  strap  with 
hooks  in  it,  to  buckle  round  the  pole,  is  very  convenient.  The  method 
shown  in  Fig.  92  suffices,  if  the  pole  is  notched,  or  jointed,  or  in  any 


138  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [CAM. 

way  slightly  uneven.  Bags,  &c.,  are  hung  upon  the  bit  of  wood  that 
is  secured  to  the  loose  end.  The  luxuries  and  elegancies  practicable  in 
tent  life  are  only  limited  by  the  means  of  transport.  The  articles  that 
make  the  most  show  are  handsome  rugs,  and  skins,  and  pillows ;  can- 
teens of  dinner  and  coffee  services,  &c. ;  and  candles,  with  screens  of 
glass,  or  other  arrangements  to  prevent  them  from  flickering.  The  art 
of  luxurious  tenting  is  better  understood  in  Persia  than  in  any  other 
country,  even  than  in  India. 

Losing  things. — Small  things  are  constantly  mislaid  and  trampled 
in  the  sand :  to  search  for  them,  the  ground  should  be  disturbed  as 
little  as  possible — it  is  a  usual  plan  to  score  its  surface  in  parallel  lines 
with  a  thin  wand.  It  would  be  well  worth  while  to  make  and  use  a 
small  light  rake  for  this  purpose. 

Huts. — In  making  a  depot,  it  is  usual  to  build  a  house ;  often  the 
men  have  to  pass  weeks  in  inactivity,  and  they  may  as  well  spend  them 
in  making  their  quarters  comfortable,  as  in  idleness.  Whatever  huts 
the  natives  live  in  are  sure,  if  made  with  extra  care,  to  be  sufficient  for 
travellers. 

Walls.—The  materials  whence  the  walls  of  huts  may  be  constructed, 
are  very  numerous,  and  there  is  hardly  any  place  which  does  not  fur- 
nish one  or  other  of  them.  Those  principally  in  use  are  as  follows : 
Skins,  canvas,  felt,  tarpauling,  bark,  reed  mats,  reed  walls,  straw  walls, 
wattle-and-dab,  log-huts,  fascines  or  fagots,  boards,  &c.,  fastened  by 
Malay-hitch,  brick,  sunburnt  or  baked,  turf,  stones,  gabions,  bags  or 
mats  filled  with  sand  or  shingle,  snow  huts,  underground  huts,  tents 
over  holes  in  earth. 

Roofs. — Many  of  the  above  list  would  be  perfectly  suitable  for 
roofs  :  in  addition  may  be  mentioned  slating  with  flat  stones,  thatch, 
sea-weed,  and  wood  shingles. 

Floors. — Cowdung  and  ashes  make  a  hard,  dry,  and  clean  floor,  such 
as  is  used  for  a  threshing-floor.  Ox-blood  and  fine  clay,  kneaded  to- 
gether, are  excellent ;  both  these  compositions  are  used  in  all  hot,  dry 
countries. 

Tarpaulings,  made  in  the  sailors'  way,  are  much  superior  to  others 
in  softness  and  durability.  As  soon  as  the  canvas  is  sewn  together,  it 
is  thoroughly  wetted  with  sea-water ;  and,  while  still  wet,  is  done  over 
on  one  side  with  tar  and  grease  boiled  together — about  two  parts  tar 
and  one  of  grease.  Being  hung  up  till  dry,  it  is  turned  ;  and  the  other 
side,  being  a  second  time  well  wetted,  is  at  once  painted  over  with  the 
tar  and  grease  just  as  the  first  side  had  been  done  before.  The  sailors 
say  that  "  the  tar  dries  in  as  the  water  dries  out." 


CAM.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  139 

Bark. — It  is  an  art  to  strip  it  quickly — the  Australians  understand 
it  well.  Two  rings  are  cut  round  the  tree  ;  the  one  as  high  as  can  be 
reached,  the  other  low  down.  A  vertical  slit  is  then  made,  and  the 
whole  piece  forced  off  with  axes,  &c.  In  spring  the  bark  comes  off 
readiest  from  the  sunny  side  of  the  tree.  A  large  sheet  of  bark  is  ex- 
ceedingly heavy.  It  is  flattened,  as  it  lies  on  the  ground,  by  weighting 
it  with  large  stones,  and  allowing  it  to  dry,  partially  at  least,  in  that 
position. 

Straw  Walls  of  the  following  kind  are  very  effective,  and  they  have 
the  advantage  of  requiring  a  minimum  of  string  (or  substitute  for 
string)  in  their  manufacture.  The  straw,  or  herbage  of  almost  any 
description,  is  simply  nipped  between  two  pair  of  long  sticks,  which  are 
respectively  tied  together  at  the  two  ends,  and  at  a  sufficient  number 
of  intermediate  places.  The  whole  is  neatly  squared  and  trimmed ; 
(Fig.  93.)  A  few  of  these  would  help  in  finishing  the  roof  or  walls  of  a 
house.  They  can  be  made  movable,  so  as  to  suit  the  wind,  shade,  and 
aspect.  Even  the  hut  door  can  be  made  on  this  principle. 

Log-huts. — In  building  log-huts,  four  poles  are  planted  in  the  ground 
to  correspond  to  the  four  corners :  against  these,  logs  are  piled  one 
above  another,  as  in  Fig.  94 ;  they  are  so  deeply  notched  where  they 

Fio.  94. 


FIG.  93. 


cross  one  another,  that  the  adjacent  sides  are  firmly  dovetailed. together. 
When  the  walls  are  entirely  completed,  the  doors  and  windows  are 
chopped  out,  and  the  spaces  between  the  logs  must  be  well  caulked 
with  moss,  &c.,  or  the  log-cabin  will  be  little  better  than  a  log-cage. 
It  of  course  requires  a  great  many  trees  to  make  a  log-hut ;  for,  sup- 
posing the  walls  to  be  8  feet  high,  and  the  trees  to  average  8  inches  in 
diameter,  it  would  require  12  trees  to  build  up  one  side,  or  48  to  make 
all  four  walls. 

Malay  hitch. — I  know  no  better  name  for  the  following  wonderfully 
simple  way  of  attaching  together  wisps  of  straw,  rods,  laths,  reeds, 
planks,  poles,  or  any  thing  of  the  kind,  into  a  secure  and  flexible  mat ; 


140 


MILITARY  DICTIONARY. 


[CAM. 


FIG.  95. 


the  sails  used  in  the  far  East  are  made  in  this  way,  and  the  movable  decks 
are  made  of  bamboos  joined  together  with  a  similar  but  rather  more 
complicated  stitch ;  (Fig.  95.)  Soldiers  might  be  trained  to  a  great  deal 

of  hutting  practice  in  a  very  inexpeh- 
sive  way  if  they  were  drilled  at  put- 
ting together  huts  whose  roofs  and 
walls  were  made  of  planks  lashed 
together  by  this  simple  hitch,  and 
whose  supports  were  short  scaffold- 
irig-poles  planted  in  deep  holes  dug 
without  spades  or  any  thing  but 
the  hand  and  a  small  .stick.  The 
poles,  planks,  and  cords  might  be 
used  over  and  over  again  for  an  in- 
definite time.  Further,  bedsteads  could  be  made  in  a  similar  way  by 
short  cross  planks  lashed  together,  and  resting  on  a  framework  of 
horizontal  poles  lashed  to  uprights  planted  in  the  ground.  The  sol- 
dier's bedding  would  not  be  injured  by  being  used  on  these  bedsteads, 
in  the  way  it  would  be  if  laid  on  the  bare  gound.  Many  kinds  of 
designs  and  experiments  in  hutting  could  be  practised  without  expense 
in  this  simple  way. 

Snow-houses. — Few  travellers  have  habitually  made  snow-houses, 
except  Sir  J.  Franklin's  party,  and  that  of  Dr.  Rae.  Great  praises  are 
bestowed  on  the  comfort  of  them  by  all  travellers,  but  skill  and  prac- 
tice are  required  in  building  them.  The  mode  of  erection  of  these 
dome-shaped  buildings  is  as  follows  : — It  is  to  be  understood  that  the 
hard,  compact,  underlying  snow  is  necessary  for  the  bottom  of  the  hut ; 
and  that  the  looser  textured,  upper  layer  of  snow  is  used  to  build  the 
house.  First,  select  and  mark  out  the  circular  plot  on  which  the  hut 
is  to  be  raised.  Then,  cut  out  with  knives  deep  slices  of  snow,  six 
inches  wide,  three  feet  long,  and  of  a  depth  equal  to  that  of  the  layer 
of  loose  snow,  say  one  or  two  feet.  These  slices  are  curved,  so  as  to 
form  a  circular  ring  when  placed  on  their  edges,  and  of  a  size  to  make 
the  first  row  of  snow-bricks  for  the  house.  Other  slices  are  cut  for  the 
succeeding  rows ;  and,  when  the  roof  has  to  be  made,  the  snow-bricks 
are  cut  with  the  necessary  double  curvature.  A  conical  plug  fills  up 
the  centre.  Loose  snow  is  then  heaped  over  the  house,  to  fill  up 
crevices.  Lastly,  a  doorway  is  cut  out  with  knives  ;  also  a  window, 
which  is  glazed  with  a  sheet  of  the  purest  ice  at  hand.  For  the  inside 
accommodation,  there  is  a  pillar  or  two,  to  support  lamps. 

Underground  Huts  are  used  in  all  quarters  of  the  globe.     The  ex- 


CAM.] 


MILITARY  DICTIONARY. 


141 


FIG.  96. 


Of  course  the  earth  is  re- 


perience  of  the  British  troops  encamped  before  Sebastopol  tells  strongly 
in  their  favor,  as  habitations  during  an  inclement  season.  The  timely 
adoption  of  them  was  the  salvation  of  the  British  army.  They  are, 
essentially,  nothing  else  than  holes  in  the  ground,  roofed  over.  The 
shape  and  size  of  the  hole  correspond  to  that  of  the  roof  it  may  be 
possible  to  procure  for  it ;  its  depth  is  no  greater  than  requisite.  If 
the  roof  have  a  pitch  of  2  feet  in  the  middle,  the  depth  of  the.  hole  need 
not  exceed  4£  feet.  In  the  Crimea, 
the  holes  were  rectangular,  and 
roofed  like  huts  ;  (Fig.  96.) 
Where  there  is  a  steep  hill  side, 
a,  a,  an  underground  hut,  5,  is 
easily  contrived ;  because  branch- 
es laid  over  its  top  have  sufficient 
pitch  to  throw  off  the  rain,  with- 
out having  recourse  to  any  uprights,  &c. 
moved  from  d,  at  the  doorway. 

tynts  pitched  over  excavations. — A  hole  may  be  dug  deeply  beneath 
the  tent  floor,  partly  as  a  store-room,  and  partly  as  a  living-room  when 
the  weather  is  very  inclement.  This,  also,  was  done  before  Sebastopol 
in  the  manner  shown  in  the  engraving. 

Thatching. — After  the  framework  of  the  roof  has  been  made,  the 
thatcher  begins  at  the  bottom,  and  ties  a  row  of  bundles  of  straw,  side 
by  side,  on  to  the  framework.  Then  he  begins  a  second  row,  allowing 
the  ends  of  the  bundles  composing  it  to  overlap  the  heads  of  those  in 
the  first  row. 

Wood  Shingles  are  tile-shaped  slices  of  wood,  easily  cut  from,  fir- 
trees,  and  used  for  roofing  on  the  same  principle  as  tiles  or  slates. 

Fix  hooked  sticks,  and  cow  or  goat  horns,  round  the  walls,  as  pegs 
to  hang  things  on;  and  if  you  went  a  luxurious  bed,  make  a  framework 
of  wood,  with  strips  of  raw  hide  lashed  across  it  from  end  to  end,  and 
from  side  to  side ;  (Fig.  97.)  If  you  collect  bed  feathers,  recollect  that  if 

FIG.  97. 


cleanly  plucked  they  require  no  dressing  of  any  kind,  save  drying  and 
beating.  Concrete  for  floors  is  made  of  80  parts  large  pebbles,  40 
river  sand,  10  lime ;  lime  is  made  by  burning  limestone,  chalk,  shells, 


142 


MILITARY  DICTIONARY. 


[CAM. 


or  coral,  in  a  simple  furnace,  and  whitewash  is  lime  and  water.  Bark 
makes  a  good  roof.  The  substitutes  for  glass  are — waxed  or  oiled 
paper  or  cloth,  bladder,  fish-membranes,  talc,  and  horn.  Glass  cannot 
be  cut  with  any  certainty  without  a  diamond  ;  but  it  may  be  shaped 
and  reduced  to  any  size  by  gradually  chipping,  or  rather  biting,  away 
at  its  edges  with  a  key,  if  the  slit  between  its  wards  be  just  large 
enough  to  admit  the  pane  of  glass  easily.  A  window,  or  rather  a  hole 
in  the  wall,  may  be  rudely  shuttered  by  a  stick  run  through  loops 
made  out  of  wisps  of  grass.  In  hot  weather  the  windows  of  the  hut 
may  be  loosely  filled  with  grass,  which,  when  well-watered,  makes  the 
hut  much  cooler.  A  mosquito-curtain  may  be  taken  and  suspended 
over  the  bed,  or  place  where  you  sit.  It  is  very  pleasant,  in  hot,  mos- 
quito-plagued countries,  to  take  the  glass  sash  entirely  out  of  the  win- 
dow frame,  and  replace  it  with  one  of  gauze.  Broad  network,  if  of 
fluffy  thread,  keeps  wasps  out.  The  darker  a  house  is  kept,  the  less 
willing  are  flies,  &c.,  to  flock  in.  If  sheep  and  other  cattle  be  near  the 
house,  the  nuisance  of  flies,  &c.,  becomes  almost  intolerable  ;  (GALTON'S 
Art  of  Travel.) 

Major  II.  IT.  Sibley,  2d  Dragoons,  has  invented  a  tent  in  which 
a  fire  can  be  made  in  its  centre,  and  all  soldiers  sleep  with  their  feet 
to  the  fire.     Major  Sibley's  tent  is  conical,  light,  easily  pitched,  erected 
FIG.  98.  on   a   tripod   holding  a 

single  pole,  and  will  com- 
fortably accommodate 
twelve  soldiers  with  their 
accoutrements.  Where 
means  of  transportation 
admit  of  tents  being  used, 
Major  Sibley's  will  prob- 
ably supersede  all  others. 
(Fig.  98.) 

A  commander  of  troops 
usually  sends  in  advance 
to  prepare  the  camp.  The 
camping  party  of  a  regi- 
ment may  be  the  regi- 
mental quartermaster, 
and  quartermaster-ser- 
geant, and  a  corporal  and 
two  men  per  company.  The  camp  of  a  larger  detachment  is  prepared  by 
the  chief  quartermaster  or  some  officer  of  the  general's  staff,  designated 


CAM.] 


MILITARY  DICTIONARY. 


143 


by  the  commander  of  the  troops  assisted  by  the  company  camping  par- 
ties of  regiments.  With  camp  colors  the  direction  of  the  front  line  of  the 
camp  is  marked,  and  the  extent  of  the  front  of  each  corps,  the  intervals 
between  corps,  and  the  beginning,  breadth,  and  direction  of  streets  desig- 
nated. When  the  encampment  is  on  two  lines,  let  there  be  450  paces 
between  their  respective  fronts.  Behind  intrenchments  there  ought  to 
be  about  300  paces  between  the  entrenchments  and  the  front  of  the 
camp.  The  posts  of  the  police  guard  will  be  designated,  and  the  neces- 
sary works  to  secure  communication  between  the  parts  of  the  camp 
will  also  be  determined.  Fig.  99  gives  details  for  the  camp  of  a  regi- 
ment of  infantry. 


FIG.  99. 

WAKCfU  ( 


44- 


3  um  mm  a  a  mm  mm  mm  mm  am  EI  a 
a  a  mm  mm  mm  mm  mm  mm  EH  mm 
mm  mm  mm  mm  mm  mm  mm  mm  mm 


Jfoti-Cou?  STAFF. 


fouce  GUARD. 

XXH  a 


SUTLER. 

| 


Q*M?      ITCoL. 


Coi.         ^DJT 

E'_J  •  EJ 


MAJ. 

LJ 


D    sa  B 

Su*K« 
^J 


. 

iS 

4-00  FACES 


Camp  of  Cavalry. — In  the  cavalry,  each  company  has  one  file  of  tents 
— the  tents  opening  on  the  street  facing  the  left  of  the  camp.  The  horses 
of  each  company  are  placed  in  a  single  file,  facing  the  opening  of  the  tents, 
and  are  fastened  to  pickets  planted  firmly  in  the  ground,  from  3  to  6 
paces  from  the  tents  of  the  troops.  The  interval  between  the  file  of 
tents  should  be  such  that,  the  regiment  being  broken  into  columns  of 
companies,  each  company  should  be  on  the  extension  of  the  line  on 


144  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [CAM. 

which  the  horses  are  to  be  picketed.  The  streets  separating  the 
squadrons  are  wider  than  those  between  the  companies  by  the  interval 
separating  squadrons  in  line ;  these  intervals  are  kept  free  from  any 
obstruction  throughout  the  camp.  The  horses  of  the  rear  rank  are 
placed  on  the  left  of  those  of  their  file-leaders.  The  horses  of  the  lieu- 
tenants are  placed  on  the  right  of  their  platoons  ;  those  of  the  captains 
on  the  right  of  the  company.  Each  horse  occupies  a  space  of  about  2 
paces.  The  number  of  horses  in  the  company  fixes  the  depth  of  the 
camp,  and  the  distance  between  the  files  of  tents  ;  the  forage  is  placed 
between  the  tents.  The  kitchens  are  20  paces  in  front  of  each  file  of 
tents.  The  non-commissioned  officers  are  in  the  tents  of  the  front  rank. 
Camp-followers,  teamsters,  &c.,  are  in  the  rear  rank.  The  police  guard 
in  the  rear  rank,  near  the  centre  of  the  regiment.  The  tents  of  the 
lieutenants  are  30  paces  in  rear  of  the  file  of  their  company  ;  the  tents 
of  the  captains  30  paces  in  rear  of  the  lieutenants.  The  colonel's  tent 
30  paces  in  rear  of  the  captains',  near  the  centre  of  the  regiment ;  the 
lieutenant-colonel  on  his  right ;  the  adjutant  on  his  left ;  the  majors  on 
the  same  line,  opposite  the  2d  company  on  the  right  and  left ;  the  sur. 
geon  on  the  left  of  the  adjutant.  The  field  and  staff  have  their  horses 
on  the  left  of  their  tents,  on  the  same  line  with  the  company  horses ; 
sick  horses  are  placed  in  one  line  on  the  right  or  left  of  the  camp.  The 
men  who  attend  them  have  a  separate  file  of  tents  ;  the  forges  and 
wagons  in  rear  of  this  file.  The  horses  of  the  train  and  of  camp-follow- 
ers are  in  one  or  more  files  extending  to  the  rear,  behind  the  right  or 
left  squadron.  The  advanced  post  of  the  police  guard  is  200  paces  in 
front,  opposite  the  centre  of  the  regiment ;  the  horses  in  one  or  two  files. 
The  sinks  for  the  men  are  150  paces  in  front — those  for  officers  100  paces 
in  rear  of  the  camp. 

Camp  of  Artillery. — The  artillery  is  encamped  near  the  troops  to 
which  it  is  attached,  so  as  to  be  protected  from  attack,  and  to  contribute 
to  the  defence  of  the  camp.  Sentinels  for  the  park  are  furnished  by 
the  artillery,  and  when  necessary,  by  the  other  troops.  For  a  battery 
of  six  pieces  the  tents  are  in  three  files — one  for  each  section  ;  distance 
between  the  ranks  of  tents  15  paces  ;  tents  opening  to  the  front.  The 
horses  of  each  section  are  picketed  in  one  file,  10  paces  to  the  left  of 
the  file  of  tents.  In  the  horse  artillery,  or  if  the  number  of  horses  make 
it  necessary,  the  horses  are  in  two  files  on  the  right  and  left  of  the  file 
of  tents.  The  kitchens  are  25  paces  in  front  of  the  front  rank  of  tents. 
The  tents  of  the  officers  are  in  the  outside  files  of  company  tents,  25 
paces  in  rear  of  the  rear  rank — the  captain  on  the  right,  the  lieutenants 
on  the  left.  The  park  is  opposite  the  centre  of  the  camp,  40  paces  in 


CAP.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  145 

rear  of  the  officers'  tents.  The  carriages  in  files  4  paces  apart ;  dis- 
tance between  ranks  of  carriages  sufficient  for  the  horses  when 
harnessed  to  them ;  the  park  guard  is  25  paces  in  rear  of  the  park. 
The  sinks  for  the  men  150  paces  in  front ;  for  the  officers  100  paces  in 
rear.  The  harness  is  in  the  tents  of  the  men.  (Consult  BARDIN;  Me- 
morial des  Offiders  d*  Infanterie  et  de  Cavalerie;  GALTON'S  Art  of  Travel.) 

CAMP  AND  GARRISON  EQUIPAGE.  (See  CAMP  ;  CLOTHING ; 
TOOLS  ;  UTENSILS  ;  QUARTERMASTER'S  DEPARTMENT.) 

CAMPAIGN.  The  period  of  a  year  that  an  army  keeps  the  field 
from  the  opening  of  a  campaign  until  the  return  to  quarters  or  canton- 
ments at  the  end  of  the  campaign.  A  series  of  continuous  field  opera- 
tions. An  ordinary  campaign,  in  respect  to  recompense  for  length  of 
service,  is  counted  as  two  years  of  effective  service  in  the  French  army. 
In  all  services  excepting  our  own,  additional  allowances  in  campaign  are 
made  to  troops  beyond  those  given  at  other  periods.  (See  ALLOWANCES.) 

CANISTER — for  field  service,  consists  of  a  tin  cylinder  attached 
to  a  sabot,  and  filled  with  cast-iron  shot.  For  siege  and  garrison  guns 
the  bottom  is  of  cast  iron,  and  the  cover  of  sheet  iron  with  a  handle 
made  of  iron  wire.  (See  SABOT.) 

CANNON.     (See  CALIBRE  ;  ORDNANCE.) 

CANTEEN.  A  small  tin  caoutchouc  or  circular  wooden  vessel, 
used  by  soldiers  on  active  service  to  carry  liquor,  &c.  A  small  trunk  or 
chest,  containing  culinary  and  other  utensils  for  the  use  of  officers.  A  kind 
of  suttling  house,  kept  in  garrisons,  &c.,  for  the  convenience  of  the  troops. 

CANTONMENTS.  Troops  are  said  to  be  in  cantonments  when 
detached  and  quartered  in  the  different  towns  and  villages,  lying  as  near 
as  possible  to  each  other.  (See  CAMP.) 

CAPITAL.     The  line  drawn  bisecting  the  salient  angle  of  a  work. 

CAPITULATION.  Articles  of  agreement,  by  which  besieged 
troops  surrender  at  discretion,  or  with  the  honors  of  war.  The 
terms  granted  depend  upon  circumstances  of  time,  place,  &c.  Any 
surrender  in  the  open  field  without  fighting  was  stigmatized  by  Napoleon 
as  dishonorable,  as  was  also  the  surrender  of  a  besieged  place  without 
the  advice  of  a  majority  of  a  council  of  defence,  before  the  enemy  had 
been  forced  to  resort  to  successive  siege-works,  and  had  been  once  re- 
pulsed from  an  assault  through  a  practicable  breach  in  the  body  of  the 
place,  and  the  besieged  were  without  means  to  sustain  a  second  assault ; 
or  else  the  besieged  were  without  provisions  or  munitions  of  war. 

CAPONNIERE.     Passage  from  the  place  to  an  outwork;  it  is 
either  single  or  double,  sometimes  bomb-proof  and  loopholed.     (See 
FORTIFICATION.) 
10 


146  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [CAP. 

CAPS.  Percussion  caps  for  small  arms  are  formed  by  a  machine 
•which  cuts  a  star  or  blank  from  the  sheet  of  copper,  and  transfers  it 
to  a  die  in  which  the  cap  is  shaped  by  means  of  a  punch.  The  powder 
with  which  caps  are  charged  consists  of  fulminate  of  mercury,  mixed 
with  half  its  weight  of  saltpetre. 

CAPTAIN.  Rank  in  the  army  between  major  and  1st  lieutenant, 
charged  with  the  arms,  accoutrements,  ammunition,  clothing,  or  other 
Vvarlike  stores  belonging  to  the  troops  or  company  under  his  command  ; 
(ART.  40.) 

CAPTURE.     (See  PRIZE  ;  BOOTY.) 

CARBINE.  A  cavalry  weapon  intermediate  in  weight  and  length 
between  rifle  and  pistol,  and  usually  breech-loading.  (For  PISTOL-CAR- 
BINE, see  ARMS.)  Carbines  for  the  United  States'  service  have  been 
obtained  from  the  following  manufactories  : — Samuel  Colt's,  Hartford, 
Conn. — Colt's  Revolving  Pistols,  Rifles,  and  Carbines ;  Sharpe's  Arms- 
Manufacturing  Company,  Hartford,  Conn.,  for  Sharpe's  Carbines  and 
Rifles ;  Charles  Jackson,  Providence,  R.  I.,  for  Burnside's  Carbines ; 
and  Maynard's  Arms  Company,  Washington,  D.  C.,  for  Maynard's 
Rifles  and  Carbines.  The  breech-loading  arms  of  the  foregoing  manu- 
factories have  been  tried  more  or  less  in  service,  and  favorably  reported 
upon  by  boards  of  officers.  They  are  considered  good  cavalry  arms, 
but  neither  have  yet  been  pronounced  the  best  by  the  ordnance  depart- 
ment. (See  ORDNANCE  DEPARTMENT.) 

The  distinguishing  feature  of  a  breech-loading  arm  is  the  method  of 
closing  the  breech.  One  of  the  most  serious  defects  of  these  arms  was 
the  escape  of  gas  through  the  joint.  This  defect  has  been  removed  by 
•  closing  the  joint  at  the  moment  of  discharge  by  the  action  of  the  gas 
itself.  This  operation,  called  packing  the  joint,  is  accomplished  :  1st. 
By  the  use  of  cartridge  cases  of  sheet  brass,  India  rubber,  or  other  ma- 
terial ;  or,  2d.  By  the  use  of  a  thin,  elastic  ring  of  steel,  which  overlies 
the  joint.  By  the  first  method  the  case  is  permanently  distended,  (but 
may  be  safely  used  for  several  fires,)  and  some  arrangement  is  required 
to  remove  it  from  the  chamber.  In  the  second  method,  the  ring  or  gas 
check  is  a  part  of  the  arm  ;  and  its  elasticity  causes  it  to  return  to  its 
original  form  after  the  discharge. 

Burnside's  Carbine  is  an  example  of  the  first  method ;  it  has  a  mov- 
able chamber  which  opens  by  turning  on  a  hinge.  A  brass  cartridge 
case  is  used  which  packs  the  joint  and  cuts  off  the  escape  of  the  gas. 
The  advantages  of  this  arm  are  :  its  strength,  water-proof  cartridges, 
perfectly  tight  joint,  and  working  machinery.  Its  disadvantages  are 
the  cost,  and  difficulty  of  getting  the  cartridges. 


CAR.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  147 

Sharpens  Carbine  has  a  fixed  chamber,  and  the  breech  is  closed  by 
a  slide  which  moves  nearly  at  right  angles  to  the  axis  of  the  barrel. 
By  boring  a  recess  into  the  face  of  the  slide,  opposite  to  the  chamber, 
and  inserting  a  tightly -fitting  ring  into  it,  so  that  the  inner  rim  is 
pressed  against  the  end  of  the  barrel  at  the  instant  of  discharge,  the 
escape  of  gas  is  prevented. 

Maynard's  Carbine  has  a  fixed  chambered  piece,  with  the  joint 
closed  by  a  metallic  cartridge  case.  (  Consult  BENTON.) 

CARCASS.  Combustible  composition  enclosed  in  globes,  formed 
with  iron  hoops,  canvas,  and  cord,  generally  of  an  oblong  shape,  and 
thrown  from  mortars  or  stone  mortars ;  it  is  used  in  bombardments, 
firing  shipping,  &c. 

CARPENTRY.  An  assemblage  of  pieces  of  timber  connected  by 
framing  or  letting  them  into  each  other,  as  are  the  pieces  of  a  roof,  floor, 
centre  of  a  bridge,  &c.  It  is  distinguished  from  joiners'  work,  by  be- 
ing put  together  without  using  other  tools  than  the  axe,  adze,  saw, 
and  chisel.  Troops  frequently  are  obliged  to  hut  themselves,  make 
bridges,  &c.,  and  some  knowledge  of  rough  carpentry  is  essential  in 
roofing  and  centring.  The  obvious  mode  of  covering  a  building  is  to 
place  two  sloping  rafters  upon  two  walls,  meeting  in  the  apex,  where  we 
will  suppose  them  connected.  (Fig.  100.)  It  is  plain  that  the  weight 
of  this  rafter  will  tend  to  thrust  the  walls  from  its  vertical  line.  This  is 
prevented  by  tying  together  the  feet  of  the  rafters,  by  means  of  another 
beam  called  a  tie  beam.  Beyond  certain  lengths  or  spans,  however,  it 
is  apparent  that  the  tie  beam  will  itself  have  a  tendency  to  bend  or  sag 
in  the  middle,  and  accordingly  it  becomes  necessary  to  resort  to  another 
contrivance  called  a  king  post,  but  more  properly  a  king  piece,  as  it 
performs  the  office  of  tying  up  the  tie  beam  to  prevent  it  from  bending. 
If  the  rafters  be  so  long  as  to  be  liable  to  bend,  two  pieces  called  struts 
are  introduced,  which  have  their  footing  against  the  sides  of  the  king 
post,  and  act  as  posts 

to  strut  up  the  rafters  FlG>  m 

at  their  weakest  point. 
This  piece  of  framing 
thus  contrived  is  called 
a  truss.  It  is  obvious 
that,  by  means  of  the 
upper  joints  of  the 
struts,  we  can  obtain 
more  points  of  sup- 
port or  rather  suspension.  It  is  not,  however,  necessary  to  truss 


148  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [CAR. 

all,  but  only  the  principal  rafters  of  a  building.  These  principal 
rafters  must  never  be  more  than  ten  feet  apart,  and  by  the  inter 
vention  of  a  pur  line  they  are  made  to  bear  the  smaller  rafters,  the 
latter  being  notched  down  on  the  purline.  These  common  rafters  are 
received  by  or  pitch  upon  a  plate  called  a  pole  plate,  and  the  principal 
rafters  which  pitch  upon  the  tie  beam,  are  ultimately  borne  by  a  wall 
plate.  When  beams  in  either  roofs  or  floors  are  so  long  that  they  can- 
not be  procured  in  one  piece,  two  pieces  to  form  the  required  length 
are  scarfed  together,  by  indenting  them  at  their  joints,  and  bolting  them 
together  thus  :  (Fig.  101.) 


The  following  simple  manner  of  putting  up  balloon  frames,  that  is, 
frames  without  tenons  or  mortises,  is  given  in  the  language  of  a  build- 
er in  our  western  country  :  The  best  size  for  a  small  house  is  16  by  32 
feet,  divided  into  three  rooms  and  only  one  story  high,  unless  roofing  is 
very  expensive.  For  such  a  building  six  pieces  of  scantling  are  required, 
cut  2  by  8,  or  2i  by  10  inches,  16  feet  long  for  sills,  and  seventeen  pieces 
for  sleepers,  with  seventeen  pieces  of  same  size,  18  feet  long,  for  upper 
floor  joists.  The  studs  must  be  2  by  4,  or  2|  by  5  inches,  and  8,  9  or  10 
feet  long,  as  you  wish  the  height  of  your  ceiling.  The  end  studs  may 
be  longer,  so  as  to  run  up  to  the  rafters  ;  but  this  is  not  important,  since 
studs  may  be  spliced  anywhere  by  simply  butting  the  ends  together 
and  nailing  strips  of  boards  upon  each  side,  or  the  timbers  may  lap  by 
each  other  and  be  held  in  place  by  a  few  nails  till  the  siding  is  nailed 
on.  But  to  begin  at  the  foundation  :  Lay  down  two  of  the  sixteen  feet 
timbers  flatwise  upon  blocks  or  stones,  if  you  can  get  them,  and  make 
them  level  all  around.  Nail  on  strips  where  the  ends  of  the  sills  butt 
together,  and  halve  on  the  end  sills  and  nail  them  together  at  the  corners, 
and  put  on  the  sleepers,  with  a  stout  nail  toed-in  upon  each  side  to  hold 
them  in  place.  Cut  all  your  side  studs  of  an  exact  length  and  square  at 
each  end,  and  set  up  one  at  each  corner  exactly  plumb  and  fasten  them 
with  stay-laths  on  the  inside.  Now  measure  off  for  your  doors  and 
windows  on  the  sides  of  the  house,  and  set  up.  studs  for  them.  You  are 
now  ready  to  put  on  the  plates,  which  are  nothing  but  strips  of  inch 
board,  just  the  width  of  your  studs,  spliced  in  length  just  as  directed  for 
splicing  studs.  The  next  step  is  to  put  up  the  rest  of  the  studs,  nailing 


CAR.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  140 

through  the  plate  into  their  tops,  and  toeing  nails  through  the  bot- 
toms into  the  sills.  Hands  may  now  commence  at  once  to  nail  the 
sheathing-boards  upon  the  sides,  while  others  are  putting  up  the 
joists,  which  should  be  18  feet  long  and  either  2  by  8  or  2£  by  10 
inches,  according  to  the  strength  of  the  timber.  Pine  and  poplar 
should  always  be  of  the  larger  dimensions.  Cut  notches  one  inch 
deep  in  the  lower  .edge  of  the  joists,  so  that  they  will  lock  on  to 
the  plate,  and  project  over  the  sides  one  foot  at  each  end.  Nail  up 
through  the  plate  into  the  joists  with  stout  nails,  having  just  as  many 
joists  as  pairs  of  rafters,  the  feet  of  which  are  to  stand  on  and  be  nailed 
to  the  joists,  which  project  the  eaves  a  foot  beyond  the  sides.  This, 
however,  may  be  dispensed  with,  if  short  eaves  are  preferred,  or  if  tim- 
ber cannot  be  got  long  enough.  The  end  studs  will  be  nailed  both  to 
the  sill  and  end  sleeper  and  to  the  end  joists,  and  to  the  rafter  if  long 
enough  to  reach  up,  and  if  not  splice  them  as  before  directed.  Finish 
sheathing  the  sides  and  ends  before  you  put  on  the  roof.  The  siding 
may  be  afterward  put  on  at  your  leisure.  Boards  three-fourths  of  an 
inch  thick  make  good  sheathing ;  and  the  best  plan  is  to  put  them  on 
without  any  regard  to  fitting  the  edges,  and  batten  all  the  cracks  on 
the  inside  with  waste  pieces  of  boards  or  shingles.  When  shingles  are 
inexpensive  tliey  make  a  better  siding  and  cheaper  than  sawed  clap- 
boards. You  will  find  it  a  great  saving  of  labor  to  lay  the  upper  floor 
before  you  put  on  the  roof.  If  you  wish  to  make  your  house  one  and 
a  half  or  two  stories  high,  the  following  is  the  way  the  chamber  floor 
joists  are  supported  :  Take  a  strip  of  board  one  inch  thick  and  five 
inches  wide,  and  let  it  into  the  face  of  the  studs  on  the  inside  and  nail 
it  fast  and  set  your  joists  on  this  and  nail  them  to  the  studs,  and  also 
notch  your  floor  boards  in  between  all  the  studs  and  nail  fast ;  and  you 
will  find,  when  done,  that  no  old-fashioned  frame  with  its  heavy  oak 
timbers  and  months  of  mortising,  with  all  its  braces,  was  ever  stiffer 
than  your  "  balloon,"  which  two  men  can  frame  and  raise,  and  cover  and 
lay  the  floors,  and  get  ready  to  move  into  in  one  week's  time.  There  is 
no  difficulty  in  making  a  balloon  frame-house  of  any  other  size  desired, 
by  putting  in  the  partitions  before  you  put  on  the  upper  joists,  so  as  to 
rest  them  upon  the  caps  in  the  same  way  as  upon  the  sides.  For  a  house, 
say  thirty-two  feet  wide,  the  upper  joists  would  be  the  same  length  as 
for  a  house  sixteeen  feet,  the  inner  ends  resting  upon  the  cap  of  a  centre 
partition,  where  they  would  be  strongly  spliced,  as  we  have  directed,  by 
nailing  strips  upon  each  side.  The  rafters  of  such  a  wide  roof  should 
be  stayed  in  the  middle  by  strips  nailed  upon  the  sides  of  rafters  and 
joists,  to  prevent  sagging  ;  as  it  is  always  to  be  borne  in  mind  that  all 


150  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [CAR. 

the  timbers  of  such  a  building  are  to  be  as  light  as  possible ;  the  strength 
being  obtained  by  nailing  all  fast  together. 

CARRIAGES.  A  gun  carriage  is  designed  to  support  its  pieco 
when  fired,  and  also  to  transport  cannon  from  one  point  to  another. 
Field,  mountain,  and  siege  artillery  have  also  limbers,  which  form  when 
united  with  the  carriage  a  four-wheeled  vehicle.  Sea-coast  carriages 
are  divided  into  barbette,  casemate,  and  flank  defence  carriages,  depending 
upon  the  part  of  the  work  in  which  they  are  mounted.  They  are  now 
made  of  wrought  iron  and  found  to  possess  lightness,  great  strength,  and 
stiffness.  The  sea-coast  carriages  are  made  in  a  similar  manner,  and  one 
carriage  can  be  altered  to  fit  another  piece  by  changing  the  trunnion- 
plates  and  transom  straps.  The  carriage  consists  of  two  cheeks  of  thick 
sheet-iron,  each  one  of  which  is  strengthened  by  three  flanged  iron-plates 
bolted  to  the  cheeks.  Along  the  bottom  of  each  cheek,  an  iron  shoe  is 
fixed  with  the  end  bent  upwards.  In  front,  this  bent  end  is  bolted  to  the 
flange  of  the  front  strengthening  plate.  In  rear  the  bent  portion  is  longer, 
and  terminated  at  top  by  another  bend,  which  serves  as  a  point  of  appli- 
cation for  a  lever  on  a  wheel,  when  running  to  and  from  battery.  The 
trunnion-plates  fit  over  the  top  ends  of  the  strengthening  plates,  which 
meet  around  the  bed,  and  are  fastened  to  the  flanges  of  the  latter  by 
movable  bolts  and  nuts.  The  cheeks  are  joined  together  by  transoms 
made  of  bar-iron.  The  front  of  the  carriage  is  mounted  on  an  axle-tree, 
with  truck  wheels  similar  to  the  wooden  casemate  carriages.  The  ele- 
vating screws  are  of  two  kinds :  one  for  low  angles  of  elevation,  and  the 
second  for  columbiads  where  great  angles  of  elevation  are  required. 
The  elevating  arc  is  made  of  brass  and  attached  to  the  upper  edge  of 
the  right  cheek,  and  may  be  folded  down.  It  is  employed  to  measure 
the  elevation  of  the  piece. — ROBERTS  &  BENTON.  (See  CHASSIS  ;  Co- 
LUMBIAD.) 

CARTE  BLANCHE.  A  blank  paper  sent  to  a  person,  to  fill 
up  with  such  conditions  as  he  may  think  proper  to  insert.  In  the 
general  acceptation  of  the  term,  it  implies  an  authority  to  act  at  dis- 
cretion. 

CARTEL.  An  agreement  between  two  hostile  powers  for  a  mu- 
tual exchange  of  prisoners.  (See  WAR.) 

CARTRIDGE.  Bullets  for  small  arms  are  made  by  pressure,. 
To  prepare  the  lead  for  the  press,  it  is  cast  into  cylinders  or  drawn 
out  into  wires  somewhat  less  in  diameter  than  the  bullet.  One  press 
can  make  3,000  bullets  in  an  hour.  Bullets  may  also  be  cast  in  moulds 
and  afterwards  swayed  in  a  die  to  proper  size  and  shape. 


CAR.] 


MILITARY  DICTIONARY. 


151 


Table  of  dimensions  for  formers  for  making  cartridges  with  elongated  expanding  bullets. 
{The  dimensions  are  referred  to  the  plate  by  means  of  the  letters  placed  opposite  to  them.} 


Altered  musket. 

New  rifle  musket. 

Pistol  carbine. 

Inches. 

Inches. 

Inches. 

' 

a 

3.5 

3.5 

3.5 

\ 

d 

2.5 

2.25 

2.25 

>  Outer  wrapper. 

c 

5.25 

4.25 

4.25 

) 

a 

e 

1.1 

2.75 

1. 
2. 

.8 
2. 

(•  Cylinder  case. 

/ 
i 

1.5 
2.75 
3.75 

1.3 

2.2 
3. 

1.1 

2.2 
3. 

V  Cylinder  wrapper. 

The  diameters  of  the  round  sticks  on  which  the  powder  cases  are 
formed  should  be  .69  inch  for  the  old,  and  .58  inch  for  the  new  calibre. 
This  will  make  the  exterior  diameter  of  the  case  somewhat  larger  than 
the  bullet,  and  will  prevent  the  outer  wrapping  from  binding  around  its 
base  when  the  cartridge  is  broken.  The  outer  wrapper  should  not  be 
made  of  too  strong  paper  :  that  prescribed  in  the  Ordnance  Manual  for 
blank  cartridges,  and  designated  as  No.  3,  will  answer  a  better  pur- 
pose for  these  cartridges  than  that  designated  as  No.  1.  The  cylinder 
case  should  be  made  of  stiff  rocket  paper,  No.  4 ;  and  its  wrapper  may 
be  made  of  paper  No.  1,  2,  or  3.  Before  enveloping  the  bullets  in  the 
cartridges,  their  cylindrical  parts  should  be  covered  with  a  melted  com- 
position of  one  part  beeswax  and  three  parts  tallow.  It  should  be  ap- 
plied hot,  in  which  case  the  superfluous  part  would  run  off;  care  should 
be  taken  to  remove  all  of  the  grease  from  the  bottom  of  the  bullet,  lest 
by  coming  in  contact  with  the  bottom  of  the  case  it  penetrate  the  paper 
and  injure  the  powder.  The  bullets  being  thus  prepared,  and  the  grease 
allowed  to  cool,  the  cartridges  are  made  up  as  follows,  viz. :  place  the 
rectangular  piece  of  rocket  paper,  called  the  cylinder  case,  on  the  trape- 
zoidal piece,  called  the  cylinder  wrapper,  as  shown  by  the  broken  lines 
of  Fig.  102,  and  roll  them  tightly  round  the  former  stick,  allowing  a 
portion  of  the  wrapper  to  project  beyond  both  case  and  stick.  Close 
the  end  of  the  case  by  folding  in  this  projecting  part  of  the  wrapper. 
To  prevent  the  powder  from  sifting  through  the  bottom,  paste  the  folds, 
and  press  them  on  to  the  end  of  the  stick,  which  is  made  slightly  con- 
cave to  give  the  bottom  a  form  of  greater  strength  and  stiffness.  After 
the  paste  is  allowed  to  dry,  the  former  stick  is  inserted  in  the  case,  and 
laid  upon  the  outer  wrapper,  (the  oblique  edge  from  the  operative, 
the  longer  vertical  edge  towards  his  left  hand,)  and  snugly  rolled  up. 


152 


MILITARY  DICTIONARY. 


[CAR. 


The  bullet  is  then  inserted  in  the  open  end  of  the  cartridge,  the  base 

resting  on  the  cylinder  case,  the  paper  neatly  choked  around  the  point 

FlG  103  of  the  bullet,  and 

fastened  by  two 
half  hitches  of  car- 
tridge thread.  The 
former  stick  is  then 
withdrawn,  the 
powder  is  poured 
into  the  case,  and 
the  mouth  of 
the  cartridge  is 
"pinched "or  fold- 
ed in  the  usual 
way.  To  use  this 
cartridge,  tear  the 
fold  and  pour  out 
the  powder ;  then 
seize  the  bullet  end 
firmly  between  the 
thumb  and  fore  fin- 
ger of  the  right 
hand  and  strike  the  cylinder  a  smart  blow  across  the  muzzle  of  the 
piece  ;  this  breaks  the  cartridge  and-  exposes  the  bottom  of  the  bullet ;  a 
slight  pressure  of  the  thumb  and  forefingers  forces  the  bullet  into  the 
bore  clear  of  all  cartridge  paper.  In  striking  the  cartridge  the  cylinder 
should  be  held  square  across,  or  at  right  angles  to 
the  muzzle ;  otherwise,  a  blow  given  in  an  oblique 
direction  would  only  bend  the  cartridge  without  rup- 
turing it.  Cartridges  constructed  on  these  princi- 
ples present  a  neat  and  convenient  form  for  carrying 
the  powder  and  bullet  attached  to  each  other,  and 
they  obviate  two  important  defects  of  the  elongated 
bullet  cartridges  in  common  use,  viz.  :  the  reversed 
position  of  the  bullet  in  the  cartridge,  and  the  use 
of  the  paper  wrapper  as  a  patch.  (Fig.  103.) 

Cartridge-bags  for  field-pieces  should  be  made  of 
wild-bore,  merino  or  bombazette,  composed  entirely 
of  wool,  free  from  any  mixture  of  thread  or  cotton, 
which  would  be  apt  to  retain  fire  in  the  piece.  The 
texture  and  sewing  should  be  close  enough  to  pre- 


-h- 


Fio.  103. 


CAS.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  153 

vent  the  powder  sifting  through.  Untwilled  stuff  is  to  be  preferred. 
Flannel  may  be  used  when  other  materials  cannot  be  obtained.  The 
bag  is  of  two  rectangular  pieces,  which  forms  the  cylinder,  and  a  circular 
piece  for  the  bottom.  As  the  stuff  does  not  stretch  in  the  direction  of 
its  length,  the  long  side  of  the  rectangle  should  be  taken  in  that  direc- 
tion, otherwise  the  cartridge  might  become  too  large  for  convenient  use. 

Blank-cartridge  Bags,  or  those  intended  for  immediate  use,  may  be 
made  of  two  rectangular  pieces  with  semicircular  ends  sewed  together. 
The  pieces  are  marked  out  with  stamps  made  of  one-inch  board  with  a 
handle  in  the  middle  of  one  side,  and  on  the  other  two  projecting  rims 
of  copper  or  tin,  parallel  to  each  other  and  half  an  inch  apart. 

Siege  and  Garrison  Cartridges  consist  of  the  charge  of  powder  in  a 
bag,  and  the  projectile  always  separate  from  the  cartridge. 

The  Cartridge-bags  are  usually  made  of  woollen  stuff.  They  are 
made  of  two  pieces,  in  the  form  of  a  rectangle  with  semicircular  end, 
which  are  marked  out  with  stamps  and  sewed  together  as  described  for 
making  blank-cartridge  bags  for  the  field  service,  and  are  filled,  pre- 
served, and  packed  in  the  same  way. 

Paper  Bags. — Bags  for  heavy  ordnance  may  be  made  entirely  of 
paper.  The  bottom  is  circular,  and  one  end  of  the  cylindrical  part  is 
cut  into  slips  about  one  inch  long,  which  are  pasted  over  the  paper  bot- 
tom on  a  cylindrical  former.  When  a  paper  bag  is  filled,  the  open  end 
is  folded  down  about  three-fourths  of  an  inch  wide,  and  this  fold  is  rolled 
on  itself  down  to  the  powder,  and  the  part  which  projects  beyond  the 
cylinder  is  turned  in  on  the  top  of  it.  The  bags  are  apt  to  leave 
paper  burning  in  the  gun,  for  which  reason  those  made  of  woollen  stuff 
are  preferable.  Bags  are  sometimes  made  of  both  paper  and  woollen 
stuff,  by  forming  the  cylindrical  part  of  paper,  and  sewing  to  it  a  bot- 
tom of  woollen  stuff  made  of  two  semicircular  pieces. 

CARTS  AND  KITCHEN  CART.  A  system  of  army  transporta- 
tion proposed  by  Colonel  Cavalli.  (See  AMBULANCE  ;  WAGON.) 

CASC ABLE — is  the  part  of  the  gun  in  rear  of  the  base  ring ;  it  is 
composed  generally  of  the  following  parts  :  the  knob,  the  neck,thQJillet, 
and  the  base  of  the  breech. 

CASEMATE.  Vaulted  chamber  with  embrasures  for  guns.  It  is 
necessary  that  they  should  be  bomb-proof  and  distributed  along  the  faces 
and  flanks  of  the  bastion,  to  serve  as  quarters  and  hospital  to  the  gar- 
rison in  war  ;  but  such  subterranean  barracks  are  always  unwholesome. 

CASE  SHOT — are  small  balls  enclosed  in  a  case  or  envelope, 
which,  when  broken  by  the  shock  of  the  discharge  in  the  piece,  or  by  a 
charge  of  powder  within  the  case,  exploding  during  the  flight  of  the  case, 


154  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [CAS 

scatters  the  balls.  The  kinds  of  case  shot  in  use  are  GRAPE,  CANISTER, 
and  SPHERICAL  CASE. 

CASHIERED.  When  an  officer  is  sentenced  by  a  court-martial, 
to  be  dismissed  the  service,  he  is  said  to  be  cashiered. 

CASTING  AWAY — Arms  and  Ammunition.  Punishable  with 
death  or  other  punishment,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  offence,  by 
the  sentence  of  a  general  court-martial ;  (ART.  52.) 

CASTRAMETATION.     The  art  of  encampment.     (See  CAMP.) 

CASUALTIES.  A  word  comprehending  all  men  who  die,  desert, 
or  are  discharged. 

CAVALIER — is  a  term  applied  to  a  work  of  more  than  ordinary 
height.  It  is  sometimes  constructed  upon  the  terre-plein  of  the  bastion, 
with  faces  and  flanks  parallel  to  those  of  the  bastion  which  it  commands. 
Cavaliers  are  not  confined  to  bastions,  but  are  placed  wherever  a  great 
command  of  fire  is  required,  and  are  sometimes  traced  straight,  on  other 
occasions  curved. 

CAVALRY.  There  are  two  regiments  of  dragoons,  one  of  mount- 
ed riflemen,  and  two  styled  cavalry  in  our  army.  It  has  been  recom- 
mended that  these  regiments  should  all  be  called  regiments  of  cavalry. 
(See  ARMY  for  their  organization.)  Cavalry  is  usually  divided  into 
heavy  and  light  cavalry.  Heavy  cavalry  acts  in  heavy  masses.  Its 
essential  condition  is  united  ranks.  It  finds  its  true  type  in  the  mailed 
chivalry  of  the  middle  ages,  but  it  is  believed  that  the  general  introduc- 
tion into  service  of  rifled  muskets  will  render  heavy  cavalry  entirely 
useless  in  war.  Formerly  cavalry  could  move  against  infantry  in 
columns  of  squadrons  first  at  a  trot,  then  at  a  gallop,  and  finally  at  full 
speed  from  a  position  taken  up  within  400  yards  of  infantry.  But  now 
that  the  cavalry  comes  within  range  of  the  rifle  at  1,000  yards,  the  in- 
fantry must  be  greatly  demoralized  before  cavalry  can  have  the  least 
chance  of  success  in  a  charge.  Accordingly  at  the  camp  of  Chalons, 
where  all  arms  of  the  service  were  supposed  to  be  represented,  heavy 
cavalry  were  not  seen.  Light  cavalry  on  the  contrary  is  intended 
rather  to  envelop  an  enemy.  Quickness  and  agility  are  its  primary 
conditions.  Indefatigable  and  careless  of  repose  it  ought  to  occupy  an 
enemy  during  entire  hours,  harass  and  fatigue  him.  If  he  lays  himself 
open  pierce  him  with  the  quickness  of  lightning,  and  cut  him  to  pieces 
with  the  sabre.  The  cavalry  soldier  must  consider  his  horse  as  part  of 
himself,  and  the  perfect  management  of  the  horse  cannot  be  learned 
either  in  schools,  or  in  a  few  weeks  of  practice.  If  daily  exercises  are 
dispensed  with,  both  horse  and  man  return  to  their  natural  state,  and 
such  mounted  men  cease  to  be  efficient.  The  main  body  in  all  campaigns 


CAV.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  155 

against  Indians  should  be  infantry.  But  a  small  mounted  force,  kept  in 
high  condition,  would  add  much  to  the  efficiency  of  such  a  main  body. 
The  horses  should  be  well  fed ;  and  upon  long  marches  in  uninhabited 
districts  this  is  impossible.  The  idea  of  employing  such  a  force  as  a 
main  body,  in  order  to  make  rapid  marches,  is  also  untenable ;  for  upon 
•long  marches  of  many  days,  infantry  will  improve  every  day,  accom- 
plish a  greater  distance  in  many  successive  days,  and  have  at  the  oppor- 
tune moment  greater  vigor  than  a  large  cavalry  force,  necessarily  with 
broken-down  horses  from  want  of  food  ;  whereas  a  small  cavalry  force 
might  be  held  in  hand  and  maintained  in  the  highest  state  of  efficiency. 
Cavalry  is  indispensable  in  time  of  war.  It  will  always  take  a  leading 
part  in  pursuing  a  retreating  enemy  ;  it  is  the  proper  arm  in  ordinary 
reconnoissances ;  it  will  always  serve  as  eclaireurs,  and  as  escorts,  and 
should,  in  the  present  state  of  the  art  of  war,  carry  carbines  and  be  pre- 
pared for  service  on  foot.  It  is  weakened  and  destroyed  when  in  a 
country  without  forage.  Its  first  cost,  its  constant  maintenance,  the 
defects  of  its  employment,  and  the  system  of  providing  horses  make  it 
expensive ;  but  it  ought  nevertheless  to  be  maintained  in  a  complete 
state,  for  its  art  can  only  be  exercised  by  men  and  horses  that  are 
properly  instructed. 

Cavalry  Tactics. — The  individual  instruction  of  men  and  horses 
should  be  regarded  as  the  most  important  point  of  the  whole  system, 
and  should  be  as  simple  as  possible ;  the  man  should  be  taught  to  man- 
age his  horse  with  ease  and  address  over  all  kinds  of  ground  and  at  all 
gaits,  to  swim  rivers,  to  go  through  certain  gymnastic  exercises — such 
as  vaulting,  cutting  heads,  to  fence,  to  fire  very  frequently  at  a  mark,  and 
to  handle  his  weapon  with  accuracy  and  effect  at  all  gaits,  and  in  all  situ- 
ations. Individual  instruction  has  been  recently  made  a  supplementary 
instruction  in  France.  Every  thing  in  reference  to  heavy  cavalry,  lan- 
cers, "hussars,  &c.,  should  be  omitted.  Insist  upon  the  sabre  being  kept 
sharp  in  the  field,  provide  the  men  with  means  of  doing  so,  and  lay  it  down 
as  a  rule  that  the  strength  of  cavalry  is  in  the  "  spurs  and  sabre."  The  in- 
struction on  foot  should  be  carried  no  further  than  its  true  object  requires 
— that  is,  to  bring  the  men  under  discipline,  improve  their  carriage,  and 
enable  them  to  comprehend  the  movements  they  are  to  execute  mounted. 
The  formation  for  review,  parade,  inspection,  &c.,  to  bo  :  the  companies 
deployed  in  one  line,  with  intervals  of  12  paces,  or  else  in  a  line  of  col- 
umns of  companies  by  platoons,  according  to  the  ground.  It  should  be 
laid  down  as  a  fixed  rule  that  no  cavalry  force  should  ever  charge  with- 
out leaving  a  reserve  behind  it,  and  that  against  civilized  antagonists  the 
compact  charge  in  line  should  be  used  in  preference  to  that  as  foragers. 


15G  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [CEN. 

Columns  to  be  formed  with  wheeling  distance,  and  closed  in  mass ; 
when  closed  in  mass,  the  file-closers  close  up  to  1  pace  from  the  rank,  and 
the  distance  between  the  subdivisions  to  be  just  enough  to  permit  each 
company  to  wheel  by  fours.  Marching  columns  to  be  by  file,  twos, 
fours,  or  platoons ;  by  fours  and  platoons  in  preference  when  the  ground 
permits.  Columns  of  manoeuvre  to  be  by  fours,  platoons,  companies, 
or  in  double  column ;  the  latter  always  a  regimental  column,  and  to  be 
formed  on  the  two  central  companies,  or  platoons,  without  closing  the 
interval  between  them.  Deployments  to  be  made  habitually  at  a  gal- 
lop, and  the  individual  oblique  to  be  used  as  much  as  possible.  The 
instruction  in  two  lines  to  be  provided  for.  The  Russian  tactics  give  a 
good  basis  for  the  system  of  skirmishers,  and  charging  as  foragers. 
For  the  use  of  the  mounted  rifles,  and  cavalry  acting  as  such,  a  thorough 
system  for  dismounting  rapidly,  and  fighting  on  foot,  has  already  been 
submitted  by  Captain  Maury,  and  adopted.  (  Consult  MCCLELLAN.) 

CENTRE  OF  THE  BASTION— is  the  intersection  made  by  the 
two  demi-gorges. 

CERTIFICATE.     (See  MUSTER.) 

CHAIN-BALL.  It  has  been  proposed  to  attach  a  light  body  by 
means  of  a  chain  to  the  rear  of  an  oblong  projectile,  when  thrown  under 
high  angles  with  a  moderate  velocity,  so  as  to  cause  it  to  move  with  its 
point  foremost. 

CHAIN-SHOT — consist  of  two  hemispheres,  or  two  spheres  con- 
nected together  by  a  chain.  The  motion  of  rotation  of  these  projectiles 
in  flight  would  render  them  useful  in  cutting  the  masts  and  riggings  of 
vessels,  if  their  flight  was  not  so  inaccurate.  When  the  mode  of  connec- 
tion is  a  bar  of  iron  instead  of  a  chain,  they  are  called  Bar-shot. 

CHALLENGE.  No  officer  or  soldier  shall  send  a  challenge  to 
another  officer  or  soldier  to  fight  a  duel,  or  accept  a  challenge  if  sent, 
upon  pain  if  a  commissioned  officer  of  being  cashiered  ;  if  a  non-com- 
missioned officer  or  soldier,  of  suffering  corporeal  punishment  at  the 
discretion  of  a  court-martial ;  (ART.  25.)  If  any  commissioned  or 
non-commissioned  officer  commanding  a  guard  shall  knowingly  or  wil- 
lingly suffer  any  person  whatsoever  to  go  forth  to  fight  a  duel,  he  shall 
be  punished  as  a  challenger ;  and  all  seconds,  promoters,  and  carriers 
of  challenges,  in  order  to  duels,  shall  be  deemed  principals,  and  be  pun- 
ished accordingly.  And  it  shall  be  the  duty  of  every  officer  command- 
ing an  army,  regiment,  company,  post  or  detachment,  who  is  knowing  to 
a  challenge  being  given,  or  accepted,  by  any  officer,  non-commissioned 
officer  or  soldier  under  his  command,  or  has  reason  to  believe  the  same 
to  be  the  case,  immediately  to  arrest  and  bring  to  trial  such  offenders ; 


CHA.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  157 

(ART.  26.)  Any  officer  or  soldier  who  shall  upbraid  another  for  refus- 
ing a  challenge  shall  himself  be  punished  as  a  challenger ;  and  all  officers 
and  soldiers  are  hereby  discharged  from  any  disgrace,  or  opinion  of  dis- 
advantage, which  might  arise  from  their  having  refused  to  accept  chal- 
lenges, as  they  will  only  have  acted  in  obedience  to  the  laws,  and  done 
their  duty  as  good  soldiers,  who  subject  themselves  to  discipline ; 
(ART.  28.) 

CHALLENGE  OF  MEMBERS  OF  COURT-MARTIAL.  When  a  member 
shall  be  challenged  by  a  prisoner,  he  must  state  his  cause  of  challenge, 
of  which  the  court  shall,  after  due  deliberation,  determine  the  relevancy 
or  validity,  and  decide  accordingly  ;  and  no  challenge  to  more  than  one 
mernbcr  at  a  time  shall  be  received  by  the  court;  (ART.  71.)  Chal- 
lenges of  members  are  made  in  writing.  The  member  withdraws  and 
the  court  is  cleared  for  deliberation.  If  the  challenge  is  disallowed  the 
member  resumes  his  seat.  Blackstone  says  :  A  principal  challenge  is 
where  the  cause  assigned  carries  prima  facie  evidence  of  malice  or 
favor ;  as  that  a  juror  is  of  kin  to  either  party  within  the  9th  degree ; 
that  he  has  been  arbitrator  on  either  side ;  that  he  has  formerly  been  a 
juror  in  the  same  cause ;  that  he  is  the  party's  master,  servant,  &c. 
These  grounds  of  challenge,  if  true,  cannot  be  overruled.  Challenges  to 
the  favor  are,  where  the  party  hath  no  principal  challenge,  but  objects 
only  on  probable  circumstances  of  suspicion,  as  acquaintance  and  the 
like  ;  the  validity  of  which  is  left  to  the  triers  ;  (HOUGH.) 

CHALLENGE  OF  A  SENTINEL.     Who  goes  there  1 

CHAMADE — is  a  signal  made  for  parley  by  beat  of  drum. 

CHAMBER  OF  A  MINE — is  a  cell  of  a  cubical  form,  made  to  re- 
ceive the  powder. 

CHAMBER  of  howitzers,  columbiads,  and  rnortars,  is  the  smallest 
part  of  the  bore,  and  contains  the  charge  of  powder.  In  the  howitzers 
and  columbiads  the  chamber  is  cylindrical,  and  is  united  with  a  large 
cylinder  of  the  bore  by  a  conical  surface  ;  the  angles  of  intersection  of 
this  conical  surface  with  the  cylinders  of  the  bore  and  chamber,  are 
rounded  (in  profile)  by  arcs  of  circles.  In  the  8-inch  siege  howitzer, 
the  chamber  is  united  writh  the  cylinder  of  the  bore  by  a  spherical  surface, 
in  order  that  the  shell  may,  when  necessary,  be  inserted  without  a  sabot. 

CHAPLAIN.  Punished  by  a  court-martial  for  undue  absence; 
(ART.  4.)  One  allowed  to  Military  Academy  who  shall  be  professor  of 
geography,  history,  and  ethics — with  pay  of  professor  of  mathematics. 
Chaplains  allowed  to  military  posts,  not  exceeding  twenty,  are  selected 
by  the  council  of  administration  of  the  post,  and  are  also  to  be  school- 
masters, with  $70  per  month,  4  rations  per  day,  and  quarters  and  fuel ; 
(Acts  July  5,  1838 ;  and  Feb.  21,  1857.) 


158  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [CiiA. 

CHARACTER.  Where  a  witness  is  introduced  by  a  prisoner  to 
prove  character,  the  court  may  ask  how  long  he  has  known  the  prisoner, 
and  whether  he  has  known  him  from  that  time  to  the  present  without 
interruption,  and  whether  he  speaks  from  his  own  knowledge  or  from 
general  report. —  Cross-examination  by  the  prosecutor,  of  witnesses  in- 
troduced by  the  prisoner  to  prove  character,  is  not  allowed.  (Consult 
PHILLIPS'  Law  of  Evidence?) 

CHARGE.  Cavalry  charges  have  been  sometimes  made  silently. 
Those  of  Frederick  the  Great  always  began  the  HURRAH  at  fifty  paces 
from  the  enemy.  If  at  the  moment  of  the  shock  the  infantry  is  not 
disturbed,  but  their  bayonets  and  fire  have  on  the  contrary  saved  them 
from  the  impulsive  force  of  the  charge,  the  fall  of  the  front  ranks  of  the 
cavalry  will  have  interposed  a  rampart  behind  which  infantry  cannot 
fail  to  be  victorious.  But  if  the  cavalry  has  practised  the  stratagem 
of  beginning  operations  by  drawing  the  fire  of  infantry  upon  skirmishers, 
and  the  commander  of  the  cavalry  ready  for  the  charge  has  pushed  for- 
ward curtains  of  light  cavalry  in  a  single  rank,  who  succeed,  by  means 
of  clouds  of  dust,  in  making  an  unskilful  infantry  believe  that  to  be  an 
attack  which  in  reality  is  only  a  feint,  the  infantry  may  fire  its  balls  at 
random — the  thinness  of  the  curtain  of  light  cavalry  will  render  the  in- 
fantry's fire  of  little  effect — the  infantry  will  be  eager  to  reload,  and  this 
may  be  done  in  agitation  and  disorder.  The  proper  moment  is  then  at 
hand,  and  the  heavy  cavalry  in  mass,  concealed  by  the  dust  of  their 
skirmishers,  may  charge,  break,  and  sabre  the  infantry.  The  light  caval- 
ry'finish  the  fugitives.  The  passage  of  defiles  in  retreat  ought  to  be  se- 
cured by  a  charge  of  cavalry.  Coolness,  silence,  immobility,  contempt  of 
hurrahs,  and  a  reserved  fire  until  within  suitable  range,  are  the  principal 
means  of  resisting  a  charge  of  cavalry.  The  file-closers  must  prevent 
firing,  not  ordered  ;  watch  the  execution  of  the  fire  by  ranks  ;  see  that 
it  does  not  commence  at  too  great  a  distance,  then  enjoin  upon  the 
soldiers  to  aim  at  the  breast ;  to  act  only  upon  signals  of  the  drum,  or 
at  the  command  of  officers  on  horseback,  who  occupy  the  centre  of  the 
square,  and  who  from  that  height  alone  can  judge  whether  the  charge 
of  cavalry  is  a  mere  feint  or  a  real  attack.  This  necessary  impassi- 
bility of  infantry  is  obtained  by  discipline  and  experience,  and  is  only 
perfected  upon  battle-fields.  Without  sang  froid,  and  also  promptness 
in  manoeuvring  upon  any  ground,  infantry  will  not  be  able  to  exhibit 
the  whole  strength  of  its  arm  against  the  best  cavalry.  Charges  by  in- 
fantry are  made  in  order  of  battle,  in  column  of  attack,  and  in  close 
columns  in  mass.  Charges  in  order  of  battle  are  executed  as  follows  :  If 
the  combat  is  between  infantry  and  infantry,  the  troops  receiving  the 


CHA.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  159 

charge,  fire  at  the  moment  at  which  it  is  almost  joined  with  the  enemy. 
The  troops  making  the  charge,  fire  at  one  hundred  or  one  hundred  and 
twenty  paces  from  the  enemy  ;  without  waiting  to  reload,  they  march 
forward  at  the  quick  step  ;  at  two-thirds  the  distance  take  charging  step, 
and  if  the  ground  permits  they  subsequently  take  a  running  step,  keep- 
ing up  the  touch  of  the  elbow,  and  throw  themselves  upon  the  enemy 
with  HURRAHS.  Frederick  the  Great  says  that  it  is  "  better  for  a  line 
to  falter  in  a  charge  than  to  lose  the  touch  of  the  elbow,"  so  necessary 
is  it  that  the  charge  should  be  en  muraille. 

In  modern  wars  the  charge  in  column  has  been  used  but  not  exclu- 
sively, and  sometimes  with  fatal  results.  But  whatever  may  be  the 
form  of  the  charge,  success  must  not  make  the  victor  at  once  pursue 
his  enemy.  He  must,  on  the  contrary,  halt,  rally  his  men,  form  line 
if  the  charge  was  made  in  column,  reload,  fire  upon  the  fugitives,  and 
continue  thus  to  gain  ground,  by  a  regulated  fire,  until  at  last  the  cav- 
alry which  seconds  him  comes  to  his  aid.  It  must  be  considered  that 
there  may  be  a  second  line  of  the  enemy,  fresh  troops,  masked  bat- 
teries, flank  fires,  or  squadrons  of  cavalry  ready  to  oppose  an  unfore- 
seen resistance.  It  may  be,  that  the  attacking  party  has  experienced 
some  disadvantage,  not  far  from  the  point  where  the  infantry  has  just 
triumphed  in  the  charge.  Such  circumstances  may  cause  the  infantry 
to  pay  dearly  for  its  temporary  success,  a  temporary  success  sometimes 
owing  to  stratagem  on  the  part  of  the  enemy.  These  precepts  are 
given  by  the  best  writers  on  charges  of  infantry.  (  Consult  DECKER  ; 
BARDIN,  &c.,  &c.) 

CHARGER.  The  horse  rode  by  an  officer  in  the  field  or  in 
action. 

CHARGES  AND  SPECIFICATIONS.  The  form  of  indict- 
ments tried  by  courts-martial.  (See  COURT-MARTIAL  ;  EVIDENCE.)  As 
to  the  perspicuity  and  precision  of  charges :  If  the  description  of  the 
offence  is  sufficiently  clear  to  inform  the  accused  of  the  military  offence 
for  which  he  is  to  be  tried,  and  to  enable  him  to  prepare  his  defence,  it 
is  sufficient;  (Opinions  of  Attorney-general,  p.  189.) 

A  copy  of  charges,  as  well  as  a  list  of  witnesses  for  the  prosecution, 
should  be  given  to  the  prisoner  in  all  cases  as  soon  as  possible.  Ante- 
cedent to  arraignment,  charges  may  be  framed  and  altered  by  the  party 
who  brings  forward  the  prosecution,  or  by  the  officer  ordering  the  court, 
both  in  regard  to  substance  and  in  other  respects ;  but  the  court,  where 
the  deviation  was  material,  would  probably  deem  it  sufficient  cause  for 
delaying  proceedings  upon  application  of  the  prisoner.  As  the  wit- 


160  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [CHA. 

nesses  of  an  officer  may  be  at  a  distance,  the  sooner  a  copy  is  given  the 
better  ;  (HOUGH'S  Law  Authorities.} 

CHASE.  The  conical  part  of  a  piece  of  ordnance  in  front  of  the 
reinforce. 

CHASSIS.  A  traversing  carriage.  The  barbette  and  casemate 
carriages  consist  of  gun  carriages  and  chassis.  The  \vrought-iron  chassis 
now  made  consists  of  two  rails  of  wrought  iron,  the  cross-section  of 
each  being  in  form  of  a  T,  the  flat  surface  on  top  being  for  the  recep- 
tion of  the  shoe-rail  of  the  gun  carriage.  The  rails  are  parallel  to  each 
other,  and  connected  by  iron  transoms  and  braces.  The  chassis  is  sup- 
ported on  traverse  wheels.  A  prop  is  placed  under  the  middle  transom 
of  the  chassis  to  provide  against  sagging.  The  pintle  is  the  fixed  centre 
around  which  the  chassis  traverses.  In  the  ordinary  barbette,  the  pintle 
is  placed  under  the  centre  of  the  front  transom ;  but  in  the  columbiad  car- 
riage, it  is  placed  under  the  centre  of  the  middle  transom.  (See  COLUMBIAD.) 

CHEMIN  DES  RONDES— is  a  berme  from  four  to  twelve  feet 
broad,  at  the  foot  of  the  exterior  slope  of  the  parapet.  It  is  sometimes 
protected  by  a  quickset  hedge,  but  in  more  modern  works  by  a  low 
wall,  built  on  the  top  of  the  revetment,  over  which  the  defenders  can 
fire,  and  throw  hand  grenades  into  the  ditch. 

CHESSES — are  the  platforms  which  form  the  flooring  of  military 
bridges.  They  consist  of  two  or  more  planks,  ledged  together  at  the 
edges,  by  dowels  or  pegs. 

CHEVAUX-DE-FRISE.  The  principal  uses  of  chevaux-de-frise 
are  to  obstruct  a  passage,  stop  a  breach,  or  form  an  impediment  to 
cavalry.  Those  of  the  modern  pattern  are  made  of  iron,  whose  barrel 
is  six  feet  in  length,  and  four  inches  in  diameter,  each  carrying  twelve 
spears,  five  feet  nine  inchts  long,  the  whole  weighing  sixty-five  pounds. 
(See  OBSTACLES.) 

CHOLERA.     (See  SANITARY  PRECAUTIONS.) 

CIRCUMVALLATION.  Works  made  by  besiegers  around  a 
besieged  place  facing  outwards,  to  protect  their  camp  from  enterprises 
of  the  enemy. 

CITADEL.  A  citadel  is  a  small  strong  fort,  constructed  either 
within  the  place,  or  on  the  most  inaccessible  part  of  its  general  outline, 
or  very  near  to  it ;  it  is  intended  as  a  refuge  for  the  garrison,  in  which 
to  prolong  the  defence,  after  the  place  has  fallen. 

CIVIL  AUTHORITY.  (See  AUTHORITY;  CONTRACTS;  EXECU- 
TION OF  LAWS  ;  INJURIES  ;  REMEDY.) 

CLERKS.  Whenever  suitable  non-commissioned  officers  or  pri- 
vates cannot  be  procured  from  the  line  of  the  army,  paymasters,  with 


CLO.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY. 

the  approbation  of  the  Secretary  of  War,  may  employ  citizens  to  per- 
form the  duties  of  clerks  at  $700  per  year;  (Acts  July  5,  1838; 
and  Aug.  12,  1848.)  One  ration  per  day  allowed  when  on  duty  at 
their  station;  (Act  Aug.  31,  1852.) 

CLOTHING.  The  President  of  the  United  States  is  authorized  to 
prescribe  the  kind  and  quality  of  clothing  to  be  issued  annually  to  the 
troops  of  the  United  States.  The  manner  of  issuing  and  accounting  for 
clothing  shall  be  established  by  general  regulations  of  the  War  De- 
partment. But  whenever  more  than  the  authorized  quantity  is  re- 
quired, the  value  of  the  extra  articles  shall  be  deducted  from  the  sol- 
diers' pay  ;  and,  in  like  manner,  the  soldiers  shall  receive  pay  according 
to  the  annual  estimated  value  for  such  authorized  articles  of  uniform  as 
shall  not  have  been  issued  to  them  in  each  year.  And  when  a  soldier 
is  discharged,  it  is  the  duty  of  the  paymaster-general  to  pay  him  for 
clothing  not  drawn ;  (Act  April  24,  1816.)  The  quartermaster's 
department  distributes  to  the  army  the  clothing,  camp  and  garrison 
equipage  required  for  the  use  of  the  troops.  Every  commander  of  a 
company,  detachment,  or  recruiting  station,  or  other  officer  receiving 
clothing,  &c.,  renders  quarterly  returns  of  clothing  according  to  pre- 
scribed forms  to  the  quartermaster-general.  All  officers  charged  with 
the  issue  of  clothing  to  make  good  any  loss  or  damage,  unless  they  can 
show  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  Secretary  of  War,  by  one  or  more  depo- 
sitions, that  the  deficiency  was  occasioned  by  unavoidable  accident,  or 
was  lost  in  actual  service,  without  any  fault  on  their  part ;  or,  in  case  of 
damage,  that  it  did  not  result  from  neglect;  (Act  May  18,  1826.) 
Purchasing  clothing  from  a  soldier  prohibited  under  penalty  of  three 
hundred  dollars,  and  imprisonment  not  exceeding  one  year ;  (Act 
March  16,  1802,  and  Jan.  11,  1812.) 

The  French  system  of  making  up  clothing  is  as  follows  :  Officers  com- 
manding regiments  make  their  requisitions  for  the  regulated  quantities 
of  cloth  and  other  materials  necessary  for  the  clothing  of  the  number 
of  men  under  their  command.  The  intendant  having  checked  this  de- 
mand gives  an  order  for  the  issue,  and  the  materials  are  made  up  by 
soldiers  in  the  regimental  workshops  under  the  direction  of  the  clothing 
captain,  an  officer  holding  an  appointment  in  some  respects  analogous 
to  that  of  our  quartermasters  ;  a  fixed  rate  being  paid  for  each  article. 
Organized  as  the  European  armies  are,  those  troops  have  always  a  large 
proportion  of  skilled  workmen  undergoing  their  term  of  military  ser- 
vice ;  but  it  is  not  so  with  us.  Still  there  are  many  points  in  the 
European  system  of  clothing  the  troops  which  might,  with  advantage  to 
the  soldier  and  with  economy  to  the  public,  be  adapted  to  the  wants  of 

our  service. 

11 


.62 


MILITARY  DICTIONARY. 


STATEMENT  of  the  cost  of  Clothing,  Camp  and  Garrison  Equipage  for  tlie  Army  of 
the  United  States,  furnished  by  the  Quartermaster's  Department,  during  the  year  com- 
mencing July  1,  1859,  with  the  allowance  of  clothing  to  each  soldier  during  his  enlist- 
ment, and  his  proportion  for  each  year  respectively. 


CLOTHING. 

'&  § 
$    C. 

2  35 
11 
13 
3 
14 

|| 

$  c. 
235 
11 
13 
3 

*J 
If 

OoQ 
2  85 

t 

P 

$  c. 
2  35 
11 
13 
3 

1 
O 

$  c. 
2  35 
11 
13 
8 

to,*  i  Mounted 
cow~g«  1  Riflemen. 

~! 

$  c. 

2  35 
11 
13 
3 

5 

Infantry. 

Proportion 
for  each  year. 

1  Allowance  du- 
ring enlistm't. 

II 

1 

1 
1 
1 

1 

1 
1 

1 

1 

& 
£ 

i 

i 

Uniform  Hat                          *» 

$  c. 
2  35 
11 
13 
3 

$  c. 
2  85 
11 
13 
3 

$  c. 
2  85 
11 
13 
8 

"    Feather 

"    Cord  and  tassels  
"    Ea^le. 

"    Castle 

"    Shell  and  flame 

4 

4 

"    Crossed  sabres 

4 

4 

4 

8 

3 

44    Bugle    

3 

44    Letter 

2 

2 

2 

2 
2 

2 
2 

2 
2 
1  13 

2 

2 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

i 

5 

7 

"    Plate                 

4 

f> 

Forage  Cap  

57 
6  89 

57 

57 

57 

57 

57 

57 

57 

57 
6  89 
6  56 

57 
6  89 
6  56 

1 

1 
1 
1 
1 

1 
1 

1 
1 

i 
i 

1 

i 
i 
i 

i 

5 
5 
5 
5 
5 
5 
5 
5 
5 
5 

Uniform  Coats  Musicians 

"        Privates 

656 

656 

6  56 

6  56 

5  52 
5  17 
1  24 
87 
25 
19 

5  52 
5  17 
1  24 
37 
25 
19 

5  52 
5  17 
1  24 
37 
25 
19 

5  52 
5  17 

"37 
25 
19 

1  ?4 

1  24 
37 
25 
19 

1  24 
87 
25 
19 

1st  Sergeants,  pairs  of.  . 
Sergeants             " 

87 

.... 

19 

Caducous  

95 

Shoulder  Scales,  brass,  pr  of  N.  C.  S. 
Do.                 do.  Sergeants. 
Do.                 do.   Privates.. 
Do.          bronze,  N.  C.  8... 
Do.                do.  Sergeants. 
Do.                 do.  Privates.. 

"80 
50 

95 

95 

.... 

1)5 
SO 
50 

95 
80 
50 

95 

80 
50 

95 
80 
50 

1   i  if> 

80 
50 

" 

.... 

50 

90 

" 

fio 

Trowsers,  Sergeants  

3  00 

o  87 

3  00 

3  00 

4  05 
3  !»:; 
3  87 
3  00 
2  10 
2  56 
90 
71 
2  20 
3  60 
24 
7  63 

t  05  4  05  4  05 
3  9:3  3  'J:;  :;  <j:; 
:3  b7  3  87)3  87 
3  00  3  00  3  00 
2  10  2  10.2  10 
2  56  2  56,2  56 
90l     90      90 
71      71      71 
2  20  2  20,2  20 
3  60  3  60'3  60 
24      24      24 
7  63  7  63  7  63 

3  00 
2  87 
2  82 
3  00 
2  10 
2  56 
90 
71 
2  20 

:;  oo 
2  87 
'2  S2 
3  00 
2  10 
2  56 
90 
71 
2  20 

j 

3 

2 

'2 

3 
3 
1 

2 
2 

8 

3 
3 

13 
13 
13 

"         Corporals  

"         Privates. 

>  s-> 

2  82 
210 

Sash 

3  00 
2  10 
2  56 
90 
71 
2  20 

3  00 
2  10 

3  00 

2  10 

Blue  flannel  Sack  Coats  

8 

4 

! 

2 

3 
'2 
4 
1 
4 
0 

2 

3 
'2 
4 
1 
4 
0 

2 

8 

2 
4 

1 
4 
0 

2 

8 

2 
4 
1 
4 
0 

i 

20 
5 
20 

1 

i! 

2 

Do.        do.   lined,  for  Recruits. 
Flannel  Shirts 

90 
71 

2  20 

90 
71 
2  20 

90 
71 

2  20 

"24 

6  40 
•21 
244 
17 
2  78 
39 
82 
14 
71 

Drawers  

*Bootees,  pairs  

*  Boots,  pairs 

24 

640 
24 
2  44 
17 
2  78 
39 
32 
14 
71 

24 
640 
24 
2  44 
17 
2  78 
89 
82 
14 
71 

24 

640 
•24 
2  44 
17 
278 
39 
82 
14 
71 

24     24 

6  4o  6  40 
24      24 
2  442  44 
17      17 
2  78  2  78 
89      39 
32      32 
14      14 

Great  Coats  

"          "    straps,  sets  

Blankets  

2  41 
17 
•2  T> 
89 
32 
14 

2  44 

17 
2  7S 
39 
32 
14 

2  44 
17 

2  7S 
39 
32 
14 

2  44 
17 
2  7S 
39 
32 
14 

i 
i 

0    1 
0    1 

0 
0 

0 
0 

Leather  Stocks  

Knapsacks  and  straps  

Havresacks  

... 

•• 

Canteens  

Canteen  Strap 

Fatigue  Overalls  

i 

1    1 
0    1 

1    1 

0    0 

5 
2 

Stable  Frock  ' 

62 

62      62 

^  on 

62  

Talma 

i 

i 

*  Mounted  men  may,  at  their  option,  receive  one  pair  of  "boots"  and  two  pairs  of  "bootees,"  instead 
of  four  pairs  of  Bootei  s. 

NOTE.— Metallic  Eagles,  Castles,  Shell  and  flame,  Crossed  Sabres,  Trumpets,  Crossed  Cannon,  Bugles, 
Letters,  Numbers,  Tulips,  Plates,  Shoulder  Scales,  Kings,  the  Cap  cord  and  tassels,  and  the  hair  Plume  of 
the  Light  Artillery,  the  Sashes,  Knapsacks  and  Straps,  Havresacks,  Canteens,  Straps  of  all  kinds,  and  the 
Talmas,  will  not  be  issued  to  the  soldiers,  but  will  be  borne  on  the  Return  as  company  property  while  n't 
for  service.  They  will  be  charged  on  the  Muster  Rolls  against  the  person  in  whose  use  they  were  when 
lost  or  destroyed  by  his  fault. 


CLO.] 


MILITARY  DICTIONARY. 


163 


CAMP  AND   GAEEISON  EQUIPAGE. 


Bedsack,  single $1  02 

'*         double 1  13 

Mosquito  bars 113 

Axe 85 

"    helve 10 

"    sling 70 

Hatchet 29 

"      helve 03 

"     sling 40 

Spade 58 

Pickaxe 56 

"      helve 10 

Camp  kettle 50 

Mess  pan 18 

Iron  pot 1  23 

Garrison  flag 36  66 

"          "    halliard. 3  00 

Storm  flag 12  35 

Eecruiting  flag 8  77 

"             "    halliard 20 

Guidon 5  28 

Camp  color 1  £2 

National  color,  Artillery 35  48 

"            "      Infantry 35  48 

Eegimental  color,  Artillery 42  60 

"                 "      Infantry 47  60 

Standard  for  Mounted  Eegiments 20  87 

Trumpet 3  88 

Bugle,  with  extra  mouth-piece 3  12 

Cord  and  tassels  for  Trumpets  and  Bugles       75 

Fife,  B 47 

"     C 41 

Drum,  complete,  Artillery  or  Infantry.  5  90 

Drum  head  batter : 60 

"        "    snare 19 

"    sling 45 

"    sticks,  pairs 23 

"        "       carnage 64 

"    cord 20 

"    snares,  sets 17 


Drum  case 

Wall  tent $17  86 

*     '•   fly 5  04 

"      "    poles,  fets 118 

"      "    pins,  sets 72 

Sibley  tent $32  80 

"         "    poles  and  tripod 4  72 

"         "    sets 48 


$20 


24  80 


"  "  stove 

Hospital  tent $64  13 

"  fly 23  50 

"  "  poles,  sets 5  60 

"    pins,  sets 1  28 

Servant's  tent $6  62 

"  "    poles,  sets 110 

"    pins,  sets 28 

Tent  pin,  large  size,  hospital  

"        wall 

"  small  size,  common 

Eegimental  book,  order $2  25 

"      general  order. .     2  25 

"  "      letter 350 

"  "      index 1  75 

"      descriptive....    225 

Post  book,  morning  report $2  00 

"      "      guard 2  00 

"      "      order 1  15 

"      "      letter 1  15 


37  50 

4  00 


9451 


12  00 


Company  book,  clothing $2  50 

"  "      descriptive 1  80 

"      order 1  70 

"      morning  report. .     2  00 

Eecord  book,  for  target  practice 


6  30 


8  00 
60 


The  tunic  of  the  French  infantry  soldier  lasts  three  years  and  a 
half,  the  shell  jacket  two  years,  the  great  coat  three  years,  and  the 
trowsers  one  year.  In  the  Sardinian  and  Belgian  armies  the  great  coat 
is  intended  to  last  eight  years.  Those  governments  credit  every  man 
on  his  enlistment  with  about  eight  dollars  as  outfit  money,  which  is 
about  the  annual  cost  of  the  clothing  of  each  soldier,  and  a  daily  allow- 
ance of  10  centimes  is  given  for  repairs.  Regimental  master-tailors 
are  required  to  make  all  repairs  at  a  fixed  annual  contribution  from  the 
soldiers'  pay.  This  does  not  often  exceed  80  centimes ;  and  the  surplus, 
after  the  soldier  has  paid  the  cost  of  his  clothing,  is  handed  to  him  at 
the  end  of  the  year.  By  this  means  the  soldier  is  taught  economy, 
but  if  at  any  time  an  article  of  dress  is  found  to  be  unfit  for  use,  cap- 
tains of  companies  may  order  it  to  be  renewed  at  the  cost  of  the  sol- 
dier. The  great  durability  of  the  clothing  of  European  armies  is 
attributable  to  the  precautions  taken  to  insure  good  materials  from  the 
manufacturers  by  whom  the  cloth  is  supplied.  Not  only  is  every  yard 
of  cloth,  when  delivered  into  store,  subjected  to  several  distinct  and 
minute  examinations  by  boards  of  officers  assisted  by  experts,  who  weigh 
it,  shrink  it,  and  view  it  inch  by  inch  against  a  strong  light,  so  that  the 


164  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [Cos. 

slightest  flaw  may  be  detected ;  but  they  likewise  apply  chemical  tests 
to  detect  the  quality  of  the  dye,  and  the  manufactories  are  at  all  times 
open  to  inspectors,  who  watch  the  fabrication  at  every  stage.  When 
clothing  has  once  been  manufactured,  it  is  hardly  possible  with  any 
degree  of  accuracy  to  ascertain  the  quality  of  the  material. 

COEHORN  MORTAR.    Brass  24-pdr.  mortar,  weighing  164  Ibs. 
COLONEL.      Rank  in  the  army  between  brigadier-general  and 
lieutenant-colonel. 

COLORS.  Each  regiment  of  artillery  and  infantry  has  two  silken 
colors,  but  only  one  is  borne  or  displayed  at  the  same  time,  and  on 
actual  service  that  is  usually  the  regimental  one. 

COLUMJBIAD.  An  American  cannon  invented  by  Colonel  Bom- 
ford,  of  very  large  calibre,  used  for  throwing  solid  shot  or  shells,  which, 
when  mounted  in  barbette,  has  a  vertical  field  of  fire  from  5°  depres- 
sion to  39°  elevation,  and  a  horizontal  field  of  fire  of  860°.  Those  of 
the  old  pattern  were  chambered,  but  they  are  now  cast  without,  and 
otherwise  greatly  improved.  The  10-inch  weighs  15,400  Ibs.,  and  is 
126  inches  long.  The  8-inch  columbiad  is  124  inches  long  and  weighs 
9,240  Ibs.  Rodman's  15-inch  columbiad,  represented  in  Fig.  104,  was 
cast  at  Pittsburgh,  Pennsylvania,  by  Knapp,  Rudd  &  Co.,  under  the 
directions  of  Captain  T.  J.  Rodman,  of  the  Ordnance  Corps,  who  con- 
ceived the  design,  which  he  has  happily  executed,  of  casting  guns  of 
large  size  hollow,  and  by  means  of  a  current  of  water  introduced  into 
the  core,  which  forms  the  mould  of  the  bore,  cooling  it  from  the  in- 
terior, and  thus  making  the  metal  about  the  bore  the  hardest  and 
densest,  and  giving  the  whole  thickness  of  metal  subjected  to  internal 
strain  its  maximum  strength.  The  gun  has  the  following  dimensions : 

Total  length 190  inches. 

Length  of  calibre  of  bore,      .         .         .         .          156      " 
Length  of  ellipsoidal  chamber,  9       " 

Total  length  of  bore,  .         .         .         .          1G5      " 

Maximum  exterior  diameter,     .         .         .  48      "   ' 

Distance  between  rimbases,  ...  48      " 

Diameter  at  muzzle,          .         .          .         .  25      i{ 

Thickness  of  metal  behind  the  chamber,         .  25      " 

Thickness  at  junction  of  bore  with  chamber,       .        1G£     " 
Thickness  at  muzzle,  ....  5      " 

Diameter  of  shell,  14.9    " 

Weight  of  gun, 49,100  Ibs. 

Weight  of  shell, 320    " 

Bursting  charge, 17    " 


COL.] 


MILITARY  DICTIONARY. 


165 


The  gun  is  mounted  upon  the  new  iron  centre  pintle  carriage,  (Fig. 
104,)  which  with  requisite  lightness  has  great  strength  and  stiffness ;  and 
to  facilitate  the  pointing  from 
5°  depression  to  39°  elevation, 
a  slot  is  cut  in  the  knob  of 
the  cascable,  and  a  ratchet 
is  formed  on  the  base  of  the 
breech  to  receive  a  "  pawl "  at- 
tached to  the  elevating  screw. 
If  the  distance  be  greater  than 
the  length  of  a  single  notch  of 
the  ratchet,  the  piece  is  rap- 
idly moved  by  a  lever  which 
passes  through  an  opening  in 
the  pawl.  If  the  distance  is 
less,  then  the  elevating  screw 
is  used.  The  piece  was  fired 
and  manoeuvred  during  the 
trials  at  Fort  Monroe,  with 
great  facility,  being  manned 
by  1  sergeant  and  6  negroes ; 
the  times  of  loading  were 
1'  15"  and  1'  3".  Time  in 
traversing  90°  2'  20",  and  in 
turning  back  45°  1'.  Time 
of  loading,  including  depres- 
sion and  elevation,  4'  and 
3'  18". 

The  mean  ranges  at  6°  ele- 
vation, of  ten  shots,  was  1,936 
yards,  and  the  mean  lateral 
deviation  2.2  yards ;  35  Ibs.  of  .6-inch  grain  powder  being  the  charge 
and  7"  the  time  of  flight.  At  10°  elevation  and  40  Ibs.  of  powder, 
large  grain,  the  range  was  2,700  yards,  and  time  of  flight  11  ".48. 
At  28°  35'  elevation  the  range  was  5,730  yards ;  time  of  flight  27", 
and  the  lateral  deviation,  as  observed  with  a  telescope  attached  to  one 
of  the  trunnions,  very  slight.  (See  ARTILLERY  ;  GUNPOWDER  ;  ORD- 
NANCE AND  ORDNANCE  STORES  ;  RANGES.) 

COLUMN — of  attack;  in  route;  close  column;  column  of  divi- 
sions ;  column  at  half  distance ;  open  column.  (See  MANOEUVRES  IN 
BATTLE  ;  TACTICS.) 


16G  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [COM. 

COMMAND.  An  officer  may  be  said  to  command  at  a  separate 
post,  when  he  is  out  of  the  reach  of  the  orders  of  the  commander-in- 
chief,  or  of  a  superior  officer,  in  command  in  the  neighborhood.  He 
must  then  issue  the  necessary  orders  to  the  troops  under  his  command, 
it  being  impossible  to  receive  them  from  a  superior  officer ;  (PETER'S 
Digest  of  Decisions  of  Federal  Courts,  vol.  1.  p.  179.) 

Officers  having  brevets  or  commissions  of  a  prior  date  to  those  of 
the  regiment  in  which  they  serve,  may  take  place  in  courts-martial  and 
on  detachments,  when  composed  of  different  corps,  according  to  the 
ranks  given  them  in  their  brevets,  or  dates  of  their  former  commis- 
sions ;  but  in  the  regiment,  troop,  or  company,  to  which  such  officers 
belong,  they  shall  do  duty  and  take  rank,  both  in  courts-martial  and 
on  detachments,  which  shall  be  composed  only  of  their  own  corps,  ac- 
cording to  the  commissions  by  which  they  are  mustered  in  said  corps ; 
(ART.  61.)  If,  upon  marches,  guards,  or  in  quarters,  different  corps 
of  the  army  shall  happen  to  join  and  do  duty  together,  the  officer  high- 
est in  rank  of  the  line  of  the  army,  marine  corps,  or  militia,  by  com- 
mission there,  on  duty  or  in  quarters,  shall  command  the  whole,  and 
give  orders  for  what  is  needful  to  the  service,  unless  otherwise  specially 
directed  by  the  President  of  the  United  States,  according  to  the  nature 
of  the  case  ;  (ART.  62.)  The  great  principle  that  rank,  when  an  officer 
is  on  duty,  and  military  command,  are  ideas  only  to  be  separated  by 
positive  law,  has  always  been  recognized  in  legislation.  The  61st 
Article  of  War,  for  instance,  forbids  the  exercise  of  brevet  rank  with- 
in the  regiment,  troop,  or  company,  to  which  such  officers  belong. 
The  63d  forbids  engineers  to  assume,  and  declares  they  are  not  sub- 
ject to  be  ordered  on  any  duty  beyond  the  line  of  their  immediate  pro- 
fession, except  by  the  special  order  of  the  President  of  the  United 
States.  The  acts  of  Congress  giving  rank  to  officers  of  the  medical 
and  pay  departments  of  the  army,  provide  that  they  shall  not,  in  virtue 
of  such  rank,  be  entitled  to  command  in  the  line  or  other  staff*  depart- 
ments of  the  army  ;  and  so,  if  any  other  legal  restrictions  on  rank  exist, 
they  must  be  found  in  some  positive  statute.  This  necessity  is  made 
plain  by  the  consideration  that  military  rank  means  a  range  of  military 
subordination.  Higher  rank  therefore,  created  by  law,  cannot  be  made 
subordinate  to  lower  rank,  except  by  positive  law ;  or,  in  other  words, 
a  junior  cannot  command  a  senior,  unless  the  law  shall  otherwise  de- 
cree. The  61st  Article  of  War  declares  that  officers  holding  commis- 
sions of  a  prior  date  to  the  regiment  in  which  they  serve,  shall  never- 
theless take  rank  "  both  in  courts-martial  and  on  detachments  composed 
only  of  their  own  corps,  according  to  the  commissions  by  which  they 


COM.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  16T 

are  mustered  in  said  corps."  The  98th  Article  declares  that  militia 
officers,  when  serving  in  conjunction  with  the  regular  forces,  shall  take 
rank  next  after  all  officers  of  the  like  grade  in  said  regular  forces,  not- 
withstanding the  commissions  of  such  militia  officers  may  be  older  than 
the  commissions  of  the  officers  of  the  regular  forces  of  the  United  States. 
The  27th  Article  declares  that  all  officers  have  power  to  part  and  quell 
all  quarrels,  &c.,  and  to  order  officers  into  arrest,  and  whosoever  shall 
refuse  to  obey  such  officer  (though  of  inferior  rank)  shall  be  punished, 
&c.  Here  are  cases  in  which  Congress  has  decreed  that  seniors  in  com- 
mission may  be  commanded  by  juniors ;  and  if  any  other  cases  exist, 
they  likewise  must  be  found  in  some  positive  statute.  The  62d  Article 
of  War  is  ambiguous,  from  the  use  of  the  words  "  line  of  the  army  ;  " 
our  legislation  having  applied  those  words  to  contradistinguish  regular 
troops  from  militia,  and  also,  in  many  cases,  the  same  words  are  cor- 
relative and  contradistinctive  of  staff  of  the  army.  "  But,"  says  Presi- 
dent Fillrnore,  after  a  careful  examination  on  his  part,  to  determine 
this  question,  "  I  find  but  one  act  of  Congress  in  which  the  words  '  line 
of  the  army '  have  been  employed  to  designate  the  regular  army  in  con- 
tradistinction to  the  militia,  and  none  in  which  they  have  manifestly 
been  used  as  contradistinctive  of  brevet."  Whatever  ambiguity,  there- 
fore, may  exist  under  the  62d  Article,  in  respect  to  the  right  of  com- 
mand on  the  part  of  officers  of  staff  corps  and  departments,  the  article 
does  not  decree  any  restriction  on  brevet  rank ;  and  hence  the  great 
principle  that  rank  on  duty  confers  military  command  has  its  full  force 
in  respect  to  commissions  by  brevet,  and  all  other  commissions  not 
restricted  by  law.  The  President,  as  commander-in-chief  under  the 
62d  Article  of  War,  may  relieve  any  officer  from  duty  with  a  particular 
command,  or  he  may  assign  some  officer  of  superior  rank  to  duty  with 
a  command  ;  but  the  laws  have  not  authorized  him  to  place  a  junior  in 
command  of  a  senior,  and  that  power  which  creates  rank,  viz.,  Congress, 
is  alone  authorized  to  place  restrictions  on  its  meaning.  (See  ASSIGN- 
MENT ;  BREVET  ;  LINE  ;  RANK.) 

The  word  command,  when  applied  to  ground,  is  synonymous  with 
overlook  ;  and  any  place  thus  commanded  by  heights  within  range  of 
cannon  is  difficult  to  defend,  if  the  enemy  have  been  able  to  seize  the 
heights.  (See  BREVET  ;  OATH  ;  OBEDIENCE  ;  RANK.) 

COMMAND  OF  FIRE.  When  a  work  has  a  sufficient  elevation 
over  the  work  before  it,  to  enable  the  defensive  weapons  to  act  in  both 
works  at  the  same  time  upon  an  advancing  enemy,  even  to  the  foot  of 
the  glacis,  then  the  inner  work  is  said  to  have  a  command  of  fire  over 
the  other. 


168  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [Con. 

COMMAND  OF  OBSERVATION.  When  the  interior  work 
has  only  sufficient  elevation  to  look  into  or  even  over  the  work  before 
it,  but  not  sufficient  to  fire  clear  of  it,  then  it  is  said  to  have  only  a 
command  of  observation. 

COMMANDER-IN-CHIEF.  The  President  shall  be  commander- 
in-chief  of  the  Army  and  Navy  of  the  United  States,  and  of  the  militia 
of  the"several  States,  when  called  into  the  actual  service  of  the  United 
States ;  (See  CONSTITUTIONAL  RELATION  OF  CONGRESS  AND  THE  PRESIDENT 
TO  THE  LAND  FORCES.) 

COMMANDER  OF  THE  ARMY.'  That  whenever  the  Presi- 
dent shall  deem  it  expedient,  he  is  hereby  empowered  to  appoint,  by 
and  with  the  advice  and  consent  of  the  Senate,  a  commander  of  the 
army  which  may  be  raised  by  virtue  of  this  act,  and  who,  being  com- 
missioned as  lieutenant-general,  may  be  authorized  to  command  the 
armies  of  the  United  States ;  (Sec.  5,  Act  May  28,  1798.) 

COMMISSARY  OF  SUBSISTENCE.  An  officer  of  the  sub- 
sistence  department.  (See  SUBSISTENCE.) 

COMMISSION.  The  President  shall  commission  all  officers  of 
the  United  States;  (Sec.  3  Constitution.)  Officers  of  the  United  States 
army  may  hold  their  commissions  through  rules  of  appointment  pre- 
scribed by  Congress  under  its  authority  to  raise  armies  and  make  rules 
for  their  government  and  regulation,  but  their  commissions  must  be 
signed  by  the  President.  The  words  introduced  into  every  officer's 
parchment : — "  this  commission  to  continue  in  force  during  the  pleasure 
of  the  President  of  the  United  States  for  the  time  being  " — have  been 
inserted  without  authority  of  law.  There  has  been  no  legislation  on 
the  subject  of  the  form  of  an  officer's  commission.  The  form  adopted 
was  borrowed  originally  from  British  commissions,  and  was  "  probably 
the  pen  work  of  some  clerk,  or  at  the  most,  the  hasty  direction  of  the 
Secretary  of  War,  without  reflecting  that  the  chief  magistrate  in  a 
republic  is  not  the  fountain  of  all  honor  and  power,"  and  that  Congress 
alone  has  the  power  to  raise  armies,  and  to  make  rules  for  their  gov- 
ernment and  regulation. 

COMPANY.  Companies  are  commanded  by  captains  having 
under  their  orders  lieutenants,  sergeants,  corporals,  musicians,  and  pri- 
vates. (See  ARMY  ORGANIZATION.) 

COMPTROLLER.     (See  ACCOUNTABILITY.) 

CONDUCT    UNBECOMING  AN  OFFICER  AND    A   GENTLEMAN punished 

with  dismission  by  sentence  of  general  court-martial.  What  consti- 
tutes the  offence  is  not  denned,  but  it  is  left  Jo  the  moral  sense  of 
the  court-martial  to  determine. 

CONFINEMENT.    Non-commissioned  officers  and  soldiers  charged 


CON.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  169 

with  crimes  shall  be  confined  until  tried  by  a  court-martial,  or  released 
by  proper  authority  ;  (ART.  78.)  No  officer,  or  soldier  who  shall  be 
put  in  arrest,  shall  continue  in  confinement  more  than  eight  days,  or 
until  such  time  as  a  court-martial  can  be  assembled  ;  (ART.  79.)  (See 
ARREST.) 

CONGRESS.     (See  CONSTITUTIONAL  RELATION  OF  CONGRESS.) 

CONNIVING  AT  HIRING  OF  DUTY.  If  a  non-commissioned 
officer,  shall  be  reduced.  If  a  commissioned  officer,  punished  by  the 
judgment  of  a  general  court-martial ;  (ART.  48.) 

CONSCRIPTION.  The  only  means  of  raising  a  NATIONAL  Army. 
The  system  of  voluntary  enlistments  will  always  divide  an  army  into 
two  castes — officers  and  soldiers,  and  the  latter  will  hardly  ever  be 
found  qualified  for  promotion.  The  system  of  conscription  is,  too,  the 
only  means  of  raising  large  armies.  This  was  made  plain  during  the 
last  war  with  England.  Even  with  the  largest  bounties  in  lancf  and 
money,  soldiers  could  not  be  procured,  and  the  President  and  Secretary 
of  War  (Messrs.  Madison  and  Monroe)  recommended  in  strong  terms 
a  system  of  conscription.  Tho  legislature  of  New  York  passed  an  act 
at  the  same  time,  for  raising  12,000  troops  by  conscription.  (See 
DEFENCE,  NATIONAL;  RAISE.) 

CONSTITUTION.     The  following  provisions  of  the  constitution 

relate  to  the  land  and  naval  forces  :  Preamble — We,  the  people  of  the 

United   States,  in   order   to     *     *     provide  for  the  common  defence 

*     *     do  ordain  and  establish  this  constitution  for  the  United  States 

of  America. 

ART.  I.  SEC.  1.  All  legislative  powers  herein  granted,  shall  be  vest- 
ed in  a  Congress  of  the  United  States,  which  shall  consist  of  a  Senate 
and  House  of  Representatives. 

ART.  I.  SEC.  8.  The  Congress  shall  have  power  : — 

Clause  1.  •*  *  To  pay  the  debts  and  provide  for  the  common 
defence  and  general  welfare  of  the  United  States ;  *  * 

Clause  9.  *  *  To  define  and  punish  offences  against*  the  law  of 
nations ;  *  * 

Clause  10.  To  declare  war,  grant  letters  of  marque  and  reprisal, 
and  make  rules  concerning  captures  on  land  and  water  ; 

Clause  11.  To  raise  and  support  armies;  but  no  appropriation  of 
money  to  that  use,  shall  be  for  a  longer  term  than  two  years ; 

Clause  12.    To  provide  and  maintain  a  navy  ; 

Clause  13.  To  make  rules  for  the  government  and  regulation  of  the 
land  and  naval  forces ; 

Clause  14.  To  provide  for  calling  forth  the  militia  to  execute  the 
laws  of  the  Union,  suppress  insurrections,  and  repel  invasions  ; 


170  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [CoN. 

Clause  15.  To  provide  for  organizing,  arming,  and  disciplining  the 
militia,  and  for  governing  such  part  of  them  as  may  be  employed  in  the 
service  of  the  United  States,  reserving  to  the  States,  respectively,  the  ap- 
pointment of  the  officers,  and  the  authority  of  training  the  militia  ac- 
cording to  the  discipline  prescribed  by  Congress. 

Clause  16.  To  exercise  exclusive  legislation  *  *  over  all 
places  purchased,  by  consent  of  the  legislature  of  the  State  in  which  the 
same  shall  be,  for  the  erection  of  forts,  magazines,  arsenals,  dock-yards, 
and  other  needful  buildings — and 

Clause  17.  To  make  all  laws  which  shall  be  necessary  and  proper 
for  carrying  into  execution  the  foregoing  powers,  and  all  other  powers 
vested  by  this  constitution  in  the  Government  of  the  United  States,  or 
in  any  department  or  officer  thereof. 

SEC.  9.  Clause  2.  *  *  The  privilege  of  the  writ  of  habeas 
shall  not  be  suspended,  unless  when,  in  cases  of  rebellion  or  invasion, 
the  public  safety  may  require  it.  *  * 

SEC.  10.  Clause  2.  *  *  No  State  shall,  without  the  consent  of 
Congress  *  *  keep  troops  or  ships  of  war  in  time  of  peace  *  * 
or  engage  in  war,  unless  actually  invaded,  or  in  such  imminent  danger 
as  will  not  admit  of  delay. 

ART.  II.  SEC.  1.  Clause  1.  The  executive  power  shall  be  vested  in 
a  President  of  the  United  States  of  America.  *  * 

SEC.  2.  Clause  1.  The  President  shall  be  commander-in-chief  of 
the  army  and  navy  of  the  United  States,  and  of  the  militia  of  the  several 
States,  when  called  into  the  actual  service  of  the  United  States.  *  * 

SEC.  3.  Clause  1.  *  *  He  shall  take  care  that  the  laws  be 
faithfully  executed ;  and  shall  commission  all  officers  of  the  United 
States. 

4  ART.  III.  SEC.  3.  Clause  1.  Treason  against  the  United  States 
shall  consist  only  in  levying  war  against  them,  or  in  adhering  to  their 
enemies,  giving  them  aid  and  comfort.  No  person  shall  be  convicted 
of  treason,'  unless  on  the  testimony  of  two  witnesses  to  the  same  overt 
act,  or  on  confession  in  open  court. 

Clause  2.  The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  declare  the  punishment 
of  treason ;  but  no  attainder  of  treason  shall  work  corruption  of  blood, 
or  forfeiture,  except  during  the  life  of  the  person  attainted. 

ART.  IV.  SEC.  4.  Clause  1.  The  United  States  shall  guarantee  to 
every  State  in  this  Union  a  republican  form  of  government ;  and  shall 
protect  each  of  them  against  invasion,  and  on  the  application  of  the 
legislature,  or  of  the  executive,  (when  the  legislature  cannot  be  con- 
vened,) against  domestic  violence. 


CON.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  171 

Amendments  to  the  Constitution : — 1.  Congress  shall  make  no  law 
respecting  an  establishment  of  religion,  or  prohibiting  the  free  exercisi 
thereof;  abridging  the  freedom  of  speech,  of  the  press  ;  or  the  right  of 
the  people  peaceably  to  assembly,  and  to  petition  the  Government  for 
redress  of  grievances. 

ART.  II.  A  well-regulated  militia  being  necessary  to  the  security  of 
a  free  State,  the  right  of  the  people  to  keep  and  bear  arms  shall  not  be 
infringed. 

ART.  III.  No  soldier  shall,  in  time  of  peace,  be  quartered  in  any 
house,  without  the  consent  of  the  owner ;  nor  in  time  of  war,  but  in  a 
manner  to  be  prescribed  by  law. 

ART.  V.  No  person  shall  be  held  to  answer  for  a  capital  or  otherwise 
infamous  crime,  unless  on  a  presentment  or  indictment  by  a  grand  jury, 
except  in  cases  arising  in  the  land  or  naval  forces,  or  in  the  militia,  when 
in  actual  service,  in  time  of  war,  or  public  danger ;  nor  shall  any  per- 
son be  subject  for  the  same  offence  to  be  twice  put  in  jeopardy  of  life 
or  limb ;  nor  shall  be  compelled,  in  anj$  criminal  case,  to  be  a  witness 
against  himself,  nor  be  deprived  of  life,  liberty,  or  property,  without 
due  process  of  law  ;  nor  shall  private  property  be  taken  for  public  use 
without  just  compensation. 

CONSTITUTIONAL  RELATION  OF  CONGRESS  AND  THE 
PRESIDENT  TO  THE  LAND  AND  NAVAL  FORCES  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 
The  power  of  making  rules  for  the  government  and  regulation  of 
armies,  as  well  as  the  power  of  raising  armies,  having  in  express 
terms  been  conferred  on  Congress,  it  is  manifest  that  the  President  as 
commander-in-chief  is  limited  by  the  constitution  to  the  simple  com- 
mand of  such  armies  as  Congress  may  raise,  under  such  rules  for  their 
government  and  regulation  as  Congress  may  appoint :  "  The  authorities, 
(says  Alexander  Hamilton,  Federalist,  No.  23,)  essential  to  the  care  of 
the  common  defence  are  these  :  To  raise  armies ;  to  build  and  equip 
fleets  ;  to  prescribe  rules  for  the  government  of  both ;  to  direct  their 
operations  ;  to  provide  for  their  support.  These  powers  ought  to  exist 
without  limitation ;  because  it  is  impossible  to  foresee  or  to  define  the 
extent  and  variety  of  national  exigencies,  and  the  correspondent  extent 
and  variety  of  the  means  which  may  be  necessary  to  satisfy  them." 
.  .  "  Defective  as  the  present  (old)  Confederation  has  been  proved 
to  be,  this  principle  appears  to  have  been  fully  recognized  by  the 
framers  of  it ;  although  they  have  not  made  proper  or  adequate  pro- 
vision for  its  exercise.  Congress  have  an  unlimited  discretion  to  make 
requisitions  of  men  and  money  ;  to  govern  the  army  and  navy  ;  to  di- 
rect their  operations."  "  The  government  of  the  military  is  that  branch 


172  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [CON. 

of  the  code,  (says  BARDIN,  Dictionnaire  de  FArmee  de  Terre,)  which  em 
braces  the  military  Hierarchy,  or  the  gradual  distribution  of  inferior 
authority."  From  this  principle  proceeds  the  localization  of  troops, 
their  discipline,  remuneration  for  important  services,  the  repression  of 
all  infractions  of  the  laws,  and  every  thing  in  fine  which  the  legislature 
may  judge  necessary  either  by  rules  of  appointment  or  promotion, 
penalties  or  rewards,  to  maintain  an  efficient  and  well-disciplined  army. 
But,  as  if  to  avoid  all  misconstruction  on  this  point,  the  constitution  not 
only  declares  that  Congress  shall  make  rules  for  the  government,  but 
also  for  the  regulation  ol  the  army  ;  and  regulation  signifies  precise 
determination  of  functions ;  method,  forms  'and  restrictions,  not  to  be 
departed  from.  It  is  evident,  therefore,  that  the  design  of  the  framers 
of  the  constitution,  was  not  to  invest  the  President  with  powers  over 
the  army  in  any  degree  parallel  with  powers  possessed  by  the  king  of 
Great  Britain  over  the  British  army,  whose  prerogative  embraces  the 
command  and  government  ot  all  forces  raised  and  maintained  by  him 
with  the  consent  of  parliament,  (BLACKSTONE  ;)  but  their  purpose,  on  tho 
contrary,  was  to  guard  in  all  possible  ways  against  executive  usurpation 
by  leaving  with  Congress  the  control  ot  the  Federal  forces  which  it 
possessed  under  the  articles  of  the  Confederation,  and  at  the  same  time 
to  strengthen  the  powers  of  Congress  by  giving  that  body  an  unre- 
stricted right  to  raise  armies,  provided  appropriations  for  their  support 
should  not  extend  beyond  two  years.  The  command  ot  the  army  and 
navy  and  militia  called  jnto  service,  subject  to  such  rules  for  their  gov- 
ernment and  regulation  as  Congress  may  make,  was  given  by  the  con- 
stitution to  the  President ;  but  the  power  of  making  rules  of  govern- 
ment and  regulation  is  in  reality  that  of  SUPREME  COMMAND,  and  hence 
the  President,  to  use  the  language  of  the  Federalist,  in  his  relation  to 
the  army  and  navy,  is  nothing  more  than  the  "first  General  and  Ad- 
miral of  the  Confederacy  ;  "  or  the  first  officer  of  the  military  hierarchy 
with  functions  assigned  by  Congress.  A  curious  example  of  this  con- 
temporaneous construction  of  the  constitution  is  found  in  a  letter  from 
Sedgwick  to  Hamilton  (vol.  6,  Hamilton's  Works,  p.  394.)  Congress,  in 
raising  a  provisional  army  in  1798,  created  the  office  of  commander 
of  the  army  with  the  title  of  Lieutenant-general.  A  year  subse- 
quently a  provision  was  made  by  law  for  changing  this  title  to  that  of 
General.  This  last  provision  gave  great  offence  to  Mr.  Adams,  then 
President,  who  considered  it  as  an  evidence  of  the  desire  of  Congress  to 
make  "  a  general  over  the  President"  So  strangely  was  he  possessed 
with  this  idea  that  he  never  commissioned  Washington  as  General,  but 
the  latter  died  in  his  office  of  Lieutenan ^-general ;  the  President  evi- 


CON.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  173 

dently  thinking  that  the  title  of  General  conveyed  a  significancy  which 
belonged  to  the  President  alone,  although  the  commander  of  the 
army  might  in  his  opinion  very  properly  take  the  title  of  Lieutenant- 
general,  and  thus  have  his  subordination  to  the  Commander-in-chief  of 
the  army  and  navy  and  militia  clearly  indicated.  It  is  plain  therefore 
no  less  from  the  appointment  by  the  constitution  of  the  President  as 
commander-in-chief,  than  from  all  contemporaneous  construction,  that 
his  functions  in  respect  to  the  army  are  those  of  First  General  of  the 
U.  S.,  and  in  no  degree  derived  from  his  powers  as  first  civil  magis- 
trate of  the  Union.  The  advocates  of  executive  discretion  over  the 
army  must  therefore  seek  for  the  President's  authority  in  his  military 
capacity,  restrained  as  that  is  by  the  powrers  granted  to  Congress,  which 
embrace  the  raising,  support,  government,  and  regulation  of  armies  ;  or, 
to  use  the  language  of  the  Federalist,  No.  23,  "  there  can  be  no  limita- 
tion of  that  authority,  which  is  to  provide  for  the  defence  and  protection 
of  the  community,  in  any  matter  essential  to  its  efficacy  ;  that  is,  in  any 
matter  essential  to  the  formation,  direction,  or  support  of  the  NATIONAL 
FORCES."  After  the  foregoing  investigation  of  the  unrestricted  power 
of  Congress  in  respect  to  the  army,  save  only  in  the  appointment  of  the 
head  of  all  the  national  forces,  naval  and  military,  it  will  be  plain  that 
the  2d  Section  of  the  constitution,  in  giving  to  the  President  the  nomi- 
nation and  appointment,  by  and  with  the  advice  and  consent  of  the 
Senate,  of  all  other  officers  of  the  United  States,  whose  appointments  are 
not  herein  otherwise  provided  for,  excludes  officers  of  the  army  and  navy. 
The  power  of  raising  armies  and  making  rules  for  their  government  and 
regulation,  necessarily  involves  the  power  of  making  rules  of  appoint, 
ment,  promotion,  reward,  and  punishment,  and  is  therefore  a  provision  in 
the  constitution  otherwise  providing  for  the  appointment  of  officers  of 
the  land  and  naval  forces.  So  true  is  this  that  the  principle  has  been 
acted  on  from  the  foundation  of  the  Government.  Laws  have  been 
passed  giving  to  general  and  other  officers  the  appointment  of  certain 
inferior  officers.  In  other  cases  the  President  has  been  confined  by 
Congress,  in  his  selection  for  certain  offices  in  the  army,  to  particular 
classes.  Again,  rules  have  been  made  by  Congress  for  the  promotion 
of  officers,  another  form  of  appointment ;  and  in  1846,  an  army  of  volun- 
teers was  raised  by  Congress,  the  officers  of  which  the  acts  of  Congress 
directed  should  be  appointed  according  to  the  laws  of  the  States  in 
which  the  troops  were  raised,  excepting  the  general  officers  for  those 
troops,  who  were  to  be  appointed  by  the  President  and  Senate  (Act 
June  2G,  1846) — a  clear  recognition  that  the  troops  thus  raised  by 
Congress  were  United  States  troops,  and  not  militia.  It  is  certainly 


174  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [CON. 

true  that  the  military  -legislation  of  the  country  has  for  long  years 
vested  a  large  discretion  in  the  President  in  respect  to  appointments 
and  other  matters  concerning  the  army  ;  but  it  may  well  be  asked 
whether  fixed  rules  of  appointments  and  promotion  which  would  pre- 
vent the  exercise  of  favoritism  by  the  executive  might  not,  with  the 
greatest  advantage  to  the  army  and  the  country,  be  adopted  by  Con- 
gress ?  "  Military  prejudices  (says  Gen.  Hamilton)  are  not  only  in- 
separable from,  but  they  are  essential  to  the  military  profession.  The 
government  which  desires  to  have  a  satisfied  and  useful  army  must 
consult  them.  They  cannot  be  moulded  at  its  pleasure ;  it  is  vain  to 
ajm  at  it."  These  are  maxims  which  should  lead  Congress  to  the  adop- 
tion of  rules  of  appointment  and  promotion  in  the  army  which  would 
prevent  all  outrages  to  the  just  pride  of  officers  of  the  army.  The 
organization  of  every  new  regiment,  where  the  appointment  of  the  officers 
has  been  left  to  executive  discretion,  shows  that,  if  the  desire  has  been 
felt  in  that  quarter  to  cherish  or  cultivate  pride  of  profession  among  the 
officers  of  the  army,  the  feeling  has  been  repressed  by  other  considera- 
tions. All  pride  of  rank  has  been  so  far  crushed  by  this  system  of 
executive  discretion  that  it  is  apparent,  if  Congress  cannot  provide  a 
better  rule  for  the  government  and  regulation  of  the  army,  a  generous 
rivalry  in  distinguished  services  must  be  superseded  by  political 
activity.  Rules  of  appointment  and  promotion  limiting  the  discre- 
tion of  the  President,  and  at  the  same  time  giving  effect  to  opinions  in 
the  army,  might  easily  be  devised  ;  or  borrowed  from  existing  rules  in 
the  French  army,  which,  without  ignoring  the  important  principle  of 
seniority,  would  at  the  same  time  afford  scope  and  verge  for  rewards 
for  distinguished  services.  (See  PROMOTION.)  No  army  can  be  kept  in 
war  in  the  highest  vigor  and  efficiency  without  rewards  for  distinguished 
activity,  and  the  appointment  of  Totleben  at  the  siege  of  Sevastopol 
shows  how  far  almost  superhuman  efforts  may  be  prompted  by  invest- 
ing a  commander  in  the  field  with  the  power  of  selecting  his  immediate 
assistants.  Colonels  of  regiments  with  us  now  exercise  this  authority 
in  selecting  regimental  adjutants  and  quartermasters.  Why  should  not 
the  same  trust  be  reposed  in  commanding  generals  of  departments, 
brigades,  divisions,  and  armies  ?  And  why  should  not  all  necessary 
restrictions  (such  as  those  in  operation  in  the  French  armies)  be  put 
upon  the  President  in  making  promotions  for  distinguished  services,  and 
also  in  original  appointments,  in  order  to  secure  justice  to  the  army,  and 
thereby  promote  the  best  interests  of  the  country  1  (  Consult  Federal- 
ist;  HAMILTON'S  Works;  MADISON'S  Works;  Acts  of  Congress; 
Report  of  Committee  of  the  Senate,  April  25,  1822.  See  PRESIDENT  ; 
RAISE  ;  VICE-PRESIDENT  ;  PROMOTION.) 


CON.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  175 

CONTEMPT.  Any  officer  or  soldier  who  shall  use  contemptuous 
or  disrespectful  words  against  the  President  of  the  United  States,  the 
Vice-President,  against  the  Congress  of  the  United  States,  or  against 
the  chief  magistrate  or  legislature  of  any  of  the  United  States  in  which 
he  may  be  quartered,  shall  be  punished  as  a  court-rnartial  shall  direct. 
Any  officer  or  soldier  who  shall  behave  himself  with  contempt  or  dis- 
respect towards  his  commanding  officer,  shall  be  punished  by  the  judg- 
ment of  a  court-martial;  (ARTS.  5  and  6.) 

No  person  whatsoever  shall  use  any  menacing  words,  signs,  or  ges- 
tures, in  presence  of  a  court-martial,  or  shall  cause  any  riot  or  disorder, 
or  disturb  their  proceedings,  on  the  penalty  of  being  punished  at  the 
discretion  of  the  said  court-martial ;  (ART.  76.)  Contempts  thus  ren- 
dered summarily  punishable  by  courts-martial  are  of  public  and  self- 
evident  kind,  not  depending  on  any  interpretation  of  law  admitting 
explanation,  or  requiring  further  investigation.  Courts-martial  some- 
times act  on  this  power.  At  other  times  individuals  so  offending  are 
placed  in  arrest,  and  charges  are  preferred  for  trial.  A  regimental 
court-martial  may  punish  summarily,  but  are  not  competent  to  award 
punishment  to  commissioned  officers.  A  regimental  court-martial  in 
such  cases  would  impose  arrest.  Citizens,  not  soldiers,  would  be  re- 
moved from  court ;  (HOUGH'S  Military  Law  Authorities.) 

CONTRACTS.  Supplies  for  the  army,  unless  in  particular  and 
urgent  cases  the  Secretary  of  War  should  otherwise  direct,  shall  be 
purchased  by  contract,  to  be  made  by  the  commissary-general  on  pub- 
lic notice,  to  be  delivered  on  inspection  in  bulk,  and  at  such  places  as 
shall  be  stipulated ;  which  contract  shall  be  made  under  such  regula- 
tions as  the  Secretary  of  War  may  direct ;  (Act  April  14,  1818,  Sec. 
7.)  No  contract  shall  hereafter  be  made  by  the  Secretary  of  State,  or 
of  the  Treasury,  or  of  the  Department  of  War,  or  of  the  Navy,  except 
under  a  law  authorizing  the  same,  or  under  an  appropriation  adequate 
to  its  fulfilment ;  and  excepting  also  contracts  for  the  subsistence  and 
clothing  of  the  army  and  navy,  and  contracts  by  the  quartermaster's 
department  which  may  be  made  by  the  secretaries  of  those  depart- 
ments ;  (Act  May  1,  1820.)  Members  of  Congress  cannot  be  interest- 
ed in  any  contract,  and  a  special  provision  must  be  inserted  in  every 
contract  that  no  member  of  Congress  is  interested  in  it.  Penalty — 
forfeiture  of  three  thousand  dollars  for  making  contracts  with  members 
of  Congress  ;  (Act  April  21,  1808.) 

Liability  of  Contracts. — By  analogy  to  the  rule  which  protects  an 
officer  from  the  treatment  of  a  trespasser  or  malefactor,  in  regard  to 
acts  done  by  him  in  the  execution  of  the  orders  of  his  own  government, 


176  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [CON. 

a  similar  immunity  is  extended  to  him  ift  respect  to  contracts  which 
he  enters  into  for  public  purposes  within  the  sphere  of  his  authority. 
No  private  means  or  resources  would  otherwise  be  adequate  to  the 
responsibilities  which,  under  any  other  rule,  would  effectually  deter  the 
best  citizens  of  a  state  from  rendering  their  services  to  the  government. 
On  high  grounds,  therefore,  of  public  policy,  it  has  long  been  established, 
that  no  action  will  lie  against  any  government  officer  upon  contracts 
made  by  him  in  his  official  character  for  public  purposes,  and  within 
the  legitimate  scope  of  his  duties. 

"  Great  inconveniences  (says  Mr.  Justice  Ashurst)  would  result 
from  considering  a  governor  or  commander  as  personally  responsible 
in  such  cases.  For  no  man  would  accept  of  any  office  of  trust  under 
government  upon  such  conditions.  And  indeed  it  has  been  frequently 
determined  that  no  individual  is  answerable  for  any  engagements  which 
he  enters  into  on  their  behalf."  "In  any  case  (says  Mr.  Jus- 
tice Duller)  where  a  man  acts  as  agent  for  the  public,  and  treats  in 
that  capacity,  there  is  no  pretence  to  say  that  he  is  personally  liable." 
This  doctrine  applies  in  full  force  to  military  officers  in  the  exercise  of 
their  professional  duties.  One  of  the  earliest  cases  of  this  nature  was 
Macheath  v.  Haldimand,  in  which  it  appeared  that  General  Haldimand, 
being  commander-in-chief  and  governor  of  Quebec,  had,  in  those  capaci- 
ties, appointed  Captain  Sinclair  to  the  command  of  a  fort  upon  Lake 
Huron,  with  instructions  to  employ  one  Macheath  in  furnishing  sup- 
plies for  the  service  of  the  Crown.  In  pursuance  of  these  orders,  Mac- 
heath  had  furnished  various  articles  for  the  use  of  the  fort ;  and  Captain 
Sinclair,  according  to  his  instructions  from  General  Haldimand,  drew 
bills  upon  him  for  the  amount.  Macheath  also  remitted  his  accounts 
to  General  Haldimand  at  Quebec,  with  the  following  words  prefixed  : 
"  Government  debtor  to  George  Macheath  for  sundries  paid  by  order 
of  Lieutenant-governor  Sinclair."  General  Haldimand  objected  to 
several  of  the  charges,  and  refused  payment  of  the  amount ;  but  ulti- 
mately made  a  partial  payment  on  account,  without  prejudice  to  Mac- 
heath's  right  to  the  remainder,  to  recover  which  he  brought  the  present 
action.  At  the  trial  it  appeared  so  clearly  that  Macheath  had  dealt 
with  General  Haldimand  solely  in  the  character  of  commander-in-chief, 
and  as  an  agent  of  government,  that  Mr.  Justice  Bullcr  told  the  jury 
they  were  bound  to  find  for  the  defendant  in  point  of  law.  The  jury 
gave  their  verdict  accordingly  ;  and  upon  the  express  ground  of  General 
Hald imand's  freedom  from  personal  liability  in  such  a  case,  the  Court 
of  King's  Bench  were  unanimous  in  refusing  a  new  trial. 

In  a  case  w^ich  was  tried  before  Lord  Mansfield,  one  Savage  brought 


CON.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  177 

an  action  against  Lord  North,  as  First  Lord  of  the  Treasury,  for  the 
expenses  which  he  (Savage)  had  incurred  in  raising  a  regiment  for  the 
service  of  government ;  and  Lord  Mansfield  held  that  the  action  did  not 
lie.  So  in  another  case  of  Lutterlop  v.  Halsey,  an  action  was  brought 
against  a  commissary  for  the  price  of  forage,  supplied  to  the  army  by 
the  plaintiff,  at  the  request  of  the  defendant,  in  his  official  character ; 
and  the  commissary  was  held  not  to  be  liable.  On  another  occasion, 
a  suit  was  instituted  in  chancery  against  General  Burgoyne,  for  a  spe- 
cific performance  of  a  contract  for  the  supply  of  artillery  carriages  in 
America.  But  Lord  Chancellor  Thurlow  said  there  was  no  color  for 
the  demand  as  against  General  Burgoyne,  who  acted  only  as  an  agent 
for  government ;  and  his  lordship  dismissed  the  suit  with  costs.  In 
1818  an  action  was  brought  against  Hall,  the  late  purser  of  H.  M.  S. 
La  Belle  Poule,  by  the  purser's  steward  of  the  same  ship,  to  recover 
the  amount  of  pay  due  to  the  latter  for  his  services  on  board.  It  ap- 
peared that  the  purser's  steward  could  not  be  appointed  without  the 
consent  of  the  commander,  and  that  lie  was  entitled  to  the  pay  of  an 
able  seaman,  but  usually  received  pay  under  a  private  contract  with 
the  purser.  The  chief  justice,  Lord  Ellenborough,  at  first  felt  some 
difficulty  in  the  case  ;  but  considering  how  very  extensive  the  operation 
of  the  principle  might  be,  if  such  an  action  could  be  supported,  and  if 
a  person,  receiving  a  specific  salary  from  the  Crown  in  respect  of  his 
situation,  could  recover  remuneration  for  his  services  from  the  officer 
under  whose  immediate  authority  he  acted,  and  that  the  purser  had  no 
fund  allowed  him  out  of  which  such  services  were  to  be  paid,  his  lord- 
ship was  of  opinion  that  the  plaintiff  had  no  right  of  action  against  the 
purser. 

It  is  quite  immaterial  also,  whether  the  officer  gives  the  orders  in 
person,  or  through  a  subordinate  agent  appointed  by  himself.  The 
creditor  cannot,  in  the  latter  case,  charge  'the  officer  with  a  personal 
liability.  In  Myrtle  v.  Beaver,  the  plaintiff,  a  butcher  at  Brighton, 
brought  an  action  against  Major  Beaver,  the  captain  of  a  troop  in  the 
Hampshire  Feneible  Cavalry,  for  the  price  of  meat  supplied  to  the 
troop  when  quartered  at  Brighton,  in  January  and  February,  1800. 
One  Bedford,  a  sergeant  in  the  troop,  had  been  employed  by  Major 
Beaver,  according  to  his  duty  as  captain,  to  provide  for  the  subsistence 
of  the  men  ;  and  so  long  as  Major  Beaver  remained  with  the  troop,  he 
regularly  settled  the  butcher's  bill  monthly,  up  to  the  24th  January, 
1800.  At  that  date  Major  Beaver  was  detached  with  a  small  party  to 
command  at  Arundel,  the  greater  part  of  the  regiment  remaining  at 
Brighton  under  the  command  of  the  colonel  j  and  the  command  of 
12 


178  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [CoN. 

Major  Beaver's  troop,  with  the  duties  of  providing  lor  its  subsistence, 
devolved  on  Lieutenant  Hunt,  who  continued  to  employ  Sergeant  Bed- 
ford in  providing  supplies  for  the  men,  and  gave  him  money  for  that 
purpose.  The  plaintiff  furnished  meat  as  before,  under  Sergeant  Bed- 
ford's orders,  but  it  did  not  appear  that  he  had  been  apprised  of  the 
change  of  the  authority,  under  which  the  sergeant  gave  those  orders. 
On  the  20th  February,  and  before  the  usual  monthly  period  of  settling 
the  butcher's  bill,  Lieutenant  Hunt,  who  wras  also  paymaster  of  the 
regiment,  absconded  with  the  regimental  moneys,  and  left  the  plaintiff's 
demand  and  the  regimental  accounts  unsettled.  As  Sergeant  Bedford 
had,  in  the  first  instance,  been  accredited  by  Major  Beaver,  as  his  agent 
for  ordering  the  supplies,  the  plaintiff  Myrtle  contended  that  until  he 
had  been  informed  of  the  discontinuance  of  that  authority,  he  had  a 
right  to  presume  its  continuance,  and  to  look  to  Major  Beaver  for  pay- 
ment as  before.  But  the  Court  of  King's  Bench  held,  that  although  the 
sergeant  acted  by  Major  Beaver's  orders,  he  was  not  to  be  considered 
as  the  agent  of  a  private  individual,  as  it  was  plain  that  he  acted  as 
agent  for  whatever  officer  happened  to  have  the  command  of  the  troop. 
There  was,  therefore,  no  ground  for  fixing  Major  Beaver  with  any  per- 
sonal liability  in  the  matter. 

An  agent  of  government  may,  however,  render  himself  personally 
liable  upon  contracts  made  by  himself  in  the  execution  of  his  office. 
On  this  principle  an  action  was  brought  against  General  Burgoyne,  to 
recover  a  sum  of  money  due  to  the  plaintiff  as  provost-marshal  of  the 
British  army  in  America ;  the  general  having  promised  that  the  plain- 
tiff should  be  paid  at  the  same  rate  as  the  provost-marshal  under  Gen- 
eral Howe  had  been.  At  the  trial,  an  objection  was  taken  to  the 
legality  of  the  action  ;  but  Lord  Mansfield  refused  to  stop  the  case,  and 
the  plaintiff  thereupon  went  into  his  evidence.  It  appeared,  however, 
in  the  course  of  the  inquiry,  that  the  plaintiff's  demand  had  been  satis- 
fied ;  and,  therefore,  the  verdict  was  in  favor  of  General  Burgoyne. 
But  it  is  evident  from  Lord  Mansfield's  suffering  the  trial  to  go  on,  that 
his  lordship  thought  a  commanding  officer  might  so  act  as  to  make  him- 
self personally  liable  in  such  a  case  ;  and  the  question,  whether  he  had 
so  acted  or  not,  was  for  the  determination  of  a  jury.  In  the  next  case 
it  was  accordingly  sought  to  fix  a  naval  officer  with  a  personal  liability 
for  supplies  furnished  to  his  crew,  on  the  ground  of  the  language  used 
by  him  on  the  occasion  of  ordering  the  supplies.  Lieutenant  Temple 
was  first  lieutenant  of  H.  M.  S.  Hoyne,  and  on  her  arrival  at  Ports- 
mouth from  the  West  Indies,  he  inquired  for  a  slop-seller  to  supply  the 
crew  with  new  clothes,  saying,  "  He  will  run  no  risk ;  I  will  see  him 


CON.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  179 

paid."  One  Keate  being  accordingly  recommended  for  this  purpose, 
Lieutenant  Temple  called  upon  him  and  used  these  words,  "  I  will  see 
you  paid  at  the  pay-table  ;  are  you  satisfied  ?  "  Keate  answered,  "  Per- 
fectly  so."  The  clothes  were  delivered  on  the  quarter-deck  of  the  Boyne, 
though  the  case  states  that  slops  are  usually  sold  on  the  main-deck. 
Lieutenant  Temple  produced  samples  to  ascertain  whether  his  direc- 
tions were  followed.  Some  of  the  men  said  that  they  were  not  in  want 
of  any  clothes,  but  were  told  by  the  lieutenant  that  if  they  did  not  take 
them  he  would  punish  them ;  and  others,  who  stated  that  they  were 
only  in  want  of  part  of  a  suit,  were  obliged  to  take  a  whole  one,  with 
anchor  buttons  to  the  jacket,  such  as  were  then  worn  by  petty  officers 
only.  The  former  clothing  of  the  crew  was  very  light,  and  adapted  tc 
the  climate  of  the  West  Indies,  where  the  Boyne  had  been  last  stationed. 
Soon  after  the  delivery  of  the  slops,  the  Boyne  was  destroyed  by  fire, 
and  the  crew  dispersed  into  different  ships.  On  that  occasion  Keate, 
the  slop-seller,  expressed  some  apprehension  for  himself,  but  was  thus 
answered  by  Lieutenant  Temple :—"  Captain  Grey  (Obtain  of  the 
Boyne)  and  I  will  see  you  paid  ;  you  need  not  make  yourself  uneasy." 
After  this  the  commissioner  came  on  board  the  Commerce  de  Marseilles 
to  pay  the  crew  of  the  Boyne,  at  which  time  Lieutenant  Temple  stood 
at  the  pay -table,  and  took  some  money  out  of  the  hat  of  the  first  man 
who  was  paid,  and  gave  it  to  the  slop-seller.  The  next  man,  however, 
refused  to  part  with  his  pay,  and  was  immediately  put  in  irons.  Lieu- 
tenant Temple  then  asked  the  commissioner  to  stop  the  pay  of  the  crew, 
but  he  answered  that  it  could  not  be  done.  It  was  in  evidence  that 
though  the  crew  were  pretty  well  clothed,  yet  from  the  lightness  of 
their  clothing  they  were  not  properly  equipped  for  the  service  in  which 
they  were  engaged  ;  and  the  compulsory  purchases  were  not  improperly 
ordered  by  the  officer.  Under  these  circumstances,  Keate,  the  slop- 
seller,  being  unable  to  obtain  the  payment  to  which  he  was  entitled, 
brought  his  action  against  Lieutenant  Temple  for  the  price  of  the  cloth- 
ing ;  and  Mr.  Justice  Lawrence  told  the  jury  that  if  they  were  satisfied 
that  the  goods  were  advanced  on  the  credit  of  the  lieutenant  as  imme- 
diately responsible,  Keate  was  entitled  to  recover  the  amount ;  but  if 
they  believed  that  Keate,  on  supplying  the  goods,  relied  merely  on  the 
lieutenant's  assistance  to  get  the  money  from  the  crew,  the  verdict 
ought  to  be  in  favor  of  the  lieutenant.  The  jury  found  a  verdict  against 
Lieutenant  Temple,  but  the  Court  of  Common  Pleas  set  it  aside.  Eyre, 
C.  J. :  "  The  sum  recovered  is  576£.  7s.  8d.,  and  this  against  a  lieuten- 
ant in  the  navy,  a  sum  so  large  that  it  goes  a  great  way  towards  satis- 
fying my  mind  that  it  never  could  have  been  in  contemplation  of  the 


180  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [Cos. 

defendant  to  make  himself  liable,  or  of  the  slop-seller  to  furnish  the 
goods  on  his  credit.  I  can  hardly  think  that  had  the  Boyne  not  been 
burnt,  and  the  plaintiff  been  asked  whether  he  would  have  the  lieutenant 
or  the  crew  for  his  paymaster,  but  that  he  would  have  given  preference 
to  the  latter.  .  .  .  From  the  nature  of  the  case  it  is  apparent,  that  the 
men  were  to  pay  in  the  first  instance  ;  the  defendant's  words  were,  '  I 
will  see  you  paid  at  the  pay-table  ;  are  you  satisfied  ?  '  and  the  answer 
was,  *  Perfectly  so  ; '  the  meaning  of  which  was,  that  however  unwilling 
the  men  might  be  to  pay  of  themselves,  the  officer  would  take  care  that 
they  should  pay.  ...  I  think  this  a  proper  case  to  be  sent  to  a  new 
trial."  The  verdict  found  against  Lieutenant  Temple  was  accordingly 
set  aside.  But  where  an  officer,  acting  in  his  private  capacity  and  for 
his  own  private  purposes,  enters  into  any  contract  with  another  officer 
or  a  private  individual,  the  ordinary  rules  and  principles  of  law  apply 
to  such  cases  in  the  same  manner  as  between  civilians.  (Consult  PREN- 

DERGAST.) 

CONVOYS — have  for  their  object  the  transportation  of  munitions 
of  war,  money,  subsistence,  clothing,  arms,  sick,  &c.  If  convoys  to  an 
army  do  not  come  from  the  rear,  through  a  country  which  has  been 
mastered,  and  consequently  far  from  the  principal  forces  of  the  enemy, 
they  will  be  undoubtedly  attacked  and  broken  up,  if  not  carried  off. 
There  is  no  more  difficult  operation  than  to  defend  a  large  convoy 
against  a  serious  attack.  Ordinarily,  convoys  are  only  exposed  to  the 
attacks  of  partisan  corps  or  light  troops  which,  in  consequence  of  their 
insignificant  size,  have  thrown  themselves  in  rear  of  the  army.  It  is  to 
guard  against  such  attacks,  that  escorts  are  usually  given  to  convoys. 
These  escorts  are  principally  infantry,  because  infantry  fights  in  all 
varieties  of  ground,  and  in  case  of  need  may  be  placed  in  the  intervals  be- 
tween the  wagons,  or  even  inside  the  wagons,  when  too  warmly  pressed. 
Cavalry  is,  however,  also  necessary  to  spy  out  an  enemy  at  great  dis- 
tances, and  give  prompt  information  of  his  movements,  as  well  as  to 
participate  in  the  defence  of  the  convoy  against  cavalry.  An  enemy's 
cavalry  being  able  rapidly  to  pass  from  the  front  to  the  rear  of  the 
train,  would  easily  find  some  part  of  it  without  defence,  if  the  escort 
were  composed  only  of  infantry.  To  give  an  idea  of  the  facility  of  such 
attacks,  it  may  be  stated  that  a  wagon  drawn  by  four  horses  occupies 
ten  yards.  Two  hundred  wagons  marching  in  single  file  and  closed  as 
much  as  possible  form  a  train  more  than  2,000  yards  in  extent.  In  a 
long  line  of  wagons,  therefore,  it  would  be  impossible  for  infantry  to 
meet  the  feints  of  cavalry  and  repulse  real  attacks. 

The  escort  should  then  be  composed  of  an  advance  guard  entirely 


CON.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  181 

of  cavalry  preceding  the  train,  some  two  or  three  miles,  searching  the 
route  on  the  right  and  on  the  left ;  but  as  it  may  happen  that  the  enemy, 
eluding  the  vigilance  of  the  advance  guard,  have  made  ambuscades  be- 
tween the  advance  and  the  head  of  the  column,  it  is  necessary  to  place 
another  body  immediately  in  front  of  the  train,  with  a  small  party  in 
advance  and  flankers  on  the  right  and  left.  The  longer  the  train  the 
greater  the  danger  of  surprise,  and  consequently  the  greater  the  pre- 
cautions to  be  used.  A  convoy  is  almost  as  much  exposed  to  attack  in 
rear  as  in  front ;  it  is  therefore  necessary  to  have,  with  a  rear  guard,  some 
horsemen,  who  may  be  despatched  to  give  information  of  what  passes 
in  rear.  When  the  troops  constituting  the  body  of  the  escort  are  prin- 
cipally composed  of  infantry,  they  are  divided  into  three  bodiesr  Work- 
men will  march  with  the  advanced  party,  and  the  wagons  loaded  with 
tools  of  all  kinds,  rope,  small  beams,  thick  plank  and  every  thing  neces- 
sary for  the  repair  of  bridges  and  roads,  will  lead  the  convoy.  The  second 
detachment  will  be  placed  in  the  middle  of  the  column  of  wagons,  and 
the  third  in  rear.  Care  is  taken  not  to  disseminate  the  troops  along 
the  whole  extent  of  the  train.  A  few  men  only  are  detached  from  the 
three  bodies  mentioned,  to  march  abreast  of  the  wagons,  and  to  force 
the  drivers  to  keep  in  their  prescribed  order,  without  opening  the  dis- 
tance between  the  wagons.  If  a  wagon  breaks  down  on  the  route  its 
load  is  promptly  distributed  among  other  wagons.  A  signal  is  made 
if  it  is  necessary  for  the  column  to  halt,  but  for  slight  repairs  the  train 
is  not  halted.  The  wagon  leaves  the  column,  is  repaired  on  one  side 
of  the  road,  and  afterwards  takes  its  place  in  rear.  Soldiers  should 
never  be  permitted  to  place  their  knapsacks  in  the  wagons,  for  a  sol- 
dier should  never  be  separated  from  knapsack  or  haversack,  and  the 
wagons  would  also  become  too  much  loaded.  Whenever  the  breadth  of 
the  road  permits,  the  wagons  should  be  doubled  and  march  in  two  files. 
The  column  is  thus  shortened  one  half,  and  if  circumstances  require  it, 
the  defensive  park  is  more  promptly  formed.  This  is  done  by  wheeling 
the  wagons  round  to  the  right  and  left  so  as  to  bring  the  opposite  horses' 
heads  ^together  and  facing  each  other — turning  towards  the  exterior  the 
hind  wagon  wheels.  This  movement  requires  ground  and  time.  It 
ought  not  to  be  ordered  then  except  when  absolutely  necessary.  It  is 
much  better  to  hold  the  enemy  in  check,  by  manoeuvres  of  the  escort 
when  that  can  be  done,  and  let  the  convoy  move  on.  When  the  park 
has  been  formed,  however,  it  constitutes  an  excellent  means  of  defence, 
under  shelter  of  which  infantry  can  fight  with  advantage  even  when 
they  have  been  compelled  to  take  such  refuge.  A  convoy  usually  halts 
for  the  night  near  a  village,  but  it  should  always  pass  beyond  it,  because 


182  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [CON. 

on  commencing  its  march  in  the  morning  it  is  better  to  have  the  defile 
behind  than  before  it,  in  order  to  avoid  ambuscades  of  the  enemy. 
Places  for  parking  the  wagons  are  sought  where  there  are  hedges  or 
walls,  as  those  obstructions  offer  greater  security  than  any  others.  The 
troops,  with  the  exception  of  the  park  guard,  bivouac  at  a  short  distance 
from  the  park,  in  some  position  which  offers  the  best  military  advan- 
tages. An  advance  guard  and  a  sufficient  number  of  sentinels  for  the 
safety  and  police  of  the  park  and  bivouac  are  then  posted.  The  park  is 
ordinarily  a  hollow  square,  but  locality  will  dictate  its  form.  It  should 
furnish  an  enclosed  space  for  the  horses  and  drivers,  and  at  the  same  time 
be  an  intrenchment  in  case  of  attack.  The  wagons  are  ranged  either 
lengthwise  or  side  by  side — the  rule  being  that  the  poles  are  turned  in 
the  same  direction  and  towards  the  place  of  destination.  The  wagons 
laid  lengthwise  may  be  doubled,  so  that  the  intervals  of  ranks  may  be 
closed  by  pushing  forward  the  wagon  of  another  rank.  When  the  space 
for  the  park  is  small  and  the  number  of  wagons  great,  the  wagons  are 
placed  upon  many  lines,  and  streets  sufficiently  broad  to  receive  the 
horses,  &c.,  are  made  parallel  to  each  other.  The  important  principle 
in  defending  convoys  on  the  march  is,  that  the  escort  should  not  con- 
sider itself  tied  to  wagons,  but  should  repulse  the  enemy  by  marching 
to  meet  him.  It  is  only  after  the  escort  has  been  repulsed,  that  it 
should  fall  back  on  the  wagons  and  use  them  as  an  intrenchment. 
Even  then  a  very  long  resistance  may  be  ill  judged  if  the  enemy  be 
greatly  superior.  It  is  better  to  abandon  a  part  of  the  convoy  to  save 
the  rest,  or  else  try  to  destroy  it,  by  cutting  the  traces,  breaking  the 
wheels,  overthrowing  the  wagons,  and  even  setting  fire  to  the  most  in- 
flammable parts.  An  attack  upon  a  flank  is  most  dangerous  because 
the  convoy  then  presents  a  larger  mark.  The  three  detachments  in  this 
case  should  be  united  on  the  side  attacked  and  pushed*forward  sufficiently 
to  compel  the  enemy  to  describe  a  great  circle,  in  order  to  put  himself 
out  of  reach  when  he  wishes  to  attack  the  front  or  rear  of  the  convoy. 
The  best  position  to  take  is  that  o*f  three  echelons,  the  centre  in  advance. 
The  convoy,  which  has  doubled  its  wagons,  continues  to  move  forward, 
regulating  its  march  by  the  position  of  the  troops  which  cover  it.  If  the 
attack  be  in  front,  as  soon  as  the  enemy  has  been  announced  by  the  first 
advance  guard,  which  falls  back  at  a  gallop  for  the  purpose,  the  wagons 
are  closed  or  formed  in  two  files  if  the  road  permits  ;  the  centre  detach- 
ment joins  the  first,  either  in  echelon  or  according  to  locality,  to  pre- 
vent a  movement  upon  the 'flank  of  the  convoy.  The  third  detachment 
should  be  held  in  reserve  immediately  at  the  head  of  the  wagons.  If 
however  this  position  be  too  near  that  taken  by  the  first  and  second  de- 


Coo.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  183 

tachments  united,  the  reserve  must  then  take  some  position  on  the  flank 
of  the  convoy.  The  defence  against  an  attack  upon  the  rear  will  be 
conducted  on  the  same  principles.  It  may  be  concluded  that  the  attack 
of  a  convoy  is  an  operation  in  which  little  is  to  be  lost  and  much  gained ; 
for  if  the  enemy  be  deficient  in  numbers  or  skill,  a  part  of  his  convoy 
is  easily  destroyed  or  brought  off.  If  the  attack  fail,  nothing  is  to  be 
feared  upon  retiring.  The  corps  which  attacks  should  be  half  cavalry 
and  Ij^lf  infantry.  It  is  clear,  that  if  the  attacking  party  has  been  con- 
cealed behind  a  wood,  a  height,  a  corn  field,  &c.,  and  has  been  able  to  sur 
prise  the  front  or  rear  of  the  convoy,  and  enveloped  it  before  aid  arrives, 
full  success  will  be  obtained.  But  this  negligence  will  not  often  occur 
on  the  part  of  the  commander  of  the  escort.  If  his  troops  then  be  in 
good  order  and  united  at  the  moment  of  the  attack,  it  is  necessary  to 
divide  his  attention  by  directing  against  him  many  little  columns  and. 
skirmishers,  who  seek  to  open  a  way  to  the  wagons  by  killing  the  horses, 
and  thus  encumbering  the  road.  The  cavalry  making  a  circuit  throw 
themselves  rapidly  upon  parts  badly  protected.  If  they  reach  some  of 
the  wagons  they  content  themselves  with  driving  off  the  conductors  and 
cutting  the  traces  of  the  wagons  because  all  the  wagons  in  rear  are 
thus  stopped.  If  we  are  at  liberty  to  choose  the  time  and  place  of 
attack,  it  is  clear  that  the  best  time  i«  wrhen  the  convoy  is  passing  a 
defile  and  we  can  envelop  the  front  or  the  rear.  Success  is  then  cer- 
tain ;  the  inevitable  encumbrance  of  the  defile  preventing  one  part 
of  the  troops  from  coming  to  the  aid  of  another  part.  When  the 
whole  or  part  of  a  convoy  has  been  seized,  the  prize  must  'be  brought 
to  a  safe  place,  before  the  enemy  is  in  sufficient  force  to  make  us 
abandon  it.  But  sooner  than  do  this,  the  most  precious  articles  should 
be  placed  on  horses,  the  wagons  should  be  destroyed,  and  the  horses 
put  to  their  speed.  The  attacking  force  should  avoid  further  combat, 
for  its  object  has  been  accomplished.  {Consult  DUFOUR  j  BARDIN  ; 
Ordonnance  sur  le  Service  des  Armees  en  Campagne). 

COOKING-.  Bread  and  soup  are  the  great  items  of  a  soldier's 
diet :  to  make  them  well  is,  therefore,  an  essential  part  of  his  instruc- 
tion. Scurfy  and  diarrhoea  more  frequently  result  from  bad  cooking 
than  any  other  cause  whatever.  Camp  ovens  may  be  made  in  twenty- 
fbur  hours.  One  hundred  and  ninety-six  pounds  when  in  dough  hold 
about  1 1  gallons  or  90  pounds  of  water,  2  gallons  yeast,  and  3  pounds 
salt,  making  a  mass  of  305  pounds,  which  evaporates  in  kneading,  bak- 
ing, and  cooling  about  40  pounds,  leaving  in  bread  weighed  when  stale 
about  265  pounds.  Bread  ought  not  to  be  burnt,  but  baked  to  an  equal 
brown  color.  The  troops  ought  not  to  be  allowed  to  eat  soft  bread 


184  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [Coo. 

fresh  from  the  oven  without  first  toasting  it.  Fresh  meat  ought  not  to 
be  cooked  before  it  has  had  time  to  bleed  and  to  cool ;  and  meats  wiyi 
generally  be  boiled,  with  a  view  to  soup  ;  and  sometimes  roasted  or 
baked.  Meat  may  be  kept  in  hot  weather  by  half  boiling  it ;  or  by  ex- 
posing it  for  a  few  minutes  to  a  thick  smoke.  To  make  soup,  put  into 
the  vessel  at  the  rate  of  five  pints  of  water  to  a  pound  of  fresh  meat ; 
apply  a  quick  heat,  to  make  it  boil  promptly  ;  skim  off  the  foam,  and 
then  moderate  the  fire  ;  put  in  salt  according  to  palate.  Add  the»vcgc- 
tables  of  the  season  one  or  two  hours,  and  sliced  bread  some  minutes 
before  the  simmering  is  ended.  When  the  broth  is  sensibly  reduced  in 
quantity,  that  is,  after  five  or  six  hours'  cooking,  the  process  will  be  com- 
plete. If  a  part  of  the  meat  be  withdrawn  before  the  soup  is  fully 
made,  the  quantity  of  water  must  be  proportionally  less.  Hard  or  dry 
vegetables,  as  the  bean  ration,  will  be  put  in  the  camp  kettle  much  ear- 
lier than  fresh  vegetables.  The  following  receipts  for  army  cooking  are 
taken  from  Soyer's  Culinary  Campaign  : 

SOYER'S  HOSPITAL   DIETS. 

THE  IMPORTANCE  OF  WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES   IN   THE   ACCOMPANYING   RECEIPTS 
*       19   FULLY    RECOGNIZED  ;    IT    IS    THEREFORE   NECESSARY   THAT    TROOPS    SHOULD 
BE  SUPPLIED  WITH   SCALES,  AND  WITH  MEASURES  FOR  LIQUIDS. 

No.  .1. — SEMI-STEWED  MUTTON  AND  BARLEY.  SOUP  FOR  100  MEN. 
Put  in  a  convenient-sized  caldron  130  pints  of  cold  water,  70  Ibs.  of 
meat,  or  about  that  quantity,  12  Ibs.  of  plain  mixed  vegetables,  (the 
best  that  can  be  obtained,)  9  Ibs.  6  oz.  of  barley,  1  lb.  7  oz.  of  salt,  1 
Ib.  4  oz.  of  flour,  1  lb.  4  oz.  of  sugar,  1  oz.  of  pepper.  Put  all  the  in- 
gredients into  the  pan  at  once,  except  the  flour ;  set  it  on  the  fire,  and 
when  beginning  to  boil,  diminish  the  heat,  and  simmer  gently  for  two 
hours  and  a  half;  take  the  joints  of  meat  out,  and  keep  them  warm  in 
the  orderly's  pan  ;  add  to  the  soup  your  flour,  which  you  have  mixed 
with  enough  water  to  form  a  light  batter ;  stir  well  together  with  a 
large  spoon  ;  boil  another  half-hour,  skim  off  the  fat,  arid  serve  the  soup 
and  meat  separate.  The  meat  may  be  put  back  into  the  spup  for  a  few 
minutes  to  warm  again  prior  to  serving.  The  soup  should  be  stirred 
now  and  then  while  making,  to  prevent  burning  or  sticking  to  the  bot- 
tom of  the  caldron.  The  joints  are  cooked  whole,  and  afterwards  cut 
up  in  different  messes  ;  being  cooked  this  way,  in  a  rather  thick  stock, 
the  meat  becomes  more  nutritious. 

Note. — The  word  "  about  "  is  applied  to  the  half  and  full  diet,  which 
varies  the  weight  of  the  meat ;  but  £  lb.  of  mutton  will  always  make 


Coo.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  135 

a  pint  of  good  soup  :  3  Ibs.  of  mixed  preserved  vegetables  must  be 
used  when  fresh  are  not  to  be  obtained,  and  put  in  one  hour  and  a  half 
prior  to  serving,  instead  of  at  first ;  they  will  then  show  better  in  the 
soup,  and  still  be  well  done.  All  the  following  receipts  may  be  in- 
creased to  large  quantities,  but  by  all  means  closely  follow  the  weight 
and  measure. 

No.  2. — BEEF  SOUP.  Proceed  the  same  as  for  mutton,  only  leave 
the  meat  in  till  serving,  as  it  will  take  longer  than  mutton.  The  pieces 
are  not  to  be  above  4  or  5  Ibs.  weight ;  and  for  a  change,  half  rice  may 
be  introduced ;  the  addition  of  2  Ibs  more  will  make  it  thicker  and 
more  nutritive ;  ^  Ib.  of  curry  powder  will  make  an  excellent  change 
also.  To  vary  the  same,  half  a  pint  of  burnt  sugar  water  may  be  added — • 
it  will  give  the  soup  a  very  rich  brown  color. 

No.  3 — BEEF  TEA.  RECEIPT  FOR  six  PINTS.  Cut  3  Ibs.  of  beef 
into  pieces  the  size  of  walnuts,  and  chop  up  the  bones,  if  any  ;  put  it 
into  a  convenient-sized  kettle,  with  £  Ib.  of  mixed  vegetables,  such  as 
onions,  leeks,  celery,  turnips,  carrots,  (or  one  or  two  of  these,  if  all  are 
not  to  be  obtained,)  1  oz.  of  salt,  a  little  pepper,  1  teaspoonful  of  sugar, 
2  oz.  of  butter,  half  a  pint  of  water.  Set  it  on  a  sharp  fire  for  ten 
minutes  or  a  quarter  of  an  hour,  stirring  now  and  then  with  a  spoon, 
till  it  forms  a  rather  thick  gravy  at  bottom,  but  not  brown  :  then  add 
7  pints  of  hot  or  cold  water,  but  hot  is  preferable ;  when  boiling,  let  it 
simmer  gently  for  an  hour  ;  skim  off  all  the  fat,  strain  it  through  a 
sieve,  and  serve. 

No.  3A. — ESSENCE  OF  BEEF  TEA.  For  camp  hospitals. — "  Quarter 
pound  tin  case  of  essence."  If  in  winter  set  it  near  the  fire  to  melt; 
pour  the  contents  in  a  stewpan  and  twelve  times  the  case  full  of  water 
over  it,  hot  or  cold ;  add  to  it  two  or  three  slices  of  onion,  a  sprig  or 
two  of  parsley,  a  leaf  or  two  of  celery,  if  handy,  two  teaspoon fuls  of 
salt,  one  of  sugar ;  pass  through  a  colander  and  serve.  If  required 
stronger,  eight  cases  of  water  will  suffice,  decreasing  the  seasoning  in 
proportion.  In  case  you  have  no  vegetables,  sugar,  or  pepper,  salt 
alone  will  do,  but  the  broth  will  not  be  so  succulent. 

No.  4. — THICK  BEEF  TEA.  Dissolve  a  good  teaspoonful  of  arrow- 
root in  a  gill  of  water,  and  pour  it  into  the  beef  tea  twenty  minutes 
before  passing  through  the  sieve — it  is  then  ready. 

No.  5. — STRENGTHENING  BEEF  TEA  WITH  CALVES-FOOT  JELLY,  OR 
ISINGLASS.  Add  1  oz.  calves-foot  gelatine  to  the  above  quantity  of  beef 
tea  previous  to  serving,  when  cooking. 

No.  6. — MUTTON  AND  VEAL  TEA.  Mutton  and  veal  will  make  good 
tea  by  proceeding  precisely  the  same  as  above.  The  addition  of  a  little 


186  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [Coo. 

aromatic  herbs  is  always  desirable.     If  no  fresh  vegetables  are  at  hand, 
use  2  oz.  of  mixed  preserved  vegetables  to  any  of  the  above  receipts. 

No.  7. — CHICKEN  BROTH.  Put  in  a  stewpan  a  fowl,  3  pints  of 
water,  2  teaspoonfuls  of  rice,  1  teaspoonful  of  salt,  a  middle-sized  onion, 
or  2  oz.  of  mixed  vegetables  ;  boil  the  whole  gently  for  three-quarters 
of  an  hour :  if  an  old  fowl,  simmer  from  one  hour  and  a  half  to  two 
hours,  adding  1  pint  more  water  ;  skim  off  the  fat  and  serve.  A,  small' 
fowl  will  do. 

Note. — A  light  mutton  broth  may  be  made  precisely  the  same,  by 
using  a  pound  and  a  half  of  scrag  of  mutton  instead  of  fowl.  For  thick 
mutton  broth  proceed  as  for  thick  beef  tea,  omitting  the  rice ;  a  table- 
spoonful  of  burnt  sugar  water  will  give  a  rich  color  to  the  broth. 

No.  8. — PLAIN  BOILED  RICE.  Put  two  quarts  of  water  in  a  stew- 
pan,  with  a  teaspoonful  of  salt ;  when  boiling,  add  to  it  ^  Ib.  of  rice, 
well  washed ;  boil  for  ten  minutes,  or  till  each  grain  becomes  rather 
soft;  drain  it  into  a  colander,  slightly  grease  the  pot  with  butter,  and 
put  the  rice  back  into  it ;  let  it  swell  slowly  for  about  twenty  minutes 
near  the  fire,  or  in  a  slow  oven ;  each  grain  will  then  swell  up,  and  bo 
well  separated  ;  it  is  then  ready  for  use. 

No.  9. — SWEET  RICE.  Add  to  the  plain  boiled  rice  1  oz.  of  butter, 
2  tablespoonfuls  of  sugar,  a  little  cinnamon,  a  quarter  of  a  pint  of  milk  ; 
stir  it  with  a  fork,  and  serve  ;  a  little  currant  jelly  or  jam  may  be  added 
to  the  rice. 

No.  10. — RICE  WITH  GRAVY.  Add  to  the  rice  4  tablespoonfuls  of 
the  essence  of  beef,  a  little  butter,  if  fresh,  half  a  teaspoonful  of  salt ; 
stir  together  with  a  fork,  and  serve.  A  teaspoonful  of  Soyer's  Sultana 
Sauce,  or  relish,  will  make  it  very  wholesome  and  palatable,  as  well  as 
invigorating  to  a  fatigued  stomach. 

No.  11. — PLAIN  OATMEAL.  Put  in  a  pan  \  Ib.  of  oatmeal,  1J  oz. 
of  sugar,  half  a  teaspoonful  of  salt,  and  3  pints  of  water ;  boil  slowly 
for  twenty  minutes,  "  stirring  continually,"  and  serve.  A  quarter  of  a 
pint  of  boiled  milk,  an  ounce  of  butter,  and  a  little  pounded  cinnamon 
or  spice  added  previous  to  serving  is  a  good  variation.  This  receipt 
has  been  found  most  useful  at  the  commencement  of  dysentery  by  the 
medical  authorities. 

No.  12. — CALVES-FOOT  JELLY.  Put  in  a  proper-sized  stewpan  2£ 
oz.  of  calves-foot  gelatine,  4  oz.  of  white  sugar,  4  whites  of  eggs  and 
shells,  the  peel  of  a  lemon,  the  juice  of  three  middle-sized  lemons,  half 
a  pint  of  Marsala  wine  ;  beat  all  well  together  with  the  egg-beater  for 
a  few  minutes,  then  add  4£  pints  of  cold  water  ;  set  it  on  a  slow  fire, 
and  keep  whipping  it  till  boiling.  Set  it  on  the  corner  of  the  stove, 


Coo.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  187 

partly  covered  with  the  lid,  upon  which  you  place  a  few  pieces  of  burn- 
ing  charcoal ;  let  it  simmer  gently  for  ten  minutes,  and  strain  it  through 
a  jelly-bag.  It  is  then  ready  to  put  in  the  ice  or  some  cool  place. 
Sherry  will  do  if  Marsala  is  not  at  hand.  For  orange  jelly  use  only 
1  lemon  and  2  oranges.  Any  delicate  flavor  may  be  introduced. 

JELLY  STOCK,  made  from  calves'  feet,  requires  to  be  made  the  day 
previous  to  being  used,  requiring  to  be  very  hard  to  extract  the  fat. 
Take  two  calf's  feet,  cut  them  up,  and  boil  in  three  quarts  of  water ;  as 
soon  as  it  boils  remove  it  to  the  corner  of  the  fire,  and  simmer  for  five 
hours,  keeping  it  skimmed,  pass  through  a  hair  sieve  into  a  basin,  and 
let  it  remain  until  quite  hard,  then  remove  the  oil  and  fat,  and  wipe  the 
top  dry.  Place  in  a  stewpan  half  a  pint  of  water,  one  of  sherry,  half 
a  pound  of  lump  sugar,  the  juice  of  four  lemons,  the  rinds  of  two,  and 
the  whites  and  shells  of  five  eggs  ;  whisk  until  the  sugar  is  melted,  then 
add  the  jelly,  place  it  on  the  fire,  and  whisk  until  boiling,  pass  it  through 
a  jelly-bag,  pouring  that  back  again  which  comes  through  first  until 
quite  clear  ;  it  is  then  ready  for  use,  by  putting  it  in  moulds  or  glasses. 
Vary  the  flavor  according  to  fancy. 

No.  13. — SA'GO  JELLY.  Put  into  a  pan  3  oz.  of  sago,  1?  oz.  of 
sugar,  half  a  lemon-peel  cut  very  thin,  |  teaspoonful  of  ground  cinna^ 
mon,  or  a  small  stick  of  the  same ;  put  to  it  3  pints  of  water  and  a 
little  salt ;  boil  ten  minutes,  or  rather  longer,  stirring  continually,  until 
rather  thick,  then  add  a  little  port,  sherry,  or  Marsala  wine  ;  mix  well, 
and  serve  hot  or  cold. 

No.  14. — ARROWROOT  MILK.  Put  into  a  pan  4  oz.  of  arrowroot, 
3  oz.  of  sugar,  the  peel  of  half  a  lemon,  |  teaspoonful  of  salt,  2J  pints 
of  milk  ;  set  it  on  the  fire,  stir  round  gently,  boil  for  ten  minutes,  and 
serve.  If  no  lemons  at  hand,  a  little  essence  of  any  kind  will  do. 
When  short  of  milk,  use  half  water ;  half  an  ounce  of  fresh  butter  is 
an  improvement  before  serving.  If  required  thicker,  put  a  little  milk. 

No.  15. — THICK  ARROWROOT  PANADA.  Put  in  a  pan  5  oz.  of  arrow- 
root, 2-J  oz.  of  white  sugar,  the  peel  of  half  a  lemon,  a  quarter  of  a  tea- 
spoonful  of  salt,  4  pints  of  water ;  mix  all  well,  set  on  the  fire,  boil  for 
ten  minutes  ;  it  is  then  ready.  The  juice  of  a  lemon  is  an  improve- 
ment ;  a  gill  of  wine  may  also  be  introduced,  and  ^  oz.  of  calves-foot 
gelatine  previously  dissolved  in  water  will  be  strengthening.  Milk, 
however,  is  preferable,  if  at  hand. 

No.  16. — ARROWROOT  WATER.  Put  into  a  pan  3  oz.  of  arrowroot, 
2  oz.  of  white  sugar,  the  peel  of  a  lemon,  £  teaspoonful  of  salt,  4  pints 
of  water ;  mix  well,  set  on  the  fire,  boil  for  ten  minutes.  It  is  then 
ready  to  serve  either  hot  or  cold. 


188  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [Coo. 

No.  17. — RICE  WATER.  Put  7  pints  of  water  to  boil,  add  to  it  2 
ounces  of  rice  washed,  2  oz.  of  sugar,  the  peel  of  two-thirds  of  a  lemon  ; 
boil  gently  for  three-quarters  of  an  hour ;  it  will  reduce  to  5  pints ; 
strain  through  a  colander ;  it  is  then  ready.  The  rice  may  be  left  in 
the  beverage  or  made  into  a  pudding,  or  by  the  addition  of  a  little 
sugar  or  jam,  will  be  found  very  good  for  either  children  or  invalids. 

No.  18. — BARLEY  WATER.  Put  in  a  saucepan  7  pints  of  water,  2 
oz.  of  barley,  which  stir  now  and  then  while  boiling  ;  add  2  oz.  of  white 
sugar,  the  rind  of  half  a  lemon,  thinly  peeled  ;  let  it  boil  gently  for 
about  two  hours,  without  covering  it ;  pass  it  through  a  sieve  or  col- 
ander ;  it  is  then  ready.  The  barley  and  lemon  may  be  left  in  it. 

No.  19. — SOYER'S  PLAIN  LEMONADE.  Thinly  peel  the  third  part  of  a 
lemon,  which  put  into  a  basin  with  2  tablespoonfuls  of  sugar  ;  roll  the 
lemon  with  your  hand  upon  the  table  to  soften  it;  cut  it  into  two, 
lengthwise,  squeeze  the  juice  over  the  peel,  &c.,  stir  round  for  a  minute 
with  a  spoon  to  form  a  sort  of  syrup  ;  pour  over  a  pint  of  water,  mix 
well,  and  remove  the  pips ;  it  is  then  ready  for  use.  If  a  very  large 
lemon,  and  full  of  juice,  and  very  fresh,  you  may  make  a  pint  and  a 
half  to  a  quart,  adding  sugar  and  peel  in  proportion  to  the  increase  of 
water.  The  juice  only  of  the  lemon  and  sugar  will  make  lemonade, 
but  will  then  be  deprived  of  the  aroma  which  the  rind  contains,  the  said 
rind  being  generally  thrown  away. 

No.  20. — SEMI-CITRIC  LEMONADE.  RECEIPT  FOR  50  PINTS.  Put  1 
oz.  of  citric  acid  to  dissolve  in  a  pint  of  water,  peef  20  lemons  thinly, 
and  put  the  peel  in  a  large  vessel,  with  3  Ibs.  2  oz.  of  white  sugar  well 
broken  ;  roll  each  lemon  on  the  table  to  soften  it,  which  will  facilitate 
the  extraction  of  the  juice;  cut  them  into  two,  and  press  out  the  juice 
into  a  colander  or  sieve,  over  the  peel  and  sugar,  then  pour  half  a  pint 
of  water  through  the  colander,  so  as  to  leave  no  juice  remaining ; 
triturate  the  sugar,  juice,  and  peel  together  for  a  minute  or  two  with  a 
spoon,  so  as  to  form  a  sort  of  syrup,  and  extract  the  aroma  from  the 
peel  and  the  dissolved  citric  acid  ;  mix  all  well  together,  pour  on  50 
pints  of  cold  water,  stir  well  together ;  it  is  then  ready.  A  little  ice  in 
summer  is  a  great  addition. 

No.  21. — SOYER'S  CHEAP  CRIMEAN  LEMONADE.  Put  into  a  basin  2 
tablespoonfuls  of  white  or  brown  sugar,  ^  a  tablespoonful  of  lirne  juice, 
mix  well  together  for  one  minute,  add  1  pint  of  water,  and  the  bever- 
age is  ready.  A  drop  of  rum  will  make  a  good  variation,  as  lime  juice 
and  rum  are  daily  issued  to  the  soldiers. 

No.  22. — TARTARIC  LEMONADE.  Dissolve  1  oz.  of  crystallized  tar- 
taric  acid  in  a  pint  of  cold  water,  which  put  in  a  large  vessel ;  when 


Cob.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  189 

dissolved,  add  1  Ib.  9  oz.  of  white  or  brown  sugar — the  former  is  pref- 
erable ;  mix  well  to  form  a  thick  syrup ;  add  to  it  24  pints  of  cold 
water,  slowly  mixing  well ;  it  is  then  ready.  It  may  be  strained 
through  either  a  colander  or  a  jelly-bag ;  if  required  very  light,  add  5 
pints  more  water,  and  sugar  in  proportion ;  if  citric  acid  be  used,  put 
only  20  pints  of  water  to  each  ounce. 

No.  23. — CHEAP  PLAIN  RICE  PUDDING,  FOR  CAMPAIGNING,  in  which 
no  eggs  or  milk  are  required  :  important  in  the  field.  Put  on  the 
fire,  in  a  moderate-sized  saucepan,  12  pints  of  water ;  when  boiling, 
add  to  it  1  Ib.  of  rice  or  16  tablespoonfuls,  4  oz.  of  brown  sugar 
or  4  tablespoonfuls,  1  large  teaspoonful  of  salt,  and  the  rind  of  a  lemon 
thinly  peeled ;  boil  gently  for  half  an  hour,  then  strain  all  the  water 
from  the  rice,  keeping  it  as  dry  as  possible.  The  rice  water  is  then 
ready  for  drinking,  either  warm  or  cold.  The  juice  of  a  lemon  may  be 
introduced,  which  will  make  it  more  palatable  and  refreshing. 

THE  PUDDING.  Add  to  the  rice  3  oz.  of  sugar,  4  tablespoonfuls  of 
flour,  half  a  teaspoonful  of  pounded  cinnamon  ;  stir  it  on  the  fire  care- 
fully for  five  or  ten  minutes ;  put  it  in  a  tin  or  pie-dish,  and  bake. 
By  boiling  the  rice  a  quarter  of  an  hour  longer,  it  will  be  very  good  to 
eat  without  baking.  Cinnamon  may  be  omitted. 

No.  23 A. — BATTER  PUDDING.  Break  two  fresh  eggs  in  a  basin,  beat 
them  well,  add  one  tablespoonful  and  a  half  of  flour,  which  beat  up  with 
your  eggs  with  a  fork  until  no  lumps  remain  ;  add  a  gill  of  milk,  a 
teaspoonful  of  salt,  butter  a  teacup  or  a  basin,  pour  in  your  mixture, 
put  some  water  in  a  stewpan,  enough  to  immerge  half  way  up  the  cup 
or  basin  in  water ;  when  boiling,  put  in  your  cup  or  basin  and  boil 
twenty  minutes,  or  till  your  pudding  is  well  set ;  pass  a  knife  to  loosen 
it,  turn  out  on  a  plate,  pour  pounded  sugar  and  a  pat  of  fresh  butter 
over,  and  serve.  A  little  lemon,  cinnamon,  or  a  drop  of  any  essence 
may  be  introduced.  A  little  light  melted  butter,  sherry,  and  sugar 
may  be  poured  over.  If  required  more  delicate,  add  a  little  less  flour. 
It  may  be  served  plain 

No.  24. — BREAD  AND  BUTTER  PUDDING.  Butter  a  tart-dish  well, 
and  sprinkle  some  currants  all  round  it,  then  lay  in  a  few  slices  of  bread 
and  butter ;  boil  one  pint  of  milk,  pour  it  on  two  eggs  well  whipped, 
and  then  on  the  bread  and  butter ;  bake  it  in  a  hot  oven  for  half  an  hour. 
Currants  may  be  omitted. 

No.  25. — BREAD  PUDDING.  Boil  one  pint  of  milk,  with  a  piece  of 
cinnamon  and  lemon-peel ;  pour  it  on  two  ounces  of  bread  crumbs ; 
then  add  two  eggs,  half  an  ounce  of  currants,  and  a  little  sugar  :  steam 
it  in  a  buttered  mould  for  one  hour. 


190  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [Coo. 

No.  26. — CUSTARD  PUDDING.  Boil  one  pint  of  milk,  with  a  small 
piece  of  lemon-peel  and  half  a  bay-leaf,  for  three  minutes ;  then  pour 
these  on  to  three  eggs,  mix  it  with  one  ounce  of  sugar  well  together, 
and  pour  it  into  a  buttered  ^inould  :  steam  it  twenty-five  minutes  in  a 
stewpan  with  some  water,  turn  out  on  a  plate  and  serve. 

No.  27. — RICH  RICE  PUDDING.  Put  in  -J  Ib.  of  rice  in  a  stewpan, 
washed,  3  pints  of  milk,  1  pint  of  water,  3  oz.  of  sugar,  1  lemon  peel, 
1  oz.  of  fresh  butter  ;  boil  gently  half  an  hour,  or  until  the  rice  is  ten- 
der ;  add  4  eggs,  well  beaten,  mix  well,  and  bake  quickly  for  half  an 
hour,  and  serve  :  it  may  be  steamed  if  preferred. 

No.  28. — STEWED  MACARONI.  Put  in  a  stewpan  2  quarts  of  water, 
half  a  tablespoonful  of  salt,  2  oz.  of  butter ;  set  on  the  fire  ;  when  boil- 
ing, add  1  Ib.  of  macaroni,  broken  up  rather  small ;  when  boiled  very 
soft,  throw  off*  the  water ;  mix  well  into  the  macaroni  a  tablespoonful 
of  flour,  add  enough  milk  to  make  it  of  the  consistency  of  thin  melted 
butter ;  boil  gently  twenty  minutes ;  add  in  a  tablespoonful  of  either 
brown  or  white  sugar,  or  honey,  and  serve.  A  little  cinnamon,  nut- 
meg, lemon-peel,  or  orange-flower  water  may  be  introduced  to  impart 
a  flavor ;  stir  quick.  A  gill  ot  milk  or  cream  may  now  be  thrown  in 
three  minutes  before  serving.  Nothing  can  be  more  light  and  nutri- 
tious than  macaroni  done  this  way.  If  no  milk,  use  water. 

No.  29. — MACARONI  PUDDING.  Put  2  pints  of  water  to  boil,  add 
to  it  2  oz.  of  macaroni,  broken  in  small  pieces ;  boil  till  tender,  drain 
off  the  water  and  add  half  a  tablespoonful  of  flour,  2  oz.  of  white  sugar, 
a  quarter  of  a  pint  of  milk,  and  boil  together  for  ten  minutes  ;  beat  an 
egg  up,  pour  it  to  the  other  ingredients,  a  nut  of  butter  ;  mix  well  and 
bake,  or  steam.  It  can  be  served  plain,  and  may  be  flavored  with  either 
cinnamon,  lemon,  or  other  essences,  as  orange-flower  water,  vanilla,  &c. 

No.  30. — SAGO  PUDDING.  Put  in  a  pan  4  oz.  of  sago,  2  oz.  of 
sugar,  half  a  lemon-peel  or  a  little  cinnamon,  a  small  pat  of  fresh  but- 
ter, if  handy,  half  a  pint  of  milk  ;  boil  for  a  few  minutes,  or  until  rather 
thick,  stirring  all  the  while ;  beat  up  2  eggs  and  mix  quickly  with  the 
same  ;  it  is  then  ready  for  either  baking  or  steaming,  or  may  be  served 
plain. 

No.  31. — TAPIOCA  PUDDING.  Put  in  a  pan  2  oz.  of  tapioca,  1£  pint 
of  milk,  1  oz.  of  white  or  brown  sugar,  a  little  salt,  set  on  the  fire,  boil 
gently  for  fifteen  minutes,  or  until  the  tapioca  is  tender,  stirring  now 
and  then  to  prevent  its  sticking  to  the  bottom,  or  burning ;  then  add 
two  eggs  well  beaten ;  steam  or  bake,  and  serve.  It  will  take  about 
twenty  minutes  steaming,  or  a  quarter  of  an  hour  baking  slightly. 
Flavor  with  either  lemon,  cinnamon,  or  any  other  essence. 


Coo.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  19\ 

No.  32. — BOILED  RICE  SEMI-CURRIED,  FOR  THE  PREMONITORY  SYMP- 
TOMS OF  DIARRHCEA.  Put  1  quart  of  water  in  a  pot  or  saucepan  ;  when 
boiling,  wash  •£  a  Ib.  of  rice  and  throw  it  into  the  water ;  boil  fast  for 
ten  minutes  ;  drain  your  rice  in  a  colander,  put  it  back  in  the  saucepan, 
which  you  have  slightly  greased  with  butter ;  let  it  swell  slowly  near 
the  fire,  or  in  a  slow  oven  till  tender ;  each  grain  will  then  be  light  and 
well  separated.  Add  to  the  above  a  small  tablespoonful  of  aromatic 
sauce,  called  "  Soyer's  Relish  or  Sultana  Sauce,"  with  a  quarter  of  a 
teaspoonful  of  curry  powder ;  mix  together  with  a  fork  lightly,  and 
serve.  This  quantity  wrill  be  sufficient  for  two  or  three  people,  accord- 
ing to  the  prescriptions  of  the  attending  physician. 

No.  33. — FIGS  AND  APPLE  BEVERAGE.  Have  2  quarts  of  water 
boiling,  into  which  throw  6  dry  figs  previously  opened,  and  2  apples, 
cut  into  six  or  eight  slices  each ;  let  the  whole  boil  together  twenty 
minutes  ;  then  pour  them  into  a  basin  to  cool ;  pass  through  a  sieve  ; 
drain  the  figs,  which  will  be  good  to  eat  with  a  little  sugar  or  jam. 

No.  34. — STEWED  FRENCH  PLUMS.  Put  12  large  or  18  small-size 
French  plums,  soak  them  for  half  an  hour,  put  in  a  stewpan  with  a 
spoonful  of  brown  sugar,  a  gill  of  water,  a  little  cinnamon,  and  some 
thin  rind  of  lemon  ;  let  them  stew  gently  twenty  minutes,  then  put 
them  in  a  basin  till  cold  with  a  little  of  the  juice.  A  small  glass  of 
either  port,  sherry,  or  claret  is  a  very  good  addition.  The  syrup  is 
excellent. 

No.  35. — FRENCH  HERB  BROTH.  This  is  a  very  favorite  beverage 
in  France,  as  well  with  people  in  health  as  with  invalids,  especially  in 
spring,  when  the  herbs  are  young  and  green.  Put  a  quart  of  water  to 
boil,  having  previously  prepared  about  40  leaves  of  sorrel,  a  cabbage 
lettuce,  and  10  sprigs  of  chervil,  the  \vhole  well  washed  ;  when  the 
wTater  is  boiling,  throw  in  the  herbs,  with  the  addition  of  a  teaspoonful 
of  salt,  and  £  oz.  of  fresh  butter ;  cover  the  saucepan  close,  and  let 
simmer  a  few  minutes,  then  strain  it  through  a  sieve  or  colander.  This 
is  to  be  drunk  cold,  especially  in  the  spring  of  the  year,  after  the  change 
from  winter.  I  generally  drink  about  a  quart  per  day  for  a  week  at 
that  time ;  but  if  for  sick  people,  it  must  be  made  less  strong  of  herbs, 
and  taken  a  little  warm.  To  prove  that  it  is  wholesome,  we  have  only 
to  refer  to  the  instinct  which  teaches  dogs  to  eat  grass  at  that  season 
of  the  year.  I  do  not  pretend  to  say  that  it  would  suit  persons  in  every 
malady,  because  the  doctors  are  to  decide  upon  the  food  and  beverage 
of  their  patients,  and  study  its  changes  as  well  as  change  their  medi- 
cines ;  but  I  repeat  that  this  is  most  useful  and  refreshing  for  the  blood. 

No.  36. — BROWNING  FOR  SOUPS,  &c.      Put  £  Ib.  of  moist  sugar 


192  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [Coo. 

into  an  iron  pan  and  melt  it  over  a  moderate  fire  till  quite  black,  stir- 
ring it  continually,  which  will  take  about  twenty-five  minutes  :  it  must 
color  by  degrees,  as  too  sudden  a  heat  will  make  it  bitter ;  then  add  2 
quarts  of  water,  and  in  ten  minutes  the  sugar  will  be  dissolved.  You 
may  then  bottle  it  for  use.  It  will  keep  good  for  a  month,  and  will 
always  be  found  very  useful. 

No.  37. — TOAST-AND-WATER.  Cut  a  piece  of  crusty  bread,  about 
a  I  Ib.  in  weight,  place  it  upon  a  toasting-fork,  and  hold  it  about  six 
inches  from  the  fire ;  turn  it  often,  and  keep  moving  it  gently  until  of 
a  light-yellow  color,  then  place  it  nearer  the  fire,  and  when  of  a  good 
brown  chocolate  color,  put  it  in  a  jug  and  pour  over  3  pints  of  boiling 
water;  cover  the  jug  until  cold,  then  strain  it  into  a  clean  jug,  and  it 
is  ready  for  use.  Never  leave  the  toast  in  it,  for  in  summer  it  would 
cause  fermentation  in  a  short  time. 

Buked  Apple  Toast-and-  Water. — A  piece  of  apple,  slowly  toasted 
till  it  gets  quite  black  and  added  to  the  above,  makes  a  very  nice  an<f< 
refreshing  drink  for  invalids. 

Apple  Rice  Water. — Half  a  pound  of  rice,  boiled  in  the  above  until 
in  pulp,  passed  through  a  colander,  and  drunk  when  cold.  All  kinds  of 
fruit  may  be  done  the  same  way.  Figs  and  French  plums  are  excel- 
lent; also  raisins.  A  little  ginger,  if  approved  of,  may  be  used. 

Apple  Barley  Water. — A  quarter  of  a  pound  of  pearl  barley  instead 
of  toast  adde,d  to  the  above,  and  boil  for  one  hour,  is  also  a  very  nice  drink, 
Citronade. — Put  a  gallon  of  water  on  to  boil,  cut  up  one  pound  of 
apples,  each  one  into  quarters,  two  lemons  in  thin  slices,  put  them  in  the 
water,  and-  boil  them  until  they  can  be  pulped,  pass  the  liquor  through 
a  colander,  boil  it  up  again  with  half  a  pound  of  brown  sugar,  skim, 
and  bottle  for  use,  taking  care  not  to  cork  the  bottle,  and  keep  it  in  a 
cool  place. 

For  Spring  Drink. — Rhubarb,  in  the  same  quantities,  and  done  in 
the  same  way  as  apples,  adding  more  sugar,  is  very  cooling.  Also 
green  gooseberries. 

For  Summer  Drink. — One  pound  of  red  currants,  bruised  with 
some  raspberry,  half  a  pound  of  sugar  added  to  a  gallon  of  cold  water, 
well  stirred,  and  allowed  to  settle.  The  juice  of  a  lemon. 

Mulberry. — The  same,  adding  a  little  lemon-peel.  A  little  cream 
of  tartar  or  citric  acid  added  to  these  renders  them  more  cooling  in 
summer  and  spring. 

Plain  Lemonade. — Cut  in  very  thin  slices  three  lemons,  put  them 
in  a  basin,  add  half  a  pound  of  sugar,  either  white  or  brown ;  bruise 
all  together,  add  a  gallon  of  water,  and  stir  well.  It  is  then  ready. 


Coo.] 


MILITARY  DICTIONARY. 


193 


FIG.  105. 


French  Plum  Water. — Boil  3  pints  of  water ;  add  in  6  or  8  dried 
plums  previously  split,  2  or  3  slices  of  lemon,  a  spoonful  of  honey  01 
sugar  ;  boil  half  an  hour,  and  serve. 

For  Fig,  Date,  and  Raisin  Water,  proceed  as  above,  adding  the 
juice  of  half  a  lemon  to  any  of  the  above.  If  for  fig  water,  use  6  figs. 
Any  quantity  of  the  above  fruits  may  be  used  with  advantage  in  rice, 
barley,  or  arrowroot  water. 

EFFERVESCENT  BEVERAGES.  Raspberry  Water. — Put  2  tablespoon- 
fuls  of  vinegar  into  a  large  glass,  pour  in  half  a  pint  of  water  j  mix 
well. 

Pine-Apple  Syrup. — Three  tablespoonfuls  to  a  pint. 

Currant  Syrup. — Proceed  the  same. 

Syrup  of  Orgeat. — The  same. 

FIELD  AND  BARRACK  COOKERY  FOR  THE  ARMY,  BY  THE  USE  OF  SOYER'S 
NEW  FIELD  STOVE,  NOW  ADOPTED  BY  THE  MILITARY  AUTHORITIES. — Each 
stove  will  consume  not  more  than  from  12  to  15  Ibs.  of  fuel,  and  allow- 
ing 20  stoves  to  a  regiment,  the 
consumption  would  be  300  Ibs.  per 
thousand  men.  Coal  will  burn  with 
the  same  advantage.  Salt  beef,  pork, 
Irish  stew,  stewed  beef,  tea,  coffee, 
cocoa,  &c.,  can  be  prepared  in  these 
stoves,  and  with  the  same  economy. 
They  can  also  be  fitted  with  an  ap- 
paratus for  baking,  roasting,  and 
steaming. 

No.  1. — RECEIPT  TO  COOK  SALT 
MEAT  FOR  FIFTY  MEN.  1.  Put  50 
Ibs.  of  meat  in  the  boiler.  2. 
Fill  with  water,  and  let  soak  all 
night.  3.  Next  morning  wash  the 
meat  well  4.  Fill  with  fresh  wa- 
ter, and  boil  gently  three  hours, 
and  serve.  Skim  off  the  fat,  which, 
when  cold,  is  an  excellent  substi- 
tute for  butter.  For  salt  pork  pro- 
ceed as  above  or  boil  half  beef 
and  half  pork — the  pieces  of  beef 
may  be  smaller  than  the  pork,  re- 
quiring a  little  longer  time  doing. 

Dumplings,  No.  21,  may  be  added  to  either  pork,  or  beef  in  propor- 
13 


194  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [Coo. 

tion ;  and  when  pork  is  properly  soaked,  the  liquor  will  make  a  very 
good  soup.  The  large  yellow  peas,  as  used  by  the  navy,  may  be  intro- 
duced ;  it  is  important  to  have  them,  as  they  are  a  great  improvement. 
When  properly  soaked,  French  haricot  beans  and  lentils  may  also  be 
used  to  advantage.  By  the  addition  of  5  pounds  of  split  peas,  half  a 
pound  of  brown  sugar,  2  tablespoonfuls  of  pepper,  10  onions;  simmer 
gently  till  in  pulp,  remove  the  fat  and  serve ;  broken  biscuit  may  be 
introduced.  This  will  make  an  excellent  mess. 

No.   IA. HOW  TO  6OAK  AND  PLAIN-BOIL  THE  RATIONS  OF    SALT    BEEF 

AND  PORK,  ON  LAND  OR  AT  SEA.  To  each  pound  of  meat  allow  about 
a  pint  of  water.  Do  not  have  the  pieces  above  3  or  4  Ibs.  in  weight. 
Let  it  soak  for  7  or  8  hours,  or  all  night  if  possible.  Wash  each  piece 
well  with  your  hand  in  order  to  extract  as  much  salt  as  possible.  It 
is  then  ready  for  cooking.  If  less  time  be  allowed,  cut  the  pieces 
smaller  and  proceed  the  same,  or  parboil  the  meat  for  20  minutes  in 
the  above  quantity  of  water,  which  throw  off  and  add  fresh.  Meat 
may  be  soaked  in  sea  water,  but  by  all  means  boiled  in  fresh  when 
possible.  I  should  advise,  at  sea,  to  have  a  perforated  iron  box  made, 
large  enough  to  contain  half  a  ton  or  more  of  meat,  which  box  will 
ascend  and  descend  by  pulleys  ;  have  also  a  frame  made  on  which  the 
box  might  rest  when  lowered  overboard,  the  meat  being  placed  outside 
the  ship  on  a  level  with  the  water,  the  night  before  using ;  the  water 
beating  against  the  meat  through  the  perforations  will  extract  all  the 
salt.  Meat  may  be  soaked  in  sea  water,  but  by  all  means  washed. 

No  2. — SOYER'S  ARMY  SOUP  FOR  FIFTY  MEN.  1.  Put  in  the  boiler 
60  pints,  7^  gallons,  or  5-|  camp  kettles  of  water.  2.  Add  to  it  50  Ibs. 
of  meat,  either  beef  or  mutton.  3.  The  rations  of  preserved  or  fresh 
vegetables.  4.  Ten  small  tablespoonfuls  of  salt.  5.  Simmer  three 
hours  and  serve.  When  rice  is  issued,  put  it  in  when  boiling.  Three 
pounds  will  be  sufficient.  About  eight  pounds  of  fresh  vegetables.  Or 
four  squares  from  a  cake  of  preserved  vegetables.  A  tablespoonful  of 
pepper,  if  handy.  Skim  off  the  fat,  which,  when  cold,  is  an  excellent 
substitute  for  butter. 

No.  2A.— SALT  PORK  WITH  MASHED  PEAS,  FOR  ONE  HUNDRED  MEN. 
Put  in  two  stoves  50  Ibs.  of  pork  each,  divide  24  Ibs.  in  four  pudding- 
cloths,  rather  loosely  tied ;  putting  to  boil  at  the  same  time  as  your 
pork,  let  all  boil  gently  till  done,  say  about  two  hours ;  take  out  the  pud- 
ding and  peas,  put  all  the  meat  in  one  caldron,  remove  the  liquor  from 
the  other  pan,  turning  back  the  peas  in  it,  add  two  teaspoonfuls  of  pep- 
per, a  pound  of  the  fat,  and  with  the  wooden  spatula  smash  the  peas 
and  serve  both.  The  addition  of  about  half  a  pound  of  flour,  and  two 


Coo.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  195 

quarts  of  liquor,  boiled  ten  minutes,  makes  a  great  improvement.     Six 
sliced  onions,  fried  and  added  to  it,  make  it  very  delicate. 

No.  3. — STEWED  SALT  BEEF  AND  PORK.  For  a  company  of  one 
hundred  men,  or  a  regiment  of  one  thousand  men.  Put  in  a  boiler,  of 
well  soaked-beef  30  Ibs.,  cut  in  pieces  of  a  quarter  of  a  pound  each,  20 
Ibs.  of  pork,  1£  Ib.  of  sugar,  8  Ibs.  of  onions,  sliced,  25  quarts  of  water, 
4  Ibs.  of  rice.  Simmer  gently  for  three  hours,  skim  the  fat  off*  the  top, 
and  serve. 

Note. — How  to  soak  the  meat  for  the  above  mess : — Put  50  Ibs.  of 
meat  in  each  boiler,  having  filled  them  with  water,  and  let  soak  all 
night ;  and  prior  to  using  it,  wash  it  and  squeeze  with  your  hands,  to 
extract  the  salt.  In  case  the  meat  is  still  too  salt,  boil  it  for  twenty 
minutes,  throw  away  the  water,  and  put  fresh  to  your  stew.  By 
closely  following  the  above  receipt  you  will  have  an  excellent  dish. 

No.  4. — SOYER'S  FOOD  FOR  ONE  HUNDRED  MEN,  USING  TWO  STOVES. 
Cut  or  chop  50  Ibs.  of  fresh  beef  in  pieces  of  about  a  \  Ib.  each  ;  put  in 
the  boiler,  with  10  tablespoonfuls  of  salt,  two  tablespoonfuls  of  pepper, 
four  tablespoonfuls  of  sugar,  onions  7  Ibs.  cut  in  slices :  light  the  fire 
now,  and  then  stir  the  meat  with  a  spatula,  let  it  stew  from  20  to  30 
minutes,  or  till  it  forms  a  thick  gravy,  then  add  a  pound  and  a  half  of 
flour  ;  mix  well  together,  put  in  the  boiler  18  quarts  of  water,  stir  well 
for  a  minute  or  two,  regulate  the  stove  to  a  moderate  heat,  and  let 
simmer  for  about  two  hours.  Mutton,  pork,  or  veal  can  be  stewed  in 
a  similar  manner,  but  will  take  half  an  hour  less  cooking. 

Note. — A  pound  of  rice  may  be  added  with  great  advantage,  ditto 
plain  dumplings,  ditto  potatoes,  as  well  as  mixed  vegetables.  For  a 
regiment  of  1,000  men  use  20  stoves. 

No.  5. — PLAIN  IRISH  STEW  FOR  FIFTY  MEN.  Cut  50  Ibs.  of  mutton 
into  pieces  of  a  quarter  of  a  pound  each,  put  them  in  the  pan,  add  8 
Ibs.  of  large  onions,  12  Ibs.  of  whole  potatoes,  8  tablespoonfuls  of  salt, 
3  tablespoonfuls  of  pepper ;  cover  all  with  water,  giving  about  half  a 
pint  to  each  pound  ;  then  light  the  fire  ;  one  hour  and  a  half  of  gentle 
ebullition  will  make  a  most  excellent  stew  ;  mash  some  of  the  potatoes 
to  thicken  the  gravy,  and  serve.  Fresh  beef,  veal,  or  pork  will  also 
make  a  good  stew.  Beef  takes  two  hours  doing.  Dumplings  may  be 
added  half  an  hour  before  done. 

No.  6. — To  COOK  FOR  A  REGIMENT  OF  A  THOUSAND  MEN.  Place 
twenty  stoves  in  a  row,  in  the  open  air  or  under  cover.  Put  30  quarts 
of  water  in  each  boiler,  50  Ibs.  of  ration  meat,  4  squares  from  a  cake 
of  dried  vegetables — or,  if  fresh  mixed  vegetables  are  issued,  12  Ibs. 
weight — 10  small  tablespoonfuls  of  salt,  1  ditto  of  pepper ;  light  the  fire, 


196  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [Coo. 

simmer  gently  from  two  hours  to  two  hours  and  a  half,  skim  the  fat 
from  the  top,  and  serve.  It  will  require  only  four  cooks  per  regiment, 
the  provisions  and  water  being  carried  to  the  kitchen  by  fatigue  parties  ; 
the  kitchen  being  central,  instead  of  the  kitchen  going  to  each  company, 
each  company  sends  two  men  to  the  kitchen  with  a  pole  to  carry  the  meat. 

No.  7. — SALT  PORK  AND  PUDDINGS  WITH  CABBAGE  AND  POTA- 
TOES. Put  25  Ibs.  of  salt  pork  in  each  boiler,  with  50  Ibs.  from 
which  you  have  extracted  the  large  bones,  cut  in  dice,  and  made  into 
puddings  ;  when  on  the  boil,  put  five  puddings  in  each,  boil  rather  fast 
for  two  hours.  You  have  peeled  12  Ibs.  of  potatoes  and  put  in  a  net 
in  each  caldron  ;  put  also  2  winter  cabbages  in  nets,  three-quarters  of 
an  hour  before  your  pudding  is  done ;  divide  the  pork,  pudding,  and 
cabbage,  in  proportion,  or  let  fifty  of  the  men  have  pudding  that  day 
and  meat  the  other  ;  remove  the  fat,  and  serve.  The  liquor  will  make 
very  good  soup  by  adding  peas  or  rice,  as  No.  1.  For  the  pudding- 
paste  put  one-quarter  of  a  pound  of  dripping,  or  beef  or  mutton  suet, 
to  every  pound  of  flour  you  use ;  roll  your  paste  tor  each  half  an  inch 
thick,  put  a  pudding-cloth  in  a  basin,  flour  round,  lay  in  your  paste,  add 
your  meat  in  proportion ;  season  with  pepper  and  a  minced  onion ; 
close  your  pudding  in  a  cloth,  and  boil.  This  receipt  is  more  applicable 
to  barrack  and  public  institutions  than  a  camp.  Fresh  meat  of  any 
kind  may  be  done  the  same,  and  boiled  with  either  salt  pork  or  beef. 

No.  8. — TURKISH  PILAFF  FOR  ONE  HUNDRED  MEN.  Put  in  the  cal- 
dron 2  Ibs.  of  fat,  which  you  have  saved  from  salt  pork,  add  to  it  4  Ibs. 
of  peeled  and  sliced  onions  ;  let  them  fry  in  the  fat  for  about  ten  min- 
utes ;  add  in  then  12  Ibs.  of  rice,  cover  the  rice  over  with  water,  the 
rice  being  submerged  two  inches,  add  to  it  7  tablespoonfuls  of  salt,  and 

1  of  pepper ;  let  simmer  gently  for  about  an  hour,  stirring  it  with  a 
spatula  occasionally  to  prevent  it  burning,  but  when  commencing  to 
boil,  a  very  little  fire  ought  to  be  kept  under.     Each  grain  ought  to  be 
swollen  to  the  full  size  of  rice,  and  separate.    In  the  other  stove  put  fat 
and  onions  the  same  quantity  with  the  same  seasoning ;  cut  the  flesh 
of  the  mutton,  veal,  pork,  or  beef  from  the  bone,  cut  in  dice  of  about 

2  oz.  each,  put  in  the  pan  with  the  fat  and  onions,  set  it  going  with  a 
very  sharp  fire,  having  put  in  2  quarts  of  water ;  steam  gently,  stirring 
occasionally  for  about  half  an  hour,  till  forming  rather  a  rich  thick 
gravy.     When  both  the  rice  and  meat  are  done,  take  half  the  rice  and 
mix  with  the  meat,  and  then  the  remainder  of  the  meat  and  rice,  and 
serve.     Save  the  bones  for  soup  for  the  following  day.     Salt  pork  or 
beef,  well  soaked,  may  be  used — omitting  the  salt.     Any  kind  of  vege- 
tables may  be  frizzled  with  the  onions. 


Coo.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  197 

No.  9. — BAKING  AND  ROASTING  WITH  THE  FIELD  STOVE.  By  the  re- 
moval of  the  caldron,  and  the  application  of  a  false  bottom  put  over  the 
fire,  bread  bakes  extremely  well  in  the  oven,  as  well  as  meat,  potatoes, 
puddings,  &c.  Bread  might  be  baked  in  oven  at  every  available  op- 
portunity at  a  trifling  cost  of  fuel.  The  last  experiment  I  made  with 
one  was  a  piece  of  beef  weighing  about  25  Ibs.,  a  large  Yorkshire  pud- 
ding, and  about  10  Ibs.  of  potatoes,  the  whole  doing  at  considerably 
under  one  pennyworth  of  fuel,  being  a  mixture  of  coal  and  coke  ;  the 
whole  was  c[one  to  perfection,  and  of  a  nice  brown  color.  Any  kind  of 
meat  would,  of  course,  roast  the  same. 

Baking  infixed  Oven. — In  barracks,  or  large  institutions,  where  an 
oven  is  handy,  I  would  recommend  that  a  long  iron  trough  be  made, 
four  feet  in  length,  with  a  two-story  movable  grating  in  it,  the  meat  on 
the  top  of  the  upper  one  giving  a  nice  elevation  to  get  the  heat  from 
the  roof,  and  the  potatoes  on  the  grating  under,  and  a  Yorkshire  pud- 
ding at  the  bottom.  Four  or  five  pieces  of  meat  may  be  done  on  one 
trough.  If  no  pudding  is  made,  add  a  quart  more  water. 

No.  10. — FRENCH  BEEF  SOUP,  OR  POT-ATJ-FEU,  CAMP  FASHION.  FOR 
THE  ORDINARY  CANTEEN-PAN.  Put  in  the  canteen  saucepan  6  Ibs.  of 
beef,  cut  in  two  or  three  pieces,  bones  included,  f  Ib.  of  plain  mixed 
vegetables,  as  onions,  carrots,  turnips,  celery,  leeks,  or  such  of  these  as 
can  be  obtained,  or  3  oz.  of  preserved  in  cakes,  as  now  given  to  the 
troops ;  3  teaspoonfuls  of  salt,  1  teaspoonful  of  pepper,  1  teaspoonful 
of  sugar,  if  handy  ;  8  pints  of  water,  let  it  boil  gently  three  hours,  re- 
move some  of  the  fat,  and  serve.  The  addition  of  1^  Ib.  of  bread  cut 
into  slices,  or  1  Ib.  of  broken  biscuit,  well  soaked  in  the  broth,  will 
make  a  very  nutritious  soup  ;  skimming  is  not  required. 

No.  11. — SEMI-FRYING,  CAMP  FASHION,  CHOPS,  STEAKS,  AND -ALL 
KINDS  OF  MEAT.  If  it  is  difficult  to  broil  to  perfection,  it  is  consider- 
ably more  so  to  cook  meat  of  any  kind  in  a  frying-pan.  Place  your 
pan  on  the  fire  for  a  minute  or  so,  wipe  it  very  clean ;  when  the  pan 
is  very  hot,  add  in  it  either  fat  or  butter,  but  the  fat  from  salt  and 
ration  meat  is  preferable ;  the  fat  will  immediately  get  very  hot ;  then 
add  the  meat  you  are  going  to  cook,  turn  it  several  times  to  have  it 
equally  done  ;  season  to  each  pound  a  small  teaspoonful  of  salt,  quarter 
that  of  pepper,  and  serve.  Any  sauce  or  maitre-d'hotel  butter  may  be 
added.  A  few  fried  onions  in  the  remaining  fat,  with  the  addition  of 
a  little  flour  to  the  onion,  a  quarter  of  a  pint  of  water,  two  tablespoon- 
fuls  of  vinegar,  a  few  chopped  pickles  or  picalilly,  will  be  very  rel- 
ishing. 

No.  HA. — TEA  FOB  EIGHTY  MEN,  which  often  constitutes  a  whole 


198  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [Coo, 

company.  One  boiler  will,  with  ease,  make  tea  for  eighty  men,  allow- 
ing a  pint  each  man.  Put  forty  quarts  of  water  to  boil,  place  the  ra- 
tions of  tea  in  a  fine  net,  very  loose,  or  in  a  large  perforated  ball ;  give 
one  minute  to  boil,  take  out  the  fire,  if  too  much,  shut  down  the  cover ; 
in  ten  minutes  it  is  ready  to  serve. 

No.  12. — COFFEE  A  LA  ZOUAVE  FOR  A  MESS  OF  TEN  SOLDIERS,  as  made 
in  the  camp,  with  the  canteen  saucepan  holding  10  pints.  Put  9  pints  of 
water  into  a  canteen  saucepan  on  the  fire  ;  when  boiling  add  7^  oz.  of 
coffee,  which  forms  the  ration,  mix  them  well  together  with  a  spoon  or 
a  piece  of  wood,  leave  on  the  fire  for  a  few  minutes  longer,  or  until 
just  beginning  to  boil.  Take  it  off  and  pour  in  1  pint  of  cold  water, 
let  the  whole  remain  for  ten  minutes  or  a  little  longer.  The  dregs  of 
the  coffee  will  fall  to  the  bottom,  and  your  coffee  will  be  clear.  Pour 
it  from  one  vessel  to  the  other,  leaving  the  dregs  at  the  bottom,  add 
your  ration  sugar  or  2  teaspoonfuls  to  the  pint ;  if  any  milk  is  to  be 
had,  make  2  pints  of  coffee  less ;  add  that  quantity  of  milk  to  your 
coffee,  the  former  may  be  boiled  previously,  and  serve.  This  is  a 
very  good  way  for  making  coffee  even  in  any  family,  especially  a  nu- 
merous one,  using  1  oz.  to  the  quart  if  required  stronger.  For  a 
company  of  eighty  men  use  the  field-stove  and  four  times  the  quantity 
of  ingredients. 

No.  13. — COFFEE,  TURKISH  FASHION.  "When  the  water  is  about 
to  boil  add  the  coffee  and  sugar,  mix  well  as  above,  let  it  boil,  and 
serve.  The  grounds  of  coffee  will  in  a  few  seconds  fall  to  the  bottom 
of  the  cups.  The  Turks  wisely  leave  it  there,  I  would  advise  every  one 
in  camp  to  do  the  same. 

No  14. — COCOA  FOR  EIGHTY  MEN.  Break  eighty  portions  of  ration 
cocoa  in  rather  small  pieces,  put  them  in  the  boiler,  with  five  or  six 
pints  of  water,  light  the  fire,  stir  the  cocoa  round  till  melted,  and  form- 
ing a  pulp  not  too  thick,  preventing  any  lumps  forming,  add  to  it  the 
remaining  water,  hot  or  cold  ;  add  the  ration  sugar,  and  when  just  boil- 
ing, it  is  ready  for  serving.  If  short  of  cocoa  in  campaigning,  put  about 
sixty  rations,  and  when  in  pulp,  add  half  a  pound  of  flour  or  arrowroot. 

EASY  AND  EXCELLENT  WAY  OF  COOKING  IN   EARTHEN    PANS.       A  Very 

favorite  and  plain  dish  amongst  the  convalescent  and  orderlies  at 
Scutari  was  the  following : — Cut  any  part  of  either  beef  (cheek  or 
tail),  veal,  mutton,  or  pork,  in  fact  any  hard  part  of  the  animal,  in 
4-oz.  slices ;  have  ready  for  each  4  or  5  onions  and  4  or  5  pounds 
of  potatoes  cut  in  slices  ;  put  a  layer  of  potatoes  at  the  bottom  of 
the  pan,  then  a  layer  of  meat,  season  to  each  pound  1  teaspoonful  of 
salt,  quarter  one  of  pepper,  and  some  onion  you  have  already  minced ; 


Coo.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  199 

then  lay  in  layers  of  meat  and  potatoes  alternately  till  full ;  put  in  2 
pints  of  water,  lay  on  the  lid,  close  the  bar,  lock  the  pot,  bake  two 
hours,  and  serve.  Remove  some  of  the  fat  from  the  top,  if  too  much  ; 
a  few  dumplings,  as  No.  21,  in  it  will  also  be  found  excellent.  By 
adding  over  each  layer  a  little  flour  it  makes  a  rich  thick  sauce.  Half 
fresh  meat  and  salt  ditto  will  also  be  found  excellent. 

SERIES  OF  SMALL  RECEIPTS  FOR  A  SQUAD,  OUTPOST,  OR  PICKET  OF 
MEN,  which  may  be  increased  in  proportion  of  companies.  No.  15. 
Camp  Soup. — Put  half  a  pound  of  salt  pork  in  a  saucepan,  two  ounces 
of  rice,  two  pints  and  a  half  of  cold  water,  and,  when  boiling,  let  simmer 
another  hour,  stirring  once  or  twice ;  break  in  six  ounces  of  biscuit,  let 
soak  ten  minutes ;  it  is  then  ready,  adding  one  teaspoonful  of  sugar, 
and  a  quarter  one  of  pepper,  if  handy. 

No.  16.  Beef  Soup. — Proceed  as  above,  boil  an  hour  longer,  adding 
a  pint  more  water. 

Note. — Those  who  can  obtain  any  of  the  following  vegetables  will 
find  them  a  great  improvement  to  the  above  soups  : — Add  four  ounces 
of  either  onions,  carrots,  celery,  turnips,  leeks,  greens,  cabbage,  or  po- 
tatoes, previously  well  washed  or  peeled,  or  any  of  these  mixed  to  make 
up  four  ounces,  putting  them  in  the  pot  with  the  meat.  I  have  used 
the  green  tops  of  leeks  and  the  leaf  of  celery  as  well  as  the  stem,  and 
found  that  for  stewing  they  are  preferable  to  the  white  part  for  flavor. 
The  meat  being  generally  salted  with  rock  salt,  it  ought  to  be  well 
scraped  and  washed,  or  even  soaked  in  water  a  few  hours  if  convenient ; 
but  if  the  last  cannot  be  done,  and  the  meat  is  therefore  too  salt,  which 
would  spoil  the  broth,  parboil  it  for  twenty  minutes  in  water,  before 
using  for  soup,  taking  care  to  throw  this  water  away. 

No.  17. — For  fresh  beef  proceed,  as  far  as  the  cooking  goes,  as  for 
salt  beef,  adding  a  teaspoonful  of  salt  to  the  water. 

No.  18.  Pea  Soup. — Put  in  your  pot  half  a  pound  of  salt  pork,  half 
a  pint  of  peas,  three  pints  of  water,  one  teaspoonful  of  sugar,  half  one 
of  pepper,  four  ounces  of  vegetables,  cut  in  slices,  if  to  be  had ;  boil 
gently  two  hours,  or  until  the  peas  are  tender,  as  some  require  boiling 
longer  than  others — and  serve. 

No  19.  Stewed  Fresh  Beef  and  Rice. — Put  an  ounce  of  fat  in  a  pot, 
cut  half  a  pound  of  meat  in  large  dice,  add  a  teaspoonful  of  salt,  half 
one  of  sugar,  an  onion  sliced  ;  put  on  the  fire  to  stew  for  fifteen  min- 
utes, stirring  occasionally,  then  add  two  ounces  of  rice,  a  pint  of  water ; 
stew  gently  till  done,  and  serve.  Any  savory  herb  will  improve  the 
flavor.  Fresh  pork,  veal,  or  mutton  may  be  done  the  same  way,  and 
half  a  pound  of  potatoes  used  instead  of  the  rice,  and  as  rations  are 


200  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [Coo. 

served  out  fur  three  days,  the  whole  of  the  provisions  may  be  cooked 
at  once. 

No.  20. — RECEIPTS  FOR  THE  FRYING-PAN.  Those  who  are  fortunate 
enough  to  possess  a  frying-pan  will  find  the  following  receipts  very 
useful : — Cut  in  small  dice  half  a  pound  of  solid  meat,  keeping  the 
bones  for  soup ;  put  your  pan,  which  should  be  quite  clean,  on  the 
fire ;  when  hot  through,  add  an  ounce  of  fat,  melt  it  and  put  in  the 
meat,  season  with  half  a  teaspoonful  of  salt ;  fry  fur  ten  minutes,  stir- 
ring now  and  then ;  add  a  teaspoonful  of  flour,  mix  all  well,  put  in  half 
a  pint  of  water,  let  simmer  for  fifteen  minutes,  pour  over  a  biscuit 
previously  soaked,  and  serve.  The  addition  ot  a  little  pepper  and 
sugar,  if  handy,  is  an  improvement,  as  is  also  a  pinch  of  cayenne,  curry- 
powder  or  spice ;  sauces  and  pickles  used  in  small  quantities  would  be 
very  relishing ;  these  are  articles  which  will  keep  for  any  length  of 
time.  As  fresh  meat  is  not  easily  obtained,  any  of  the  cold  salt  meat 
may  be  dressed  as  above,  omitting  the  salt,  and  only  requires  warming ; 
or,  for  a  change,  boil  the  meat  plainly,  or  with  greens,  or  cabbage,  or 
dumplings,  as  for  beef;  then  the  next  day  cut  what  is  left  in  small  dice 
— say  four  ounces — put  in  a  pan  an  ounce  of  fat ;  when  very  hot  pour 
i;i  the  following  : — Mix  in  a  basin  a  tablespoonful  of  flour,  moisten  with 
water  to  form  the  consistency  of  thick  melted  butter,  then  pour  it  in 
the  pan,  letting  it  remain  for  one  or  two  minutes,  or  until  set ;  put  in 
the  meat,  shake  the  pan  to  loosen  it,  turn  it  over,  let  it  remain  a  few 
minutes  longer,  and  serve.  To  cook  bacon,  chops,  steaks,  slices  of  any 
kind  of  meat,  salt  or  fresh  sausages,  black  puddings,  &c. :  Make  the 
pan  very  hot,  having  wiped  it  clean,  add  in  fat,  dripping,  butter,  or  oil, 
about  an  ounce  of  either  ;  put  in  the  meat,  turn  three  or  four  times,  and 
season  with  salt  and  pepper.  A  few  minutes  will  do  it.  If  the  meat 
is  salt,  it  must  be  well  soaked  previously. 

No.  21. — SUET  DUMPLINGS.  Take  half  a  pound  of  flour,  half  a  tea- 
spoonful  of  salt,  a  quarter  teaspoonful  of  pepper,  a  quarter  of  a  pound 
of  chopped  fat  pork  or  beef  suet,  eight  tablespoonfuls  of  water,  mixed 
well  together.  It  will  form  a  thick  paste,  and  when  formed,  divide  it 
into  six  or  eight  pieces,  which  roll  in  flour,  and  boil  with  the  meat  for 
twenty  minutes  to  half  an  hour.  Little  chopped  onion  or  aromatic 
herbs  will  give  it  a  flavor. 

A  plainer  way,  when  Fat  is  not  to  be  obtained. — Put  the  same  quan- 
tity of  flour  and  seasoning  in  a  little  more  water,  and  make  it  softer, 
and  divide  it  into  sixteen  pieces  ;  boil  about  ten  minutes.  Serve  round 
the  meat.  One  plain  pudding  may  be  made  of  the  above,  also  peas  and 
rice  pudding  thus : — One  pound  of  peas  well  tied  in  a  cloth,  or  rice 


Cou.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  201 

ditto  with  the  beef.  It  will  form  a  good  pudding.  The  following  in- 
gredients may  be  added  :  a  little  salt,  sugar,  pepper,  chopped  onions, 
aromatic  herbs,  and  two  ounces  of  chopped  fat  will  make  these  pud- 
dings palatable  and  delicate. 

CORDON — is  the  coping  of  the  escarp  or  inner  wall  of  the  ditch, 
sometimes  called  the  magistral  line ;  as  from  it  the  works  in  perma- 
nent fortification  are  traced.  It  is  usually  rounded  in  front,  and  pro- 
jects about  one  foot  over  the  masonry  :  while  it  protects  the  top  of  the 
revetment  from  being  saturated  with  water,  it  also  offers,  from  projec- 
tion, an  obstacle  to  an  enemy  in  escalading  the  wall. 

CORPORAL.     Grade  between  private  and  sergeant. 

CORPOREAL  PUNISHMENT,  BY  STRIPES  AND  LASHES.  Pro- 
hibited excepting  for  the  crime  of  desertion ;  (Act  May  16,  1812  and 
Act  March  2,  1833.) 

CORPS.  The  Articles  of  War  use  the  word  corps  in  the  sense  of 
a  portion  of  the  army  organized  by  law  with  a  head  and  members ; 
or  any  other  military  body  having  such  organization,  as  the  marine 
corps.  A  regiment  is  a  corps  ;  an  independent  company  is  a  corps — a 
body  of  officers  with  one  head  is  a  corps,  as  the  Topographical  Engi- 
neers. Detachments  of  parts  of  regiments,  or  of  whole  regiments, 
united  for  a  particular  object,  whether  for  a  campaign  or  a  part  of  a  cam- 
paign, are  not  corps  in  the  sense  of  the  Rules  and  Articles  of  War,  for  such 
bodies  have  neither  head  nor  members  commissioned  in  the  particular 
body  temporarily  so  united  ;  but  the  officers  with  such  detachment  hold 
commissions  either  in  the  corps  composing  the  detachment,  in  the  army 
at  large,  in  the  marine  corps,  or  militia. 

CORRECTING  PROOFS.     (See  PRINTING.) 

CORRESPONDENCE  WITH  THE  ENEMY.  Whoever  shall 
be  convicted  of  holding  correspondence  with  or  giving  intelligence  to 
the  enemy,  directly  or  indirectly,  shall  suffer  death  or  such  other  punish- 
ment as  shall  be  ordered  by  sentence  of  a  court-martial ;  (ART.  57.) 

COSINE.     The  complement  of  the  sine. 

COUNCIL  OF  ADMINISTRATION.  Under  the  act  of  Congress 
of  July  5,  1838,  the  council  of  administration  may,  from  time  to  time, 
employ  such  person  as  they  think  proper  to  officiate  as  chaplain ;  who 
shall  also  perform  the  duties  of  schoolmaster  at  such  post.  The  chaplain 
is  paid  on  the  certificate  of  the  commanding  officer,  not  exceeding  forty 
dollars  per  month,  as  may  be  determined  by  the  said  council  of  admin- 
istration with  the  approval  of  the  Secretary  of  War.  Councils  of  ad- 
ministration fix  a  tariff  to  the  prices  of  sutler's  goods — regulate  the 
sutler  in  other  matters,  and  make  appropriations  for  specific  objects  de- 


202  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  %      [Coir. 

termined  by  regulations  from  the  post  and  regimental  funds.  Those 
funds  are  collected  in  great  part  by  savings  of  flour,  in  making  bread 
by  troops. 

COUNCIL  OF  WAR.  An  assemblage  of  the  chief  officers  in  the 
army,  summoned  by  the  general  to  concert  measures  of  importance. 

COUNSEL.  All  writers  admit  it  to  be  the  custom  to  allow  a 
prisoner  to  have  counsel. 

COUNTER-BATTERY.  When  a  number  of  guns  are  placed  be- 
hind a  parapet,  for  the  purpose  of  dismounting  or  silencing  by  direct 
fire  the  guns  in  an  enemy's  work,  it  is  called  a  counter-battery. 

COUNTERFORTS— are  the  buttresses  by  which  the  revetment 
walls  are  backed  and  strengthened  interiorly. 

COUNTERGUARD — is  a  work  composed  of  two  faces,  forming  a 
salient  angle,  sometimes  placed  before  a  bastion,  sometimes  before 
a  ravelin,  and  sometimes  before  both,  to  protect  them  from  being 
breached. 

COUNTERMINES— are  galleries  excavated  by  the  defenders  of  a 
fortress,  to  intercept  the  mines,  and  to  destroy  the  works  of  the  be- 
siegers. 

COUNTERSCARP.  The  outer  boundary  of  the  ditch — revetted 
with  masonry  in  permanent  fortification  to  make  the  ditch  as  steep  as 
possible. 

COUNTERSIGN.  A  particular  word  given  out  by  the  highest  in 
command,  intrusted  to  those  employed  on  duty  in  camp  and  garrison, 
and  exchanged  between  guards  and  sentinels. 

COUNTERSLOPE.  In  the  case  of  a  revetment,  the  slope  is 
within  instead  of  on  the  outside  ;  and  is  usually  formed  in  steps.  In 
the  case  of  a  parapet,  the  slope  is  upwards  instead  of  downwards. 

COUP  D'CEIL.  The  art  of  distinguishing  by  a  rapid  glance  the 
weak  points  of  an  enemy's  position,  and  of  discerning  the  advantages  and 
disadvantages  offered  by  any  given  space  of  country,  or  selecting  with 
judgment  the  most  advantageous  position  for  a  camp  or  battle-field. 
Experience  is  a  great  aid  in  the  acquisition  of  this  necessary  military 
faculty,  but  experience  and  science  alone  will  not  give  it. 

COUP  DE  MAIN.     A  sudden  and  vigorous  attack. 

COUPURES — are  short  retrenchments  made  across  the  face  of  any 
\vork,  having  a  terre-plein.  The  ditch  of  the  coupure  is  carried  quite 
across  the  terre-plein,  and  through  the  parapet  of  the  work  in  which  it 
is  formed,  but  not  through  the  revetment. 

COURT-MARTIAL.  Any  general  officer  commanding  an  army,  or 
colonel  commanding  a  separate  department,  may  appoint  general  court- 


Cou.]      .  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  203 

martials  whenever  necessary ;  (ART.  65.)  General  courts-martial  may 
consist  of  any  number  of  commissioned  officers,  from  five  to  thirteen,  but 
they  shall  not  consist  of  less  than  thirteen,  where  that  number  can  be 
convened  without  manifest  injury  to  the  service ;  (ART.  64.)  But  no 
sentence  of  a  court-martial  shall  be  carried  into  execution  until  after  the 
whole  proceedings  shall  have  been  laid  before  the  officer  ordering  the 
same,  or  the  officer  commanding  the  troops  for  the  time  being  ;  neither 
shall  any  sentence  of  a  general  court-martial,  in  time  of  peace,  extending 
to  the  loss  of  life,  or  the  dismission  of  a  commissioned  officer,  or  which 
shall,  either  in  time  of  peace  or  war,  respect  a  general  officer,  be  carried 
into  execution,  until  after  the  whole  proceedings  shall  have  been  trans- 
mitted to  the  Secretary  of  War,  to  be  laid  before  the  President  of  the 
United  States  for  his  confirmation  or  disapproval,  and  orders  in  the 
case.  All  other  sentences  may  be  confirmed  and  executed  by  the 
officer  ordering  the  court  to  assemble,  or  the  commanding  officer  for 
the  time  being,  as  the  case  may  be  ;  (ART.  65.)  Whenever  a  general 
officer  commanding  an  army,  or  a  colonel  commanding  a  separate  de- 
partment, shall  be  the  accuser  or  prosecutor  of  any  officer  of  the  army 
under  his  command,  the  general  court-martial  for  the  trial  of  such  officer 
shall  be  appointed  by  the  President  of  the  United  States,  and  the  pro- 
ceedings and  sentence  of  the  said  court  shall  be  sent  directly  to  the 
Secretary  of  War  to  be  laid  by  him  before  the  President  for  his  con- 
firmation or  approval  or  orders  in  the  case ;  (Act  May  29,  1830.) 
Ev'ery  officer  commanding  a  regiment  or  corps  may  appoint,  for  his 
own  regiment  or  corps,  courts-martial  to  consist  of  three  commissioned 
officers,  for  the  trial  and  punishment  of  offences  not  capital,  and  decide 
upon  their  sentences.  For  the  same  purpose,  all  officers  commanding 
any  of  the  garrisons,  forts,  barracks,  or  other  places  where  troops  consist 
of  different  corps,  may  assemble  courts-martial,  to  consist  of  three  com- 
missioned officers,  and  decide  upon  their  sentences ;  (ART.  66.)  No 
garrison  or  regimental  court-martial  shall  have  the  power  to  try  capital 
cases,  or  commissioned  officers  ;  neither  shall  they  inflict  a  fine  exceed- 
ing one  month's  pay,  nor  imprison,  nor  put  to  hard  labor,  any  non- 
commissioned officer  or  soldier,  for  a  longer  time  than  one  month ; 
(ART.  67.)  The  judge-advocate,  or  some  person  deputed  by  him,  or 
by  the  general,  or  officer  commanding  the  army,  detachment,  or  garrison, 
shall  prosecute  in  the  name  of  the  United  States,  but  shall  so  far  con- 
sider himself  as  counsel  for  the  prisoner,  after  the  said  prisoner  shall 
have  made  his  plea,  as  to  object  to  any  leading  question  to  any  witness, 
or  any  question  to  the  prisoner,  the  answer  to  which  might  tend  to 
criminate  himself;  and  administer  to  each  member  of  the  court,  before 


204  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [Cou. 

they  proceed  upon  any  trial,  the  oath  prescribed  in  the  Articles  of  War 
for  General,  Regimental  and  Garrison  Courts- martial.  The  president 
of  the  court  then  administers  an  oath  to  the  judge-advocate;  (ART. 
69.)  If  a  prisoner  when  arraigned  stands  mute,  the  trial  goes  on  as 
if  he  pleaded  not  guilty ;  (ART.  70.)  If  a  member  be  challenged  by  a 
prisoner  the  court  judges  of  the  relevancy  of  the  challenge.  Only  one 
member  can  be  challenged  at  a  time;  (ART.  71.)  All  members  are  to 
behave  with  decency  and  calmness,  and  in  giving  their  votes  to  begin 
with  the  youngest ;  (ART.  72.)  All  persons  who  give  evidence  are 
examined  on  oath  or  affirmation;  (ART.. 73.)  On  trials  of  cases  not 
capital  before  courts-martial,  the  deposition  of  witnesses,  not  in  the  line 
or  staff  of  the  army,  may  be  taken  before  some  justice  of  the  peace  and 
read  in  evidence  ;  provided  the  prosecutor  and  person  accused  are  pres- 
ent at  the  taking  of  the  same,  or  are  duly  notified  thereof;  (ART.  74.) 
No  officer  shall  be  tried  but  by  a  general  court-martial,  nor  by  officers 
of  inferior  rank,  if  it  can  be  avoided.  Nor  shall  trials  be  carried  on  ex- 
cept between  8  in  the  morning  and  3  in  the  afternoon,  excepting  in  cases 
requiring  immediate  example  in  the  opinion  of  the  officer  ordering  the 
court ;  (ART.  75.)  No  person  to  use  menacing  words,  signs,  or  gestures 
before  a  court-martial,  or  cause  any  disorder  or  riot,  or  disturb  their 
proceeding,  on  the  penalty  of  being  punished  at  the  discretion  of  the 
said  court-martial;  (ART.  76.)  (Consult  DE  HART,  KENNEDY,  and 
SIMMONS  ;  See  ADDRESS  ;  ALIBI  ;  AMICUS  CURI.E  ;  APPEAL  ;  ARREST  ; 
CHALLENGE  OF  MEMBERS  ;  CHARACTER  ;  CHARGES  ;  CONTEMPT  ; 
COUNSEL  ;  CRIMES  ;  CUSTOM  OF  WAR  ;  DEATH  ;  DECISIONS  ;  DEFENCE  ; 
DISMISSION  ;  EVIDENCE  ;  FALSEHOOD  ;  FINDING  ;  JUDGE-ADVOCATE  ; 
JURISDICTION  ;  MISNOMER  ;  NEW  MATTER  ;  NOTES  ;  OATH  ;  PLEA  ; 
PRESIDENT  ;  PRISONERS  ;  PROCEEDINGS  ;  PROSECUTORS  ;  QUESTIONS  ; 
RECOMMENDATION  ;  REJOINDER  ;  REPLY  ;  REVISION  ;  SENTENCE  ;  SUM- 
MING UP  ;  SUSPENDED  ;  TRIAL  ;  VERDICT  ;  VOTES  ;  WITNESSES  ;  and 
References  under  the  heading  ARTICLES  OF  WAR.) 

FORM  No.  1. 

FORM  of  a  General  Order  appointing  a  General  Court-martial. 

General  Orders,  |  Head-quarters  of  the  Army, 

No.  j  March      ,  18—. 

A  General  Court-martial,  to  consist  of  thirteen  members,  will  con- 
vene at  Fort  Monroe,  in  the  State  of  Virginia,  on  Monday  the  2d  of 
April,  18 — ,  at  11  o'clock,  A.  M.,  or  as  soon  thereafter  as  practicable, 
for  the  trial  of  Captain  A.  B.,  of  the  1st  Regiment  of  Artillery,  and  such 
other  prisoners  as  may  be  brought  before  it. 


Cou.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  205 

The  following  Officers  are  detailed  as  members  of  the  Court : 

1.  Colonel  A.  B.  1st  Eegiment  of 

2.  Colonel  C.  D.  3d  Regiment  of  - 

3.  Lieut.-col.  E.  F.  1st  Regiment  of  — 

4.  Lieut.-col.  F.  G.  2d  Regiment  of  - 

5.  Major  W.  T.  3d  Regiment  of  — 

6.  Major  N.  M.  1st  Regiment  of 

7.  Captain  A.  N.  3d  Regiment  of 

8.  Captain  B.  N.  1st  Regiment  of 

9.  Captain  C.  N.  2d  Regiment  of 

10.  Captain  D.  M.  3d  Regiment  of 

11.  Captain  E.  L.  1st  Regiment  of 

12.  Captain  F.  H.  1st  Regiment  of 

13.  Captain  G.  W.  1st  Regiment  of 

And  the  following  Officers  are  detailed  as  supernumeraries  : 
Captain  N.  P.  2d  Regiment  of  Infantry. 

Captain  D.  B.  1st  Regiment  of  Infantry. 

Captain  N.  O.  1st  Regiment  of  Artillery. 

Captain  S.  R.,  of  the  4th  Regiment  of ,  is  hereby  appointed 

Judge-advocate. 

By  command  of 

Lieut.-general . 

,  Adjutant-general. 

FORM  No.  2. 

General  Orders,  )  Head-quarters. 

'    No.  \ 

A  General  Court-martial  is  hereby  appointed  to  meet  at ,  on 

day  of ,  or  as  soon  thereafter  as  practicable,  for  the 

,  and  such  other  prisoners  as  may  be  brought  before  it. 

Detail  for  the  Court. 

1.  _  5.  9.  13.  

2.  -  6.  -  10.  

3.  -  7.  11.  

4.  -  8.  —  12.  

,  Judge-advocate. 

No  other  officers  than  those  named  can  be  assembled  without  mani- 
fest injury  to  the  service. 

By  order  of , 

,  Asst.  Adjt.-gen. 


206  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [Cou. 

FORM  No.  3. 

General  Orders,  )  Head-quarters  of  the  Army, 

No.  j  April      ,18—. 

A  General  Court-martial,  to  consist  of  as  many  members  [within 
the  prescribed  limits]  as  can  be  assembled  without  manifest  injury  to 

the  service,  will  convene  at ,  in  the  State  of ,  on  Tuesday 

the  23d  of  April,  18 — ,  at  10  o'clock,  A.  M.,  or  as  soon  thereafter  as 
practicable,  for  the  trial  of  Lieutenant  C.  I).,  of  the  1st  Regiment,  and 
such  other  prisoners  as  may  be  brought  before  it. 

The  Commanding  Officer,  at ,  will  cause  the  members  of  the 

Court  to  be  detailed  from  the  officers  of  his  command.  First  Lieuten- 
ant B.  M.,  2d  Regiment  of  Artillery,  is  hereby  appointed  the  Judge- 
advocate  of  the  Court. 

By  order  of , 

Major-general  Commanding  in  Chief, 
R.  J. 

Adjutant-general. 

The  above  form  delegating  authority  for  the  detail  of  members  of  a 
Court-martial  to  a  distant  commander,  although  not  latterly  used,  is  of 
the  greatest  practical  .-importance.  It  conforms  to  the  custom  of  war 
in  other  services,  was  long  used  in  our  own  without  question  of  its 
legality,  and  might  with  great  benefit  to  the  service  be  revived. 

FORM  No.  4. 

Mode  of  recording  the  proceedings  of  a  General  [or  other]  Court- 
martial. 

Proceedings  of  a  General  Court-martial,  held  at  Fort  Monroe,  in 
the  State  of  Virginia,  by  Virtue  of  the  following  Orders,  viz. : 

[Here  insert  a  copy  of  the  Order  convening  the  Court.] 
Fort  Monroe,  Virginia, 

Monday,  April  — ,  18 — . 
The  Court  met  pursuant  to  the  above  Orders. 

PRESENT. 

1.  Colonel  A.B.  1st  Regt.  of ,  President. 

2.  Colonel  C.  D.  3.  Lieut.-col.  E.  F. 

4.  Lieut.-col.  F.  G.  ^  5.  Major  W.  T. 

6.  Major  N.  M.  J  7.  Capt.  A.  N. 

8.  Capt.  B.  N.  9.  Capt.  C.  N. 

'  10.  Capt.  D.  M.  11.  Capt.  E.  L. 

12.*  Capt.  F.  H.  13.  Capt.  W.  G. 

Captain  S.  R.,  Judge-advocate. 


Con,]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  207 

The  Court  then  proceeded  to  the  trial  of  Captain  A.  B.,  of  the 

Regiment  of ,  who,  being  called^  into  Court,  and  having 

heard  the  General  Order  read,  was  asked  if  he  had  any  objection  to  any 
of  the  members  named  in  the  General  Order,  to  which  he  replied  in  the 
negative. 

The  Court  was  then  duly  sworn,  in  his  presence,  and  Captain  A.  B. 
was  arraigned  on  the  following  charge  and  specifications,  viz. : 

[Here  insert  the  charge  and  specifications.] 

To  which  the  prisoner  pleaded  as  follows  : 

Not  Guilty,  to  the  1st  specification, 
Not  Guilty,  to  the  2d  specification, 
Not  Guilty,  to  the  charge. 

All  persons  required  to  give  evidence  were  directed  to  withdraw, 
and  remain  in  waiting  until  called  for. 

Lieut.  A.  B.  of  the  2d  Regiment  of  Infantry,  a  witness  for  the  prose- 
cution, being  duly  sworn,  says  :  that  on  the day  of ,  &c. 

&c. . 

Question  by  the  Judge-advocate. 

Answer.  . 

Question  by  the  prisoner.  

Answer.  . 

Question  by  the  Court.  1 

Answer.  . 

The  prosecution  was  here  closed,  and  the  prisoner  produced 
lowing  evidence  : 

Capt.  C.  D.  of  the  Corps  of ,  a  witness  for  the  defence,  being 

duly  sworn,  says  :  that  on  the day  of ,  &c.  &c. 

Question  by  the  prisoner.  ? 

Answer. . 

Question  by  the  Judge-advocate.          ••     1 

Answer.  . 

Question  by  the  Court.  ? 

Answer.  . 

The  prisoner,  having  no  further  testimony  to  offer,  requested  to  be 

indulged  with days  to  prepare  for  his  final  defence.     The  Court 

granted    his  request,  and  adjourned  at  o'clock,  P.  M.,  to  meet 

again  at  o'clock,  A.  M.,  on  Wednesday,  the day  of . 


208  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [Cou. 

SECOND  DAY. 

Wednesday, ,  18 — . 

The  Court  met  pursuant  to  adjournment :  present  all  the  members. 

The  proceedings  having  been  read  over  to  the  Court  by  the  Judge- 
advocate,  the  prisoner,  Captain  A.  B.,  made  the  following  address  in 
his  defence : 

[Here  insert  the  defence,  or  if  it  be  too  long,  it  may  be  marked,  and 
annexed.] 

The  Court  then  closed,  and  proceeded  to  deliberate  on  the  testimony 
adduced,  and  pronounced  the  following 

SENTENCE. 

4 

The  Court,  having  maturely  weighed  and  considered  the  evidence 

adduced  in  support  of  it,  is  of  opinion  that  &c. &c. ,  and 

does  therefore &c. &c. 

A.  B.  Col.  1st  Regt.  of , 

S.  R.  Capt.  Regt.  of ,  President. 

Judge-advocate. 

FORM  No.  5. 

Form  of  an  Order  appointing  a  Garrison  or  Regimental  Court- 
martial. 

Orders,  Head-quarters, 


No. 


Fort  Columbus,  N.  Y. 


April     ,  18 — . 
A  Garrison,  [or  Regimental  Court-martial,]  to  consist  of  Captain  C. 

£). ?  1st  Lieutenant  D.  F.  ,  and  2d  Lieutenant  G.  H. 

,  will  convene  at  the  President's  quarters  to-morrow  morning, 

at  11  o'clock,  for  the  trial  of  Sergeant  D.  E.  of Company, 

Regiment  of  Artillery,  and  such  other  prisoners  as  may  be  brought  be- 
fore it. 

By  order  of  Colonel  A.  B., 

Commanding, 
J.A., 
Adjutant. 

FORM  No.  0. 
Form  of  charges  and  specifications  against  a  prisoner. 

Charges  and  specifications  preferred  against  Capt.  C.  D.,  of  the  1st 
Regiment  of  Infantry. 


Cou.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  209 

CHARGE  IST. 
DISOBEDIENCE    OF   ORDERS. 

Specification  1st.  ...  In  this,  that  he,  the  said  Captain  C.  D.,  of 
the  1st  Regiment  of  Infantry,  being  ordered,  on  the  30th  day  of  Septem- 
ber, 18 — ,  at  the  Recruiting  Depot,  in  the  town  of  Newport,  Kentucky, 
by  Colonel  A.  B.,  of  the  1st  Regiment  of  Infantry,  the  commanding 
officer  of  said  Depot,  to  take  command  of  and  march  with  a  detachment 
of  recruits,  to  Jefferson  Barracks,  in  the  State  of  Missouri,  did  at  said 
town  of  Newport,  at  the  time  aforesaid,  refuse  to  take  command  of  and 
march  with  said  detachment  of  recruits,  thereby  disobeying  the  lawful 
commands  and  orders  of  his  superior  and  commanding  officer,  the  said 
Colonel  A.  B. 

Specification  2d.  ...  In  this,  that  he  the  said  Captain  C.  D.,  &c.  &c. 

E.  F. 
Major  1st  Regiment  of  Infantry. 

FORM  No.  7. 

Form  of  a  General  Order  approving  or  disapproving  the  proceedings 
of  a  General  Court-martial. 

General  Order,  )  Head-quarters  of  the  Army, 

No.  j"  January  — ,  18 — . 

I.  .  .  At  a  General  Court-martial,  which  convened  at on  the 

of ,  18 — ,  pursuant  to  General  Orders,  No. of  Jan- 
uary 18 — ,  and  of  which  Brevet  Brigadier-general is  President, 

was  tried  Captain ,  of  the Regiment  of  Artillery,  on  the 

following  chargers  and  specifications  preferred  by  Major ,  of  the 

• Artillery,  to  wit : 

CHARGE. 

[Here  insert  charge.     See  Form  No.  5.] 
To  which  charge  and  specification  the  prisoner  pleaded  as  follows : 

To  the  1st  specification — [plea.] 

To  the  2d  specification — [plea.] 

And  guilty  [or  not  guilty]  to  the  charge. 

FINDINGS  AND  SENTENCE 

The  Court,  after  mature  deliberation  on  the  testimony  adduced,  find 
the  prisoner,  Capt.  ,  of Regiment  of  Artillery,  as  fol- 
lows : 

14 


210  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [Cou. 

Of  the  1st  specification — [finding.] 

Of  the  2d  specification — [finding.] 

And  guilty  [or  not  guilty]  of  the  charge. 

And  the  Court  do  therefore  sentence  him,  Captain ,  of 

Regiment  of  Artillery,  to  [here  insert  sentence.] 

II.  .  .  The  proceedings,  findings,  and  sentence  are  approved,  [or 
disapproved,]  &c.,  &c.,  &c. 

(Here  the  authority  which  constituted  the  Court  will  add  such 
remarks  as  he  may  think  proper.) 

III.  .  .  The   General    Court-martial,    of   which   Brevet    Brigadier- 
general  is  President,  is  hereby  dissolved. 

By  Command  of 

Major-general , 

,  Adjutant-general. 

COURT  OF  INQUIRY.  In  cases  where  the  general  or  com- 
manding officer  may  order  a  court  of  inquiry  to  examine  into  the  nature  of 
any  transaction,  accusation,  or  imputation,  against  any  officer  or  soldier, 
the  said  court  shall  consist  of  one  or  more  officers,  not  exceeding  three, 
and  a  judge-advocate,  or  other  suitable  person  as  a  recorder,  to  reduce 
the  proceedings  and  evidence  to  writing,  all  of  whom  shall  be  sworn  to 
the  faithful  performance  of  duty.  This  court  shall  have  the  same  power 
to  summon  witnesses  as  a  court-martial,  and  to  examine  them  on  oath. 
But  they  shall  not  give  their  opinion  on  the  merits  of  the  case,  except- 
ing they  shall  be  thereto  specially  required.  The  parties  accused  shall 
also  be  permitted  to  cross-examine  and  interrogate  the  witnesses,  so 
as  to  investigate  fully  the  circumstances  in  the  question  ;  (ART.  91.) 
The  proceedings  of  a  court  of  inquiry  must  be  authenticated  by  the 
signature  of  the  recorder  and  the  president,  and  delivered  to  the  com- 
manding officer,  and  the  said  proceedings  may  be  admitted  as  evidence 
by  a  court-martial,  in  cases  not  capital,  or  extending  to  the  dismission 
of  an  officer,  provided  that  the  circumstances  are  such  that  oral  testi- 
mony cannot  be  obtained.  But  courts  of  inquiry  are  prohibited,  unless 
directed  by  the  President  of  the  United  States,  or  demanded  by  the  ac- 
cused ;  (ART.  92.) 

The  court  may  be  ordered  to  report  the  facts  of  the  case,  with  or 
without  an  opinion  thereon.  Such  an  order  will  not  be  complied  with, 
by  merely  reporting  the  evidence  or  testimony  ;  facts  being  the  result, 
or  conclusion  established  by  weighing  all  the  testimony,  oral  and  docu- 
mentary, before  the  court. 


Cou.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  211 

When  a  court  of  inquiry  is  directed  to  be  assembled,  the  order 
should  state  whether  the  court  is  to  report  the  facts  or  not,  and  also 
whether  or  not  it  is  to  give  an  opinion  on  the  merits.  The  court  should 
also  be  instructed,  whether  its  attention  is  to  be  extended  to  a  general 
investigation,  or  to  be  confined  to  the  examination  of  particular  points 
only,  as  the  case  may  seem  to  require,  in  the  judgment  of  the  officer 
under  whose  authority  it  is  assembled.  Where  the  subject  is  multi- 
farious, the  court  should  be  instructed  to  state  its  opinion  on  each  point 
separately,  that  the  proper  authority  may  be  able  to  form  his  judgment. 

The  court  may  sit  with  open  or  closed  doors,  according  to  the  nature 
of  the  transaction  to  be  investigated.  The  court  generally  sits  with  open 
doors ;  but  there  may  be  delicate  matters  to  be  examined  into,  that 
might  render  it  proper  to  sit  with  doors  closed. 

The  form  of  proceeding,  in  courts  of  inquiry,  is  nearly  the  same  as 
that  in  courts-martial :  the  members  being  assembled,  and  the  parties 
interested  called  into  court,  the  judge-advocate,  or  recorder,  by  direction 
of  the  president,  reads  the  order  by  which  the  court  is  constituted,  and 
then  administers  to  the  members  the  following  oath  :  "  You  shall  well 
and  truly  examine  and  inquire,  according  to  your  evidence,  into  the 
matter  now  before  you,  without  partiality,  favor,  affection,  prejudice,  or 
hope  of  reward  :  so  help  you  God  ;  "  (ART.  93.) 

The  accusation  is  then  read,  and  the  witnesses  are  examined  by  the 
court ;  and  the  parties  accused  are  also  permitted  to  cross-examine  and 
interrogate  the  witnesses,  so  as  to  investigate  fully  the  circumstances  in 
question ;  (ART.  91.) 

The  examination  of  witnesses  being  finished,  the  parties  before  the 
court  may  address  the  court,  should  they  see  fit  to  do  so ;  after  which 
the  president  orders  the  court  to  be  cleared.  The  recorder  then  reads 
over  the  whole  of  the  proceedings,  as  well  for  the  purpose  of  correcting 
the  record,  as  for  aiding  the  memory  of  the  members  of  the  court. 
After  mature  deliberation  on  the  evidence  adduced,  they  proceed  to  find 
a  state  of  facts,  if  so  directed  by  the  order  constituting  the  court,  and  to 
declare  whether  or  not  the  grounds  of  accusation  are  sufficient  to  bring 
the  matter  before  a  general  court-martial ;  and  also  to  give  their  opin- 
ion  of  the  merits  of  the  case,  if  so  required. 

The  court  should  be  careful  to  examine  the  order  by  which  it  is 
constituted,  and  be  particular  in  conforming  to  the  directions  contained 
therein,  either  by  giving  a  general  opinion  on  the  whole  matter,  a  state- 
ment of  facts  only,  or  an  opinion  on  such  facts.  The  proceedings  of 
courts  of  inquiry  have  been  returned  to  be  reconsidered,  when  the  court 
has  been  unmindful  of  these  points. 


212  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [Cor. 

It  has  been  settled  that  a  member  of  a  court  of  inquiry  may  be  ob- 
jected  to,  for  cause. 

The  proceedings  must  be  authenticated  by  the  signatures  of  the  pres- 
ident and  recorder,  and  delivered  to  the  commanding  officer  or  author- 
ity which  ordered  the  court ;  and  the  said  proceedings  may  be  admitted 
in  evidence  by  a  court-martial,  in  cases  not  capital,  nor  extending  to  the 
dismission  of  an  officer,  provided  oral  testimony  cannot  be  obtained ; 
(ART.  92.) 

Transactions  may  become  the  subject  of  investigation  by  courts  of 
inquiry  after  the  lapse  of  any  number  of  years,  on  the  application  of 
the  party  accused,  or  by  order  of  the  President  of  the  United  States ; 
the  limitation  mentioned  in  the  88th  Article  of  War,  being  applicable 
only  to  general  courts-martial. 

It  is  not  necessary  to  publish  the  proceedings  or  opinion  of  the  court, 
although  it  is  usually  done  in  general  orders. 

The  court  is  dissolved  by  the  authority  that  ordered  it  to  convene. 

COVERED  WAY.  A  space  between  the  counterscarp  and  the 
crest  of  the  glacis  in  permanent  works,  and  within  the  palisades,  over 
which  the  garrison  can  run  without  being  seen  or  subjected  to  the  fire 
of  the  enemy.  The  crowning  of  the  covered  way  by  the  besiegers  is  a 
difficult  operation,  and  often  costs  them  dearly. 

COWARDICE.  In  all  cases  where  a  commissioned  officer  is  ca- 
shiered for  cowardice  or  fraud,  it  shall  be  added  in  the  sentence,  that 
the  crime,  name,  and  place  of  abode  and  punishment  of  the  delinquent  be 
published  in  the  newspapers,  after  which  it  shall  be  deemed  scandalous 
for  an  officer  to  associate  with  him  ;  (ART.  85.) 

CRATER  OF  A  MINE— is  the  excavation  or  cavity  formed  in 
the  ground,  by  the  explosion  of  the  powder. 

CREMAILLERE — is  an  indented  or  zigzag  outline. 

CRENELLATED— loop-holed. 

CRIMES,  DISORDERS,  AND  NEGLECTS.  All  crimes  not  capital,  and 
all  disorders  and  neglects  which  officers  and  soldiers  may  be  guilty  of, 
to  the  prejudice  of  good  order  and  military  discipline,  though  not  men- 
tioned in  the  Articles  of  War,  are  to  be  taken  cognizance  of  by  a  general 
or  regimental  court-martial,  according  to  the  nature  and  degree  of  the 
offence,  and  be  punished  at  their  discretion  ;  (ART.  99.)  (See  AUTHOR- 
ITY, CIVIL.) 

CRIMINATE.     (See  EVIDENCE.) 

CROTCHETS— are  openings  cut  into  the  glacis  at  the  heads  of 
traverses,  to  enable  the  defenders  to  circulate  round  them.  These  pas- 
sages are  closed  by  a  gate  when  necessary. 


DAM.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  213 

CROWNING-.  A  lodgment  prepared  by  besiegers  upon  the  crest 
of  the  glacis  to  make  themselves  masters  of  the  covered  way.  It  is 
effected  usually  by  means  of  the  SAF — a  method  apparently  slow,  but 
which,  advancing  night  and  day  without  intermission,  accomplishes  great 
objects.  The  work  is  done  by  sappers  rolling  before  them  a  very  large 
gabion  stuffed  with  wool  or  cotton,  or  fascines,  to  shelter  themselves 
from  musketry.  They  fill  thus  one  gabion  after  another,  and  do  not 
push  forward  until  the  portion  of  the  trench  already  made  has  been 
well  consolidated. 

CROWN-WORK — is  a  similar  work  to  horn-work,  but  consisting 
of  two  fronts  instead  of  one.  It  is  connected  to  the  main  works  in  a 
similar  way,  and  is  used  for  the  same  purposes  as  the  horn-work. 

CROWS'  FEET — are  iron-pointed  stars,  or  stout  nails,  so  fixed 
as  to  radiate,  that  in  any  position  they  may  have  a  point  uppermost. 
They  are  strewed  on  the  ground  over  which  cavalry  may  be  expected  to 
pass.  (See  OBSTACLES.) 

CUNETTE — is  a  narrow  ditch  in  the  middle  of  a  dry  ditch,  to  keep 
it  drained,  as  well  as  to  form,  especially  when  filled  with  water,  an  ob- 
stacle to  an  enemy. 

CURTAIN.  The  curtain  is  that  part  of  the  rampart  of  the  body 
of  the  place,  which  lies  between  two  bastions,  and  which  joins  their 
two  flanks  together. 

CURTAIN  ANGLE— is  that  formed  by  the  meeting  of  the  flank 
and  the  curtain. 

CUSTOM  OF  WAR.  The  custom  of  war  in  like  cases  is  the 
common  law  of  the  army  recognized  by  Congress  in  the  69th  Article 
of  War,  as  a  rule  for  the  government  of  the  army  whenever  any  doubt 
shall  arise  not  explained  by  the  rules  and  articles  established  by  Con- 
gress for  the  government  and  regulation  of  the  army.  To  render  a  cus- 
tom valid  the  following  qualities  are  requisite : — 1.  Antiquity ;  2. 
Continuance  without  interruption  ;  3.  Have  been  acquiesced  in  without 
dispute ;  4.  It  must  be  reasonable ;  5.  Certain  ;  6.  Compulsory,  that 
is,  not  left  to  the  option  of  every  man  whether  he  will  use  it  or  not ; 
7.  Customs  must  be  consistent  with  each  other. 


D 

DAM.  An  impediment  formed  of  stones,  gravel,  and  earth,  by  which 
a  stream  of  water  is  made  to  overflow  and  inundate  the  adjacent  ground. 

DAMAGE.  The  costs  of  repairs  of  damage  done  to  arms,  equip- 
ments, or  implements,  in  the  use  of  the  armies  of  the  United  States, 


214  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [DBA. 

shall  be  deducted  from  the  pay  of  any  officer  or  soldier  in  whose  care 
or  use  the  said  arms,  equipments  or  implements  were  when  the  said 
damages  occurred  :  Provided,  the  damage  was  occasioned  by  the  abuse 
or  negligence  of  said  officer  or  soldier.  Every  officer  commanding  a 
regiment,  corps,  garrison,  or  detachment,  to  make  once  every  two 
months,  or  oftener  if  required,  a  written  report  to  the  colonel  of  ordnance 
stating  all  damages  to  arms  so  belonging  to  his  command,  and  naming 
the  officers  and  soldiers  by  whose  negligence  or  abuse  the  damages  were 
occasioned  ;  (Act  Feb.  8,  1815.) 

DEAD  ANGLE  OR  (DEAD  GROUND)— is  any  angle  or  piece 
of  ground  which  cannot  be  seen,  and  which  therefore  cannot  be  do- 
fended  from  behind  the  parapet  of  the  fortification. 

DEATH.  Sentence  of  death  may  be  rendered  by  a  general  court- 
martial  for  the  following  crimes  only  :  1.  Beginning,  exciting,  causing 
or  joining  in,  any  mutiny  or  sedition  in  any  troop  or  company  in  the 
service  of  the  United  States,  or  in  any  party,  post,  detachment,  or  guard  ; 
(ART.  7.)  2.  Being  present  at  any  mutiny  or  sedition  and  not  using  the 
utmost  endeavors  to  suppress  the  same,  or  coming  to  the  knowledge  of 
any  intended  mutiny  and  not  giving  without  delay  information  to  the 
commanding  officer ;  (ART.  8.)  3.  Striking  his  superior  officer,  or  draw- 
ing or  lifting  up  any  weapon,  or  offering  any  violence  against  him,  he 
being  in  the  execution  of  his  office,  on  any  pretence  whatsoever  ;  or  dis- 
^beying  any  lawful  command  of  his  superior  officer;  (ART.  9.)  4.  De- 
sertion in  time  of  war ;  (ART.  20  modified  by  Act  May  28,  1830.) 
5.  Advising  or  persuading  an  officer  or  soldier  to  desert  the  service ; 
(ART.  23.)  6.  Any  sentinel  found  sleeping  on  his  post,  or  leaving  it 
before  being  regularly  relieved ;  (ART.  46.)  7.  Any  officer  occasioning 
false  alarms  in  camp,  garrison,  or  quarters,  by  discharging  fire-arms, 
drawing  of  swords,  beating  of  drums,  or  by  any  other  means  whatso- 
ever ;  (ART.  49.)  8.  Doing  violence  to  any  person  who  brings  provi- 
sions or  other  necessaries  to  the  camp,  garrison,  or  quarters  of  the  forces 
of  the  United  States  employed  in  any  parts  out  of  the  said  States ;  (ART. 
51.)  9.  Misbehavior  before  the  enemy,  running  away  or  shameful 
abandonment  of  any  fort,  post,  or  guard,  which  he  may  be  commanded 
to  defend,  or  speaking  words  inducing  others  to  do  the  like ;  or  casting 
away  arms  and  ammunition,  or  quitting  his  post  or  colors  to  plunder 
and  pillage  ;  (A«T.  52.)  10.  Making  known  the  watch- word  to  any  per- 
son not  entitled  to  receive  it,  or  giving  a  parole  or  watch-word  different 
from  that  received;  (ART.  53.)  11.  Forcing  a  safe-guard  in  foreign 
parts ;  (ART.  55.)  12.  Relieving  the  enemy  with  money,  victuals  or 
ammunition  ;  or  knowingly  harboring  or  protecting  an  enemy  ;  (ART. 


DEF.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  215 

56.)  13.  Holding  correspondence  with,  or  giving  intelligence  to  the 
enemy,  either  directly  or  indirectly  ;  (ART.  57.)  14.  Compelling  their 
commanding  officer  to  give  up  to  the  enemy  or  abandon  any  garrison, 
fortress,  or  post ;  (ART.  59.)  Every  sentence  of  death  in  time  of 
peace  (in  time  of  war  it  may  be  carried  into  execution  by  the  officer  or- 
dering the  court,  or  by  the  commanding  officer)  must,  before  being  car- 
ried into  execution,  be  laid  before  the  President  of  the  United  States 
for  his  confirmation  or  disapproval  and  orders  in  the  case ;  and  no  one 
can  be  sentenced  to  suffer  death,  except  by  the  concurrence  of  two- 
thirds  of  the  members  of  the  court-martial,  nor  except  in  cases  ex- 
pressly mentioned  ;  (ARTS.  65  and  87.) 

DEBLAI — is  the  quantity  of  earth  excavated  from  the  ditch  to  form 
the  remblai.  Under  ordinary  circumstances  the  one  is  equal  to  the 
other,  but  not  always  ;  as,  from  the  nature  of  the  soil,  earth  may  have 
to  be  brought  to  supply  the  remblai. 

DEBT.  All  nori-commissioned  officers,  artificers,  privates,  and 
musicians  enlisted  in  the  actual  service  of  the  United  States  are  ex- 
empted, during  their  term  of  service,  from  all  personal  arrests  for  any 
debt  or  contract ;  (Act  March  3,  1799.)  No  non-commissioned  officer, 
musician,  or  private  shall  be  arrested  or  subject  to  arrest,  or  be  taken 
in  execution  for  any  debt  under  the  sum  of  twenty  dollars,  contracted 
before  enlistment,  nor  for  any  debt  contracted  after  enlistment ;  (Act 
March  16,  1802.)  « 

DECEASED  OFFICERS  AND  SOLDIERS.  The  major  of 
the  regiment  or,  in  his  absence,  the  second  in  command,  secures  the  effects 
of  an  officer,  and  transmits  an  inventory  to  the  department  of  war,  that 
his  executor  or  administrators  may  receive  the  same ;  (ART.  94.)  In 
the  case  of  a  soldier,  the  commanding  officer  of  the  troop  or  company, 
in  presence  of  two  other  officers,  takes  an  account  of  the  effects  he  died 
possessed  of,  and  transmits  the  same  to  the  department  of  war,  which 
said  effects  are  to  be  accounted  for  and  paid  to  the  representatives  of 
such  deceased  non-commissioned  officer  or  soldier ;  (ART.  95.) 

DECISIONS.  On  courts-martial  the  majority  of  votes  decides  all 
questions  as  to  the  admission  or  rejection  of  evidence,  and  on  other  points 
involving  law  or  custom.  If  equally  divided,  the  doubt  is  in  favor  of 
the  prisoner  ;  (HOUGH'S  Military  Law  Authorities.) 

DEFAULTERS.  If  any  officer  employed  or  who  has  heretofore 
been  employed  in  the  civil,  military,  or  naval  departments  of  the  Govern- 
ment, to  disburse  the  public  money  appropriated  for  the  service  of  those 
departments  respectively,  shall  fail  to  render  his  account  or  pay  over, 
in  the  manner  and  in  the  times  required  by  law,  or  the  regulations  of 


216  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [DBF. 

the  department  to  which  he  is  accountable,  any  sum  of  money  remain- 
ing in  the  hands  of  such  officer,  the  1st  or  2d  comptroller  of  the  treasury, 
as  the  case  may  be,  shall  cause  to  be  stated  and  certify  the  account  of 
such  delinquent  officer  to  the  solicitor  of  the  treasury,  who  shall  im- 
mediately proceed  to  issue  a  warrant  of  distress  against  such  delinquent 
officer  and  his  sureties,  directed  to  the  marshal  or  marshals  of  the  district 
or  districts  where  they  reside  ;  and  the  marshal  shall  proceed  to  levy 
and  collect  the  sum  remaining  due  by  distress  and  sale  of  goods  and  chat- 
tels of  such  delinquent  officer ;  and,  if  the  goods  are  not  sufficient,  the 
same  may  be  levied  upon  the  person  of  such  officer,  who  may  be  com- 
mitted to  prison,  there  to  remain  until  discharged  by  due  course  of  law. 
But  the  solicitor  of  the  treasury,  with  the  approbation  of  the  secretary 
of  the  treasury,  may  postpone  for  a  reasonable  time  such  proceedings 
where,  in  his  opinion,  the  public  interest  will  sustain  no  injury  by  such 
postponement.  If  any  person  shall  consider  himself  aggrieved  by  any 
warrant  issued  as  above,  he  may  prefer  a  bill  of  complaint  to  any 
district  judge  of  the  United  States,  and  thereupon  the  judge  may,  if  in 
his  opinion  the  case  requires  it,  grant  an  injunction  to  stay  proceed- 
ings. If  any  person  shall  consider  himself  aggrieved  by  the  decision  of 
such  judge  either  in  refusing  to  issue  the  injunction,  or,  if  granted,  on  its 
dissolution,  such  person  may  lay  a  copy  of  the  proceedings  had  before 
the  district  j udge,  before  a  judge  of  the  supreme  court,  who  may  either 
grant  the  injunction,  or  permit  an  appeal,  as  the  case  may  be,  if,  in  his 
opinion,  the  equity  of  the  case  requires  it;  (Act  May  15,  1820.)  The 
judgment  on  a  warrant  of  distress  under  this  act,  and  the  proceedings 
under  the  judgment,  are  a  bar  to  any  subsequent  action  for  the  same 
cause.  U.  S.  v.  Nourse,  9  Peters  8.  (See  DELINQUENT.)  No  money 
hereafter  appropriated  shall  be  paid  to  any  person  for  his  compensation, 
who  is  in  arrears  to  the  U.  S.,  until  such  person  shall  have  accounted 
for  and  paid  into  the  treasury,  all  sums  for  wrhich  he  may  be  liable ; 
provided,  that  nothing  herein  contained  shall  be  construed  to  extend  to 
balances  arising  solely  from  depreciation  of  treasury  notes  received  by 
such  person,  to  be  expended  in  the  public  service ;  but  in  all  cases 
where  the  pay  or  salary  of  any  person  is  withheld,  in  pursuance  of  this 
act,  it  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  accounting  officers,  if  demanded  by  the 
party,  his  agent  or  attorney,  to  report,  forthwith,  to  the  agent  of  the 
treasury  department  the  balance  due ;  and  it  shall  be  the  duty  of  the 
said  agent,  within  sixty  days  thereafter,  to  order  suit  to  be  commenced 
against  such  delinquent  and  his  sureties  ;  ( Act  January  25,  1828.)  (See 
REMEDY;  STOPPAGE  OF  PAY.) 

DEFENCE  (COAST).     Possible  causes  and  objects  of  attack  may  be 


DEF.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  217 

conquest  or  the  destruction  of  commercial  ports  of  more  or  less  value ; 
the  possession  of  depots ;  the  destruction  of  naval  docks ;  or  taking 
advantage  of  the  weakness  or  absence  of  troops,  to  levy  contributions. 
The  parapets  of  all  coast  and  harbor  defences  should  be  constructed  of 
earth,  where  favorable  sites  can  be  found ;  but  for  low  sites  that  can 
be  approached  within  grape-shot  range,  such  batteries  must  give  place 
to  masonry  defences,  and  where  masonry-casemated  castles  with  three 
tiers  of  guns  in  casemates,  and  with  guns  and  mortars  on  the  roofs  are 
resorted  to,  embrasures  of  wrought  iron,  like  the  model  embrasures  of 
Fort  Richmond,  New  York  harbor,  will  be  found  applicable.  With 
such  batteries  well  constructed,  the  direct  fire  of  ships  has  little  effect. 
Movable  columns  of  troops  in  numbers,  depending  on  the  probable 
object  of  the  enemy,  must  be  held  in  some  central  position.  If  rail- 
roads are  to  convey  the  troops,  a  central  point  within  a  radius  of  sixty 
miles  will  be  within  good  supporting  distance.  If  railroads  are  not 
relied  on,  the  distance  should  not  be  greater  than  fifteen  miles.  The 
columns  should  be  at  least  seven-tenths  infantry,  one-tenth  cavalry,  and 
two-tenths  field  artillery.  The  latter  being  useful  to  oppose  the  de- 
barcation  of  troops.  The  French  charge  both  the  fleet  and  the  army 
with  the  movable  defence  of  coasts.  Steamers  and  flotillas,  armed 
with  howitzers,  are  particularly  suited  to  that  object.  Corps  of  troops 
assembled  at  some  central  position  are  held  ready  to  be  thrown  upon  a 
threatened  point.  Batteries  of  howitzers  give  their  aid  to  these  corps. 
Concerted  signals  are  arranged. 

The  ordinance  of  Jan.  8,  1843,  directs  that  in  military  ports  the 
naval  forces  shall  be  specially  charged,  under  the  orders  of  the  com- 
manding officer  of  the  land  forces,  with  the  armament,  service,  and 
guard  of  the  batteries  looking  directly  upon  the  harbors,  and  upon  in- 
terior roadsteads  adjacent  to  these  harbors,  as  well  as  upon  the  passes 
conducting  to  these  interior  roadsteads.  Whenever  the  works  to  which 
those  batteries  belong  do  not  form  a  principal  part  of  the  system  of 
defence  on  the  land  side  of  the  place  and  its  dependencies,  the  per- 
sonnel of  the  permanent  batteries  intrusted  to  the  land  forces  is  fur- 
nished from  the  artillery,  by  other  troops,  by  the  national  guard,  by 
revenue  service  men,  or  by  ancient  cannoneers  taken  from  the  coast 
population,  at  the  rate  of  five  men  to  a  gun,  one  of  whom  must  be  an 
experienced  gunner.  The  permanent  works  for  defence  are  divided 
into  three  classes,  according  to  their  importance :  1st  Class.  Works 
for  the  defence  of  military  harbors,  large  commercial  harbors,  and  the 
principal  points  of  islands.  These  fortifications  are  composed  of  exte- 
rior forts,  capable  of  resisting  regular  attacks,  obstructing  bombard- 


218  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [DBF. 

merits,  &c.  2d  Class.  Works  which  protect  anchorages  and  channels 
suited  to  ships  of  war.  They  consist  of  a  system  of  forts  or  batteries 
tying  them  to  the  place.  3d  Class.  Works  defending  small  commer- 
cial ports,  anchorages  suited  to  merchantmen,  places  of  refuge  for  coast- 
ing vessels.  These  consist  of  batteries  with  redoubts. 

This  classification  regulates  the  supply  of  the  batteries,  but  does  not 
determine  absolutely  their  armament.  This  must  be  regulated  by 
various  circumstances,  as  must  also  the  relative  strength  of  the  re- 
doubts. The  armament  of  batteries  is  regulated  by  the  strength  of  the 
ships  they  may  have  to  repel,  and  the  latter  depend  upon  the  nature 
of  the  coast,  and  principally  upon  the  depth  of  water.  32-pounder  guns 
and  8-inch  howitzers  are  employed  against  ships  atf  a  distance  of  2,600 
yards.  Guns  begin  the  fire  with  round  shot ;  the  fire  is  continued  with 
hollow  shot.  13-inch  mortars,  whose  range  extends  to  4,300  yards, 
are  reserved  for  the  ships  at  anchor.  Experience  has  proved  that  a 
battery  of  four  pieces  of  heavy  calibre  has  the  advantage  of  a  ship  of 
120  guns.  Projectiles  ricochet  better  upon  the  water  than  upon  the 
land,  and  lose  less  of  their  force ;  they  can,  after  having  ricoched  at 
1,300  yards,  pass  through  the  sides  of  a  three-decked  ship.  Hollow 
projectiles  penetrate  the  sides  underneath  the  water  line,  and  open 
large  water  holes  by  their  explosion. 

The  number  of  24  and  32-pound  shot  that  timber  ships  have  re- 
ceived in  their  sides  without  being  disabled,  ought  perhaps  to  have 
caused  their  relinquishment  in  the  armament  of  coast  batteries  in  Eu- 
rope. With  James'  projectile  (See  RIFLED  ORDNANCE)  such  guns, 
when  rifled,  will  again  play  an  important  part  in  defence.  In  the 
United  States,  such  guns  have  been  replaced  by  larger  guns.  Even 
the  42-pounder,  retained  of  late  years  only  as  a  hot-shot  gun,  may  soon 
give  way  to  8  and  10-inch  columbiads  capable  of  being  used  as  shell  or 
shot  guns ;  adding  also,  when  necessary,  Rodman's  15-inch  columbiad, 
which,  with  shells  of  from  305  to  41 0  Ibs.,  might  with  a  single  missile 
disable,  if  not  entirely  destroy  the  vessel  at  which  it  was  directed  with 
6°  elevation,  when  2,000  yards  distant.  In  many  trials  at  that  distance 
the  lateral  deviations  were  only  from  1  to  5  yards,  and  the  time  of 
flight  6£  to  7  seconds.  With  28°  35X  elevation,  and  a  charge  of  40 
Ibs.,  the  range  of  the  shell  is  from  5,435  to  5,730  yards,  and  time  of 
flight  27  seconds. 

The  height  to%be  given  the  battery  above  the  level  of  the  sea  is 
from  11  to  16  yards.  To  fire  at  point  blank:  if  the  aim  is  a  little 
lower  the  ricochet  brings  it  upon  the  ship.  Red-hvt  shot  may  be 
fired  from  columbiads.  If  engaged  with  many  ships,  direct  all  the 


DEF.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  2 ID 

pieces  of  the  battery  upon  that  one  most  in  range.  Learn  exactly  tho 
distances  of  all  the  most  remarkable  points,  and  post  the  information 
in  the  store-room  and  guard-room,  in  order  that  the  distance  of 
vessels  may  be  easily  determined.  Observe  the  ricochets  upon  the 
water.  Fire  round  shot  upon  disembarkations.  Guard  carefully 
against  surprises.  Observe  every  thing  going  on  at  sea  and  on  land. 
Be  attentive  to  all  signals.  Watch  over  the  preservation  of  material 
with  care ;  air  the  magazine  in  dry  weather ;  move  the  gun  carriages 
every  day.  It  is  important  that  a  battery  should  have  the  elevation 
above  given.  With  that  elevation  it  will  not  be  exposed  to  ricochet 
shot  from  ships,  but  the  ricochets  from  the  battery,  losing  but  little 
of  their  force  upon  the  water,  will  enable  even  24-pounder  shots,  fired 
under  four  degrees,  to  pierce  the  side  of  a  vessel,  however  strong  it  may 
be,  at  a  distance  of  640  yards  and  more.  It  is  important  to  direct  a 
heavy  fire  on  ships  before  anchoring,  especially  upon  the  rigging,  as 
the  loss  of  a  spar  and  a  few  ropes  may  oblige  them  to  anchor  where  it 
is  not  intended,  and  thus  derange  the  other  ships.  In  the  formation  of 
batteries,  regard  should  be  had  to  the  probable  number  of  men  that 
may  be  obtained  to  serve  them.  In  the  defence  of  coasts,  booms  are 
essential  either  to  bar  access  to  a  harbor  or  river,  or  to  cut  off  the  re- 
treat of  the  enemy  if  an  entrance  has  been  effected  by  surprise.  Booms 
should  be  immediately  under  the  fire  of  a  battery,  and  are  usually  made 
of  heavy  chains  floated  by  logs.  It  is  unsafe  to  trust  to  a  single  line 
of  booms  in  the  main  channel.  Booms  need  not  extend  entirely  across 
an  entrance.  Shallow  or  otherwise  inaccessible  parts  may  be  omitted, 
and  in  order  not  to  impede  navigation  unnecessarily,  100  yards  of 
boom  may  be  withdrawn  from  the  channel,  but  always  kept  ready  for 
replacing  ;  (Aide  Memoire  a  V  Usage  d*  Artillerie,  d*c.) 

DEFENCE,  BEFORE  A  COURT-MARTIAL.  In  point  both  of  law  and 
reason,  a  court-martial  has  as  much  power  over  the  evidence  introduced 
by  the  prisoner  as  over  that  of  the  prosecutor,  and  can  reject  the  wit- 
nesses of  the  one  as  well  as  the  other,  or  any  part  of  such  witnesses' 
testimony.  Courts-martial  are  particularly  guarded  in  adhering  to  the 
custom  which  obtains,  of  resisting  every  attempt  on  the  part  of  counsel 
to  address  them  ;  but  cases  have  occurred,  in  which  professional  gentle- 
men in  attendance  have  been  permitted  to  read  the  defence  prepared 
for  the  prisoner.  A  court  will  prevent  a  prisoner  from  adverting  to 
parties  not  before  the  court,  or  only  alluded  to  in  evidence,  further  than 
may  be  actually  necessary.  All  coarse  and  insulting  language  should 
be  avoided,  in  any  part  of  the  defence ;  (HOUGH'S  Law  Authorities.) 

DEFENCE,  (NATIONAL.)      This   subject  is    much    associated,  in 


220  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [DBF. 

the  popular  mind,,  with  ships,  forts,  and  the  preparation  and  proper 
distribution  of  all  munitions  of  war ;  but  important  as  they  are,  it  is 
not  here  proposed  to  discuss  those  questions.  It  is  not  necessary  to 
combat  an  idea  which  all  history  controverts,  that  a  large  naval  force 
will  ever  be  able,  by  cruising  in  front  of  our  extended  coast,  to  prevent 
a  hostile  expedition  from  landing  on  our  shores.*  The  reluctant  ad- 
mission of,  the  historian  Alison  may  be  accepted,  that  in  the  face  of 
greatly  superior  maritime  forces,  Ireland  was,  for  sixteen  days,  in  1796, 
at  the  mercy  of  Hoche's  expedition  of  25,000  men,  and  neither  the 
skill  of  English  sailors,  nor  the  valor  of  English  armies,  but  the  fury 
of  the  elements,  saved  them  from  the  danger.  "  While  these  consider- 
ations," continues  Alison,  "  are  fitted  to  abate  confidence  in  invasion, 
they  are,  at  the  same  time,  calculated  to  weaken  an  overweening  con- 
fidence in  naval  superiority,  and  to  demonstrate  that  the  only  base  on 
which  certain  reliance  can  be  placed,  even  by  an  insular  power,  is  a  well- 
disciplined  army  and  (he  patriotism  of  its  own  subjects. 

Nor  is  it  necessary  to  waste  argument  on  the  exploded  idea  that 
ships  can  contend  with  forts.  \  The  results  of  such  contests  in  our 
country,  at  Fort  Moultrie,  Mobile  Point,  Stonington,  and  Fort 
M'Henry,  abundantly  show  that  our  sea-board  defences,  if  completed 
under  the  supervision  of  our  able  engineers,  and  properly  garrisoned, 
will  resist,  successfully,  any  merely  naval  aggressions,  and  it  has  been 
well  said  that  in  the  British  and  French  naval  attack  on  Sebastopol, 
(Oct.  17,  1854,)  the  final  experiment  of  wooden  ships  against  granite 
and  earthen  walls  was  made,  never  we  believe  again  to  be  repeated,  un- 
til iron  clad-ships  range  up  in  line  of  battle  ;  (See  IRON  PLATES.)  But 
the  Crimean  war  did  show  with  what  facility  large  armies  are  transported 
by  water,  and  it  conclusively  proves  that  the  great  maritime  powers  will 
look  to  their  armies  to  accomplish  in  future  wars  what  it  would  be  idle 
to  expect  from  a  navy  alone,  and  that  by  the  organization  of  forces 
"  fitted  to  bring  into  action  the  physical  strength  of  the  country  with  a 
competent  knowledge  of  their  duty  and  just  ideas  of  discipline  and  sub- 
ordination, "J  such  armies  must  be  met.  The  means  here  proposed  to 
accomplish  this  great  object  will  leave  unchanged  the  present  militia 
laws  of  the  Union,  but  an  effort  will  be  made  to  show  in  what  manner 

*  For  a  sketch  of  the  principal  maritime  expeditions,  see  Jomini's  Art  of  War,  translated  by 
Major  Winship  and  Lieut.  McLain.  See  also  the  report  of  a  board  of  officers  submitted  at  the 
first  session  of  the  26th  Congress  (Doc.  45),  containing  numerous  illustrations  from  history,  show- 
ing the  impracticability  of  covering  even  a  small  extent  of  coast  by  cruising  in  front  of  it. 

t  The  subject  is  ably  discussed  in  "Halleck's  Military  Art  and  Science,"  under  the  head  of 
"  Sea  Coast  Defences." 

%  Eeport  of  Gen.  Cass,  while  Secretary  of  War,  on  National  Defence. 


DBF.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  221 

existing  institutions  may  be  applied  to  the  great  purpose  in  view,  by 
a  simple  enactment  granting  to  the  States,  in  the  words  of  the  Consti- 
tution, the  consent  of  Congress  "  to  keep  troops." 

Francis  Lord  Bacon  has  wisely  said  that  "  the  principal  point  of 
greatness  in  any  state  is  to  have  a  race  of  military  men ; "  and  else- 
where, in  his  enumeration  of  the  elements  of  true  greatness  in  a  state, 
he  writes  :  "  that  it  consisteth  also  in  the  value  and  military  disposition 
of  the  people  it  breedeth,  and  in  this  that  they  make  profession  of  arms. 
And  it  consisteth  also  in  the  commandment  of  the  sea."  But  he 
writes  :  "  In  the  measuring  or  balancing  of  greatness,  there  is  commonly 
too  much  ascribed  to  largeness  of  territory,  to  treasure  or  riches,  to 
the  fruitfulness  of  the  soil  or  affluence  of  commodities,  .and  to  the 
strength  and  fortification  of  towns  and  holds."  What  was  made  evi- 
dent to  Bacon  by  the  lore  of  ages  is  equally  true  now.  If  we,  as  a 
people,  neglect  our  military  resources,  do  not  foster  the  military  spirit 
of  the  people,  but  on  the  contrary  disregard  military  merit,  and  even 
neglect  to  honor  and  reward  great  military  services  rendered  to  the 
state,  we  cannot  breed  a  race  of  military  men,  and  are  in  danger  of 
verifying  the  assertion  of  de  Tocqueville,  in  his  Observations  upon  De- 
mocracy in  America,  that  "  the  military  career  was  little  honored  and 
badly  followed  in  time  of  peace."  *  *  *  That  "  this  public  disfavor 
is  a  very  heavy  burden,  which  bows  down  all  military  spirit,"  and  that 
if  such  a  people  should  undertake  "  a  war  after  a  long  peace,  they  would 
run  a  much  greater  risk  than  any  other  people  of  being  beaten." 

The  existing  institutions  which  may  be  used  as  aids  in  organizing  a 
system  of  National  Defence  are  the  Military  Academy,  the  army  of  the 
United  States,  and  the  militia  of  the  States.  The  Military  Academy  is 
already  in  successful  operation.  The  first  step,  then,  towards  proper 
State  organizations  should  be  to  give  attention  to  the  regular  army — to 
make  it,  in  fact,  an  aid  or  staff  for  the  perfect  development  of  the  physi- 
cal strength  of  the  country.  To  do  this,  a  system  of  recruiting  is 
needed  in  harmony  with  our  institutions  and  the  manner  in  which  all 
militia  force  must  be  collected.  It  is  the  several  States  which  furnish 
the  militia  force ;  let  the  regular  army,  therefore,  be  recruited  by  States. 
Let  every  regiment  have  its  depot  in  a  particular  district  of  country, 
and,  with  the  present  rate  of  pay  given  to  the  non-commissioned  officers 
and  privates,  with  the  reward  of  promotion  from  the  ranks  bestowed 
whenever  merited,  we  should  soon  have  an  army,  in  the  different 
parts  of  which  the  various  sections  of  the  country  would  take  a  lively 
interest.  In  an  army  thus  collected,  which  offered  a  career  worthy  of 
being  sought,  an  esprit- de-corps  would  soon  be  developed  which  we  may 


222  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [DBF. 

in  vain  seek  in  our  present  establishment,  and  such  an  army,  instead 
of  being  regarded  by  their  countrymen  as  strangers  in  sympathy  and 
pursuit,  might  be  made  the  nucleus  of  science  and  strength,  around 
which  the  mental  and  physical  force  of  the  country  could  be  con- 
centrated in  war.  To  accomplish  this  great  object,  other  changes  are 
also  necessary,  but  much  lies  within  the  discretion  of  the  President,  and 
upon  his  recommendation  it  is  not  doubted  that  Congress  will  legislate 
where  legislation  is  required. 

If  the  idea  be  just  that  the  skeleton  regular  establishment  is  main- 
tained  in  peace,  as  a  nucleus  to  be  expanded  in  war,  to  meet  the  wants 
of  the  country,  the  President  should  be  careful  not  so  to  distribute  that 
force  as  to  make  this  great  purpose  unattainable  or  difficult  when  war 
may  impend.  If  it  be  possible  so  to  locate  the  troops  as  to  give  them 
all  possible  instruction,  and,  at  the  same  time,  not  neglect  our  Indian 
frontiers,  the  latter  object  should  not  be  suffered  to  override  that  other 
most  paramount  consideration. 

Look  at  any  map  of  the  United  States,  and  attempt  for  a  moment 
to  realize  the  vast  extent  of  our  possessions.  Bring  your  mind  back 
to  the  period  when  railroads  did  not  afford  those  facilities  which  we 
now  have,  in  a  portion  of  our  country,  for  quickly  passing  over  hun- 
dreds of  miles,  and  you  may  no  longer  consider  that  military  posts  in 
Texas,  New  Mexico,  California,  Oregon,  &c.,  and  on  the  routes  to  those 
distant  States  and  Territories,  have  such  means  of  communication  as 
would  enable  us  to  bring  together  any  respectable  force  in  a  short 
period.  Bear  in  mind  that  the  whole  army  of  the  United  States  con- 
sists of  but  one  hundred  and  ninety-eight  companies,  and  that  these 
companies  are  scattered  in  posts  which  dot  our  immense  territory. 
Realize  this,  and  then  answer,  is  it  possible  for  the  small  number  of 
troops  thus  stationed  to  prevent  marauding  parties  of  Indians  from 
passing  between  these  posts  and  committing  depredations  either  in 
Mexico  or  upon  our  own  people  1  No  candid  inquirer  will  assert  the 
possibility  !  What,  then,  is  remedy  ?  Settlers  upon  our  Indian  fron- 
tiers must  be  provided  with  arms  ;  and  the  United  States  Government, 
besides  encouraging  Indians  to  engage  in  agriculture  and  other  arts  of 
peace,  must  hold  tribes  responsible  for  the  acts  of  individuals.  Where 
predatory  bands  of  Indians  have  been  known  to  proceed  against  Mex- 
ico or  our  own  people,  the  tribe  must  be  made  answerable,  and  no  vain 
pursuit  be  made  after  the  marauding  party.  We  must  severely  chastise 
.••such  tribes,  and  make  them  understand  that  the  United  States  require 
head  men  to  govern  and  control  their  young  men.  That,  for  the  acts 
of  any  individuals  of  the  tribe,  we  will  not  fail,  in  any  instance,  to  pun' 


DBF.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  223 

ish  the  tribe  for  such  predatory  acts.  An  occasional  campaign  made 
against  Indians  to  punish  them  for  misdeeds,  produces  lasting  effects, 
and  will  always  prove  far  more  efficacious  in  guarding  the  lives  and 
property  of  our  citizens,  than  the  present  system  of  small  posts,  which, 
by  the  impunity  they  afford,  only  encourages  a  spirit  of  adventure  in 
Indian  tribes.  Another  advantage  in  breaking  up  the  present  vicious 
system  of  small  posts,  would  be  the  establishment  of  schools  of  instruc- 
tion for  cavalry,  Artillery,  engineers,  and  infantry.  We  now  have  a 
preparatory  school  for  the  cultivation  of  military  science,  at  West 
Point ;  but,  if  officers  of  the  army,  after  graduating  there,  are  left 
without  means  or  motives  for  improvement,  and  on  remote  stations 
suffer  their  minds  to  degenerate  from  want  of  exercise  and  competition, 
the  Military  Academy  will  have  accomplished  but  very  partially  the 
great  object  of  its  institution.  If  the  army  is  to  be  made  the  rallying 
point  and  instructor  of  our  countrymen  in  war,  it  should  keep  pace  with 
the  improvements  made  in  Europe,  and  this  can  only  be  done  by  as- 
sembling the  engineers,  and  the  three  arms  of  the  service,  together,  in 
schools  of  practice.  Let  those  schools  of  practice  be  properly  located  : 
and,  besides,  the  great  results  thus  to  be  obtained  by  embodying  the 
troops,  detachments  could  at  any  time  be  sent  to  strike  and  punish 
tribes  of  Indians  that  failed  to  keep  the  peace.  With  one  large  detach- 
ment on  the  Atlantic  coast ;  another  at  Jefferson  barracks  ;  a  third  in 
New  Mexico,  and  a  fourth  on  the  Pacific,  the  army  might  be  kept  in  a 
high  state  of  discipline  and  efficiency,  and  soon  made,  by  legislation,  all 
that  it  should  be.  With  an  army  so  established,  it  would  be  apparent 
that  all  officers  should  be  active,  intelligent,  and  progressive.  A  retired 
list  should  provide  for  veterans,  and  proper  legislation  would  enable 
commanding  officers  to  appoint  their  own  staff  officers,  in  recognition 
of  the  established  principle  that  such  officers  are  the  assistants  of  com- 
manders of  troops.  Such  a  change  would  be  necessary  to  insure  the 
just  responsibility  of  commanding  officers,  as  well  as  proper  instruc- 
tion by  alternation  of  duty  in  the  line  and  staff;  and  by  instituting  a 
rigid  system  of  inspection,  which  would  inform  the  general-in-chief  and 
Secretary  of  War  of  the  legitimacy  of  the  acts  of  all  commanders,  de- 
fects of  organization,  errors  of  administration,  and  pernicious  customs 
of  service  would  be  made  known  and  corrected  by  the  Executive  and 
Congress. 

General  Orders,  No.  17,  of  1854,  contain  very  well-considered  reg- 
ulations for  carrying  into  effect  the  5th  section  of  the  Act  of  Congress 
of  August  4,  1854,  relative  to  the  promotion  of  non-commissioned 
officers.  Let  us  now  abandon  a  system  of  recruiting,  which  burdens 


224  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [DEF. 

the  army  with  the  scum  of  cities,  and  promotion  from  the  ranks  would 
follow  as  regularly  as  from  a  lower  to  a  higher  grade  of  commissions. 
In  a  republican  army  caste  should  not  exist,  and  it  will  help  to  break 
down  that  distinction  now  dividing  officers  and  solders,  leaving  only 
the  necessary  difference  in  grades  from  private  to  general,  if  the  army 
should  be  recruited  by  means  of  regimental  recruiting  depots  so  located, 
that  different  States  shall  consider  different  regiments  as  raised  within 
their  respective  limits. 

Our  army  organized  and  collected,  as  herein  recommended,  could 
easily,  on  the  approach  of  war,  by  the  addition  to  each  regiment  of  two 
battalions,  and  by  increasing  the  number  of  privates  in  a  company,  be 
made  fifty  thousand  strong,  and  this  federal  force,  organized,  as  it  would 
be,  in  harmony  with  State  troops,  would  constantly  have  kept  pace 
with  the  advance  of  professional  knowledge  in  Europe,  and  be  capable 
of  diffusing  that  knowledge  throughout  the  country  by  means  of  the 
respective  State  organizations  to  be  now  considered. 

If  the  first  French  revolution  did  not  inaugurate  the  ideas  of  liberty 
and  equality,  it  at  least  first  inculcated  by  practice  the  correlative  duty 
of  every  citizen  to  defend  his  country.  Accustomed  as  Americans 
are  to  borrow  ideas  from  the  English  press,  it  is  not  remarkable  that 
the  outcry  made  by  that  aristocratic  community  against  French  con- 
scription should  have  been  echoed  in  our  own  country.  But  in  the 
language  of  General  Knox,  "  It  is  the  wisdom  of  political  establishments 
to  make  the  wealth  of  individuals  subservient  to  the  general  good,  and 
not  to  suffer  it  to  corrupt  or  attain  undue  indulgence.  Every  State 
possesses  not  only  the  right  of  personal  service  from  its  members,  but 
the  right  to  regulate  the  service  on  principles  of  equality  for  the  gen- 
eral defence.  If  people,  solicitous  to  be  exonerated  from  their  propor- 
tion of  public  duty,  exclaim  against  the  only  reliable  means  of  defence, 
as  an  intolerable  hardship,  it  cannot  be  too  strongly  impressed  upon 
them,  that  while  society  has  its  charms,  it  also  has  its  indispensable 
obligations.  That  to  attempt  such  a  degree  of  refinement  as  to  exon- 
erate the  members  of  the  community  from  all  personal  service,  is  to 
render  them  incapable  of  the  exercise  and  unworthy  of  the  characters 
of  freemen." 

Let  us,  then,  no  longer  permit  the  marvels  of  industry  in  which  our 
countrymen  have  been  eminently  successful,  so  far  to  dazzle  us.  as  to 
make  us  forget  the  lessons  of  past  history.  The  Italian  republics  of 
the  Middle  Ages  had  made  great  strides  in  industry  and  the  arts.  The 
republic  of  the  United  Netherlands  was  enriched  by  commerce  in  the 
time  of  De  Witt.  But  it  has  been  well  said,  that  in  bending  their 


DEF.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  225 

whole  energies  to  the  attainment  of  riches,  and  neglecting  their  military 
resources,  Italy  became  the  prey  of  foreigners,  and  Holland  only  se- 
cured national  independence  by  the  sacrifice  of  political  liberty. 

The  history  of  modern  tactics  proves  "  that  preparation  in  peace 
gives  victory  upon  fields  of  battle."  The  mobility  of  troops,  as  now 
organized,  armed,  and  instructed  ;  the  quantity,  and  still  more  the  kind 
of  artillery  used,  render  a  passive  resistance,  such  as  that  formerly 
made,  impossible.  The  impossibility  of  resisting  attacks  by  such  means 
causes  the  defence  to  seize  the  moment  in  which  the  attacking  party 
uncovers  himself  to  resort  to  the  offensive,  and  hence  the  issue  is  now 
more  quickly  decided,  and  conquest  more  rapid  than  it  was  a  hundred 
years  ago.  The  ease  with  which  large  bodies  of  men  are  now  trans- 
ported, the  rapidity  of  all  preparatory  manoeuvres,  as  well  as  the 
greatly  increased  mobility  in  action  of  instructed  troops,  admits  of  the 
ready  concentration  of  great  numbers  of  such  men,  without  the  machine 
becoming  too  heavy  or  unmanageable,  or  its  component  parts  losing 
the  sentiment  of  order.  It  therefore  follows  that  the  loss  of  a  battle, 
in  consequence  of  the  numbers  engaged,  is  now  much  more  important 
than  it  formerly  was,  and  that  such  loss  resulting  from  incapacity  to 
manoeuvre,  or  want  of  discipline,  may  involve  the  most  disastrous  con- 
sequences. If  the  people  of  the  United  States  suppose  that  the  facilities 
which  our  railroads  offer  enable  us  to  concentrate  larger  masses  of  men 
in  a  short  period,  the  answer  must  be  made  that  DISCIPLINE  is  the  soul 
of  an  army,  and  that  without  the  habit  of  obedience,  an  assemblage  of 
men  in  battle  can  never  be  more  than  a  panic-stricken  mob.  Instances 
in  our  own  history  are  not  rare  to  verify  this  truth.  The  fields  of 
Princeton,  Savannah  River,  Camden,  Guilford  Court-House,  &c.,  dur- 
ing our  Revolutionary  War,  not  to  speak  of  later  disasters,  amply 
sustain  the  declaration  of  Washington,  that  such  undisciplined  forces 
are  nothing  more  than  a  "  destructive,  expensive,  and  disorderly  77206." 
"  When  danger  is  a  little  removed  from  them,  they  will  not  turn  out 
at  all.  When  it  comes  home  to  them,  the  well-affected,  instead  of  fly- 
ing to  arms  to  defend  themselves,  are  busily  employed  in  removing 
their  families  and  effects  ;  while  the  disaffected  are  concerting  measures 
to  make  their  submission,  and  spread  terror  and  dismay  all  around,  to 
induce  others  to  follow  their  example.  Daily  experience  and  abundant 
proofs  warrant  this  information.  Short  enlistments  and  a  mistaken 
dependence  upon  our  militia,  have  been  the  origin  of  all  our  misfor- 
tunes, and  the  great  accumulation  of  our  debt.  The  militia  come  in, 
you  cannot  tell  how ;  go,  you  cannot  tell  when ;  and  act,  you  cannot 
tell  where ;  consume  your  provisions,  exhaust  your  stores,  and  leave 
15 


226  MILITARY  DICTIONARY. 

you  at  last  at  a  critical  moment."  Such  facts,  bringing  fearfully  homo 
to  us  the  contrast  between  indiscipline  and  discipline,  it  is  hoped, 
may  yet  cause  our  countrymen  to  heed  the  admonition  of  the  Father 
of  his  country,  that  "  In  peace  we  must  prepare  for  war."  Let  us  not 
deceive  ourselves  by  supposing  that,  when  danger  becomes  imminent, 
Congress  will  take  the  necessary  measures  to  meet  it.  The  steps  which 
are  necessary  call  for  sacrifices  from  the  people,  and  unless  public 
opinion  sanctions  the  means,  Congress,  in  the  day  of  trial,  will  always 
be  found  to  represent  misdirected  popular  opinions. 

The  veteran,  Mr.  Gales,  in  the  National  Intelligencer  on  the  occa- 
sion of  the  death  of  Mrs.  Madison,  gave  a  picture  of  the  inertness  of  the 
last  session  of  the  War  Congress  of  1814—15.  His  recollections  of  the 
past  furnish  instructive  lessons  of  what  we  may  expect  in  the  future, 
if  the  attention  of  the  people  of  the  United  States  be  not  fixed  on  the 
necessary  sacrifices  which  love  of  country  demands.  So  believing,  ex- 
tracts from  his  historical  sketch  are  here  quoted  in  the  firm  persuasion 
that  the  measures,  then  recommended,  arc  essential  to  the  safety  of  our 
cities  and  towns,  if  some  organization  by  States,  at  least,  as  efficient  as 
the  militia  scheme  recommended  by  General  Knox,  with  the  sanction 
of  General  Washington,  be  not  adopted  in  time  of  peace  when  a  ma- 
tured scheme  may  be  well  digested.  Mr.  Gales  writes  :  "  Congress 
had  assembled  on  the  19th  of  September  preceding — not,  as  might  be 
supposed  from  the  date,  in  consequence  of  the  then  recent  capture  of 
the  city  [of  Washington]  by  the  enemy,  but  in  pursuance  of  a  requisi- 
tion by  the  President  anterior  to  that  event,  calling  Congress  together 
(as  the  President  informed  the  two  Houses,  in  his  message  at  the 
opening  of  that  session)  for  the  purpose  of  supplying  the  inadequacy 
of  the  finances  to  the  existing  wants  of  the  Treasury,  and  of  making 
further  and  more  effectual  provisions  for  prosecuting  the  war.  During 
the  recess  of  Congress,  the  honor  of  the  arms  of  the  United  States  had 
been  gallantly  sustained  in  every  conflict  by  land  and  sea ;  politically 
considered,  the  capture  of  Washingon  itself,  and  the  destruction  of  the 
Capitol  and  the  other  public  buildings,  so  far  from  being  a  misfortune, 
was  for  the  administration  a  fortunate  event,  by  its  effect  in  exciting 
indignant  feelings  throughout  the  country,  uniting  the  people  in  support 
of  the  common  cause,  and  preparing  their  minds  for  the  additional  bur- 
den of  taxation  which  it  had  become  obvious  that  they  must  be  called 
upon  to  bear.  All  that  was  wanting  to  the  vigorous  prosecution  of  the 
war,  was  the  provision  of  men  and  money  for  the  purpose.  The  pro- 
gress of  recruiting  for  filling  the  ranks  of  the  regular  army  had  already 
proved  entirely  too  slow,  if  not  total  failure,  as  had  the  resource  of 


-DEF.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  227 

loans  for  the  support  of  the  Government,  as  well  as  for  carrying  on  the 
war.  The  army,  whose  organization  was,  on  paper,  more  than  62,000 
men,  comprised  an  actual  force  of  only  32,000,  exclusive  of  officers,  of 
which  force  probably  not  more  than  one  half  could  be  relied  on  for 
effective  service ;  and  the  credit  of  the  Government  had  sunk  so  low 
that  plummet  could  hardly  sound  the  depth  of  its  degradation. 

"  At  the  opening  of  the  session,  the  President,  in  his  communication 
to  the  two  Houses  of  Congress,  with  eloquent  persuasion,  endeavored 
to  impress  upon  them  the  necessity  of  making  immediate  provision  for 
filling  the  ranks  of  the  army,  and  replenishing  the  treasury.  In  this 
purpose  he  was  earnestly  seconded  by  Secretary  Monroe,  of  the  War 
Department,  and  the  new  Secretary  (Mr.  Dallas)  of  the  Treasury  De- 
partment. 

"  Towards  the  first  of  these  objects,  a  bill  was  soon  matured,  and 
afterwards  received  the  assent  of  Congress,  extending  the  age  at  which 
recruits  might  be  Unlisted  to  fifty  years,  doubling  the  bounty  in  land 
to  each,  and  removing  the  interdiction  upon  recruiting  minors  and  ap- 
prentices. This  measure  was  a  mere  experiment,  of  no  practical  value, 
as  the  event  showed.  The  plan  for  filling  the  ranks  of  the  army  upon 
which  the  Executive  relied,  and  which  was  placed  before  the  Senate  in 
a  bold  and  energetic  report  from  the  War  Secretary,  was  to  form  into 
classes  of  100  each,  all  the  population  of  the  United  States  fit  for  militia 
duty,  out  of  every  class  of  which  four  men  for  the  war  were  to  be 
furnished  within  thirty  days  after  the  classification,  by  choice  or  by 
draught,  and  delivered  over  to  the  recruiting  officer  of  each  district,  to 
be  marched  to  such  places  of  general  rendezvous  as  might  be  directed 
by  the  Secretary  of  War.  This  plan,  which,  as  the  reader  will  perceive, 
comprised  all  the  essential  features  of  the  French  conscription,  though, 
perhaps,  the  only  one  which  at  the  time  promised  effective  results, 
found  from  the  first  no  favor,  especially  in  the  House  of  Representa- 
tives ;  and  became  more  and  more  obnoxious,  the  more  the  adminis- 
tration seemed  to  have  it  at  heart.  Hardly  any  one  in  Congress  had 
the  courage  to  allude  to  it.  Mr.  Troup  did  indeed  prevail  upon  the 
Military  Committee,  of  which  he  was  chairman,  to  allow  him  to  report 
a  bill,  conformable  to  the  Executive  recommendation,  by  the  pregnant 
title  of  '  An  Act  making  provision  for  filling  the  ranks  of  the  regular 
army,  by  classing  the  free  male  population  of  the  United  States  ; '  and 
the  bill  was  referred  to  a  Committee  of  the  whole  House,  and  never  after 
heard  of.  In  the  course  of  the  session  some  acts  had  passed,  looking 
to  the  employment  of  volunteers  and  detachments  of  militia,  under  the 
old  plan,  for  short  terms  ;  and  one  of  more  importance,  *  to  authorize 


228  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [DBF. 

the  President  of  the  United  States  to  accept  the  service  of  State  troops 
and  volunteers.'  This  last  was  not  only  the  most  effective  measure 
which  had  passed  towards  the  supply  of  men  for  carrying  on  the  war, 
but  it  was  the  most  so  that  was  likely  to  pass. 

"  The  truth  to  say,  indeed,  notwithstanding  the  nature  of  the  emer- 
gency, a  dogged  inertness  seemed  to  paralyze  the  action  of  Congress 
during  the  latter  part  of  that  session.  The  recommendation  to  recruit 
the  army  by  drafts  from  the  militia  was  not  only  unwelcome,  as  we 
have  said,  but  revolting  to  the  inclination  of  the  popular  branch  of 
Congress  ;  so  much  so,  that  a  great  proportion  of  the  members  of  that 
body  (and  among  them  some  of  the  leading  and  most  conspicuous 
members  of  the  republican  party)  shrunk  from  it  as  from  the  plague; 
and,  as  though  the  leprous  influence  of  that  proposition  contaminated 
every  other  part  of  the  plans  of  the  administration,  it  was  with  almost 
equal  reluctance  that  the  House  approached  the  consideration  of  ad- 
equate measures  (such  as  Mr.  Secretary  Dallas  frankly  and  fearlessly 
recommended)  for  the  support  of  the  public  credit,  and  for  strengthen- 
ing the  sinews  of  war."  * 

From  the  foregoing  sketch  of  the  past,  it  is  evident  that,  unless  the 
opinions  and  prejudices  of  the  people  of  the  United  States  be  greatly 
changed,  any  attempt  to  raise  large  armies  in  the  most  critical  emer- 
gencies, without  the  agency  of  States,  must  prove  a  failure.  In  order, 
therefore,  to  provide  for  the  "common  defence,"  the  aid  of  State  or- 
ganizations will  be  necessary,  and  several  plans,  more  or  less  efficient, 
have  consequently  been  proposed  to  better  the  organization  of  the 
militia.  All  such  attempts  have,  however,  met  with  no  favor  from 
the  people  ;  and,  indeed,  it  is  much  to  be  doubted  whether  the  consti- 
tutional reservation  to  the  States  "  of  training  the  militia  according  to 
the  discipline  prescribed  by  Congress,"  and  governing  them,  except 
when  called  forth  "  to  execute  the  laws  of  the  Union,  suppress  insur- 
rections and  repel  invasions,"  will  admit  of  any  "  good,  energetic,  gen- 
eral, uniform,  and  national  system  of  organization."  The  division  of 
authority  made  by  the  constitution  between  the  United  States  and  the 
several  States,  in  regard  to  the  militia,  until  called  forth  by  the  Federal 
Government,  has  left  with  Congress  only  the  right  to  provide  for  "  or- 
ganizing, arming,  and  disciplining  the  militia ;  "  but  discipline,  in  that 
restricted  sense,  without  power  to  regulate  the  appointment  of  officers 

*  In  striking  contrast  with  this  inertness  of  Congress,  the  Legislature  of  New  York  assembled 
on  the  26th  of  September,  1S14,  passed  by  the  24th  of  October  a  bill  giving  additional  pay  to  the 
militia  from  the  State  treasury,  an  act  to  encourage  privateering  and  an  act  to  raise  twelve  thou- 
sand State  troops  by  conscription  or  classification.  See  Hammond's  Political  History  of  New 
York,  vol.  1.  pp.  380-1. 


DBF.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  229 

or  otherwise  to  govern,  means  little  more  than  prescribing  a  system 
of  tactics,  and  such  discipline  can  never  make  soldiers. 

There  is,  however,  another  suggestion  in  the  Constitution  of  the 
United  States,  for  providing  for  the  common  defence,  which  is  obnox- 
ious to  none  of  the  objections  made  against  large  standing  armies,  and 
which  commends  itself  to  favorable  consideration,  as  being  in  harmony 
with  the  Federal  Government,  and  capable  of  furnishing  any  number  of 
disciplined  soldiers  which  the  exigency  of  our  foreign  relations  may 
require,  without  outrage  to  the  instincts  of  the  people  of  the  States. 
The  tendency  of  the  multiplication  of  States  in  our  confederacy  is  to 
restrict  the  authority  of  the  general  Government  over  the  internal 
affairs  of  the  people  of  the  States.  This  has  been  shown  by  breaking 
down  the  Bank  of  the  United  States,  establishing  the  independent 
treasury,  refusing  appropriations  for  internal  improvements,  and,  lastly, 
leaving  to  the  people  of  Territories  the  regulation  of  their  own  institu- 
tions. The  maxim  "  that  the  world  is  governed  too  much,"  has  been 
sturdily  preached,  and  it  may  become  necessary  not  to  shrink  from 
maintaining  our  doctrine  in  the  face  of  foreign  powers.  To  do  this  we 
must  arm  for  defence,  and  the  consistent  mode  of  doing  so,  is  for 
Congress  to  give  its  consent  for  the  several  States  to  "  keep  troops  ;  "  — 
more  particularly  as  the  history  of  our  country  has  shown  that  public 
opinion  will  not  admit  any  other  efficient  military  organization.  States 
now  have  authority  to  keep  troops  in  time  of  war,  but  for  such  troops 
to  be  useful  in  war,  they  must  be  prepared  in  peace ;  but  as  the  Consti- 
tution of  the  United  States  forbids  States  "  to  keep  troops  in  time  of 
peace  without  the  consent  of  Congress,"  that  consent  could  be  given  with 
conditions  attached,  and  those  conditions,  besides  providing  for  the 
common  defence  in  war,  should  require  the  organization  and  instruction 
of  State  troops  to  conform  with  that  of  the  army  of  the  United  States, 
or  rather  with  the  cavalry,  harnessed  batteries  of  artillery,  and  infantry 
of  the  army. 

To  encourage  States  in  such  organizations,  let  Congress  provide  for 

the  annual  distribution  of  dollars  among  the  several  States 

and  Territories  in  proportion  to  their  enrolled  militia  force,  upon  satis- 
factory evidence  being  furnished  to  the  Secretary  of  War,  that  such 
States  have  organized  camps  of  instruction  during  two  months  in  the 
year,  containing  a  number  of  troops  not  less  than  one-twentieth  of  the 
enrolled  militia  force  of  the  State.  Direct  the  President  to  furnish  to 
the  several  State  governors,  upon  their  requisition,  such  army  officers 
as  they  may  desire  to  aid  the  commanders  of  the  camps  of  instruction, 
and  the  information  collected  and  kept  up  in  the  army  will  thus  be  dif- 


230  MILITARY  DICTIONARY. 

fused  throughout  the  country.  The  different  States  will  take  pride  in 
their  respective  organizations,  and  would  recruit  their  respective  armies 
according  to  the  genius  of  their  people.  Their  military  codes  would 
react  upon  each  other,  and  upon  that  of  the  United  States.  An  interest 
in  military  affairs  would  take  the  place  of  present  derision,  and  more 
than  all,  the  United  States  might  laugh  to  scorn  the  efforts  of  any  invader. 

The  Prussian  Landwehr  of  the  first  ban,  to  which  the  proposed  or- 
ganization is  assimilated,  is  considered  a  reserved  army,  remaining  by 
their  firesides  in  times  of  peace,  except  during  their  annual  seasons  of 
manoeuvring,  but  ready  tb  appear  in  case  of  war  upon  the  first  call, 
organized,  equipped,  and  armed  to  serve  like  the  line  of  the  army, 
either  at  home  or  abroad.  The  Prussian  territory  is  divided  into  as 
many  districts  as  there  are  battalions  of  the  Landwehr  of  the  first  ban. 
Each  district  furnishes  a  battalion  of  infantry,  a  squadron  of  cavalry, 
a  company  of  artillery,  and  some  other  detachments.  The  battalions 
and  squadrons  are  named  from  the  principal  town  of  their  district,  and 
depots  of  arms,  clothing,  camp  and  garrison  equipage,  and  cavalry  and 
artillery  equipments,  are  there  located.  The  districts  of  the  Landwehr 
are  also  the  recruiting  districts  of  the  line  of  the  army ;  and,  as  troops 
from  the  same  district  serve  together,  there  naturally  exist  between 
those  corps  ties  of  consanguinity,  which  dispel  all  feelings  of  superior- 
ity, and  cause  them  mutually  to  sustain  each  other  in  time  of  danger. 

In  each  district  of  the  Landwehr,  the  following  small  list  of  officers 
are  permanently  paid.  For  the  infantry  :  one  major  commanding,  one 
adjutant,  who  is  also  accountant,  four  first  sergeants,  and  four  second 
sergeants,  (one  per  company,)  eight  corporals,  (two  per  company,)  and 
one  armorer.  For  the  cavalry  :  one  captain,  or  first  lieutenant,  one 
quartermaster-sergeant,  and  three  corporals.  The  paid  commanders 
of  battalions  are  charged  writh  the  assistance  of  their  staff,  with  the 
personnel  and  materiel  of  the  Landwehr,  and  are  accountable  for  the 
ordnance  and  military  stores  in  depot  in  their  districts.  The  first  ser- 
geants keep  the  list  of  names  belonging  to  their  companies,  and  no  man 
can  absent  himself  without  notifying  them. 

If  all  the  States  of  the  Union  did  not  deem  it  better  under  this  sys- 
tem to  keep  up  a  small  permanent  force,  it  is  supposed  that  they  would 
all  find  it  necessary  to  maintain  a  small  skeleton  organization  of  officers 
and  non-commissioned  officers,  similar  to  that  of  the  Prussian  Landwehr 
of  the  first  ban.  And  if  such  officers  and  non-commissioned  officers  were 
appointed  by  the  States  from  officers  and  non-commissioned  officers  who 
have  honorably  retired  from  the  army,  a  new  link  would  be  established  be- 
tween the  army  and  State  troops  which  would  prove  mutually  beneficial. 


DBF.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  031 

To  resume,  then  :  the  system  of  national  defence  or  military  organi- 
zation herein  suggested,  as  suitable  for  the  United  States  is :  1.  The 
promotion  of  the  most  thorough  organization  and  instruction  of  the 
United  States  army,  by  concentrating  troops  at  strategic  points  ;  chang- 
ing the  system  of  recruiting ;  creating  a  retired  list  for  officers  of  the 
army,  and  providing  for  alternation  of  duty  in  the  line  and  the  staff,  so 
that  the  whole  army  may  be  made  really  an  aid  or  staff  for  the  per- 
fect development  of  the  physical  strength  of  the  whole  country.  2. 
An  act  of  Congress  authorizing  the  several  States  to  keep  troops  in 
time  of  peace,  provided  their  respective  regifnental  organizations  of  cav- 
alry and  infantry  shall  conform  to  the  regimental  organization  of  those 
arms  instituted  by  Congress.  3.  An  annual  appropriation  by  Congress 
to  be  distributed  among  the  several  States  in  proportion  to  the  enrolled 
militia  force  of  the  State,  provided  satisfactory  evidence  is  brought 
before  the  Secretary  of  War  that  such  State  has  had  within  its  limits, 
during  two  months  of  the  year,  organized  camps  of  instruction  in  which 
were  assembled  a  number  of  troops  not  less  than  one-twentieth  of  the 
enrolled  militia  force  of  the  State.  4.  Requiring  the  President  to 
furnish  to  State  governors,  upon  their  requisitions,  such  army  officers 
as  may  be^  desired  to  aid  commanders  of  State  camps  of  instruction,  so 
that  the  information  collected  in  the  federal  army  may  be  extended  to  all 
State  organizations.  5.  Giving  authority  to  the  President  to  muster 
into  the  service  of  the  United  States,  State  troops,  in  all  cases  in  which 
he  is  now  authorized  by  law  to  call  forth  the  militia.  (See  CALLING 
FORTH.) 

DEFILADING — consists  in  raising  the  parapets  of  a  fortress  or 
field-work,  or  in  depressing  the  terre-pleins  so  much  as  to  conceal  the 
interior  of  the  work  from  the  view  of  an  enemy  on  an  elevated  position. 
It  also  consists  in  directing  the  magistral  lines  of  its  parapets  toward 
points,  where  local  impediments,  as  rivers,  marshes,  lakes,  &c.,  would 
prevent  a  besieger  from  constructing  batteries.  The  former  is  defilad- 
ing by  relief,  the  latter  is  termed  defilading  by  the  trace  or  plan. 
When  a  field-work  has  been  necessarily  constructed  in  such  a  situation 
that  it  may  be  commanded  by  some  height  within  range  of  artillery, 
the  defilading  is  made  by  raising  the  parapet,  or  constructing  traverses 
in  the  interior  of  the  work.  The  necessary  trace  for  a  field-work  to 
accomplish  these  objects  is  more  expeditiously  effected  by  the  eye  and 
a  few  poles  and  profiles,  than  by  resorting  to  theoretical  and  scientific 
proceedings,  which  constitute  a  part  of  the  art  of  the  engineer,  and 
which  are  indispensable  considerations  in  permanent  fortification. 

DEFILE.     Any  narrow  passage — as   a  ford,  a  bridge,  a  road 


232  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [DEL. 

through  a  village,  mountain  passes,  &c.,  are  defiles.  To  pass  a  defile 
safely,  it  is  necessary  first  to  drive  away,  as  far  as  possible,  the  enemy. 
Under  cover  of  this  engagement,  other  troops  pass  the  defile  as  soon  as 
they  reach  it.  The  aim  should  be  to  pass  the  defjle  as  quickly  as  pos- 
sible ;  whether  advancing  or  retreating.  The  passage  in  double  columns 
will  facilitate  the  formation  in  order  of  battle  on  the  right  and  on  the 
left  after  having  passed  the  defile,  and  this  order  has  the  advantage  of 
occupying  both  sides  of  the  road.  But  it  cannot  be  too  strongly  urged 
that  quickness  in  the  passage  is  the  great  consideration,  and  theoretical 
movement  must  give  way  to  this  primary  object  If  the  defile  is  'a 
ford  or  bridge,  and  the  passage  in  retreat,  formations  on  the  bank  of  the 
river,  after  the  passage,  ought  not  to  take  place.  Combats  separated 
by  a  river  end  in  nothing,  and  the  worst  possible  way  of  defending  'a 
bridge  or  ford  is  taking  positions  too  near  it.  The  enemy  would  cer- 
tainly unite  his  artillery  upon  the  opposite  bank,  and  not  attempt  the 
passage  until  he  had  greatly  worsted  the  defenders  of  the  ford  or  bridge 
by  his  projectiles.  The  defenders  would  lose  many  men,  and  would 
probably  have  been  demoralized  before  coming  to  close  quarters.  It  is 
necessary  then  to  wait  until  a  portion  of  the  enemy  passes  the  bridge  or 
ford.  If  the  enemy  be  then  vigorously  attacked  the  defenders  will,  by 
a  hand-to-hand  conflict,  render  nugatory  his  artillery  on  the  oppo- 
site bank,  as  well  as  all  of  his  troops  that  have  not  yet  crossed.  To 
accomplish  this  intended  purpose,  it  will  only  be  necessary  to  place 
troops  at  some  point,  at  full  cannon  range  from  the  bridge,  or  if  the 
accidents  of  ground  admit  of  cover,  nearer  still  to  the  bridge.  If  a 
bridge  is  passed  in  advancing,  the  troops  which  pass  first  are  pushed 
forward  to  gain  as  much  ground  as  possible,  and  thus  favor  the  passage 
of  other  troops,  by  relieving  them  of  the  dangers  of  the  combat.  In 
this  case  the  simplest  and  most  rapid  method  of  crossing  is  the  best. 
(Consult  Aperqus  sur  quelqbes  Details  de  la  Guerre,  par  MARSHAL 
BUGEAUD.) 

DELINQUENT,  (DISBURSING  OFFICERS.)  Such  officers  may  be 
dismissed  by  the  President  of  the  United  States  on  failure  to  render 
their  accounts  of  disbursements  quarterly  in  the  United  States,  and 
every  six  months  if  resident  in  a  foreign  country  ;  (Act  January  31, 
1823.)  (See  DEFAULTER.) 

DEMILUNE — is  a  work  constructed  to  cover  the  curtain  and 
shoulders  of  the  bastion.  It  is  composed  of  two  faces  forming  a  salient 
angle  towards  the  country,  has  two  demi-gorges  formed  by  the  counter- 
scarp, and  is  surrounded  by  a  ditch.  The  demilune  is  sometimes  termed 
a  ravelin. 


DEP.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  233 

DEPARTMENT.  Any  general  officer  commanding  an  army,  or 
colonel  commanding  a  separate  department,  may  appoint  general  court- 
martial,  whenever  necessary  ;  (ART.  65.) 

Besides  the  territorial  divisions,  called  Departments,  in  the  Rules 
and  Articles  of  War,  the  term  is  also  applied  to  the  following  branches 
of  the  service :  Adjutant-general's,  Inspector-general's,  Medical,  Pay, 
Ordnance,  Quartermaster's,  and  Subsistence  Departments. 

DEPARTMENT  OF  WAR.  There  shall  be  an  Executive  Depart- 
ment, to  be  denominated  the  Department  of  War  ;  and  there  shall  be  a 
principal  officer  therein,  to  be  called  the  Secretary  for  the  Department  of 
War  •  (Act  Aug.  7, 1789.)  "  Hq  is  to  perform  and  execute  such  duties 
as  shall,  from  time  to  time,  be  enjoined  on,  or  intrusted  to  him,  by  the 
President  of  the  United  States,  agreeably  to  the  constitution,  relative  to 
military  commissions,  or  to  the  land  forces  or  warlike  stores  of  the  United 
States,  or  such  other  matters  respecting  military  affairs,  as  the  President 
of  the  United  States  shall  assign  to  said  department.  And  furthermore, 
that  the  said  principal  officer  shall  conduct  the  business  of  the  said  de- 
partment in  such  manner  as  the  President  of  the  United  States  shall, 
from  time  to  time,  order  or  instruct.  That  there  shall  be  in  said  de- 
partment an  inferior  officer,  to  be  appointed  by  the  said  principal  offi- 
cer, to  be  employed  therein  as  he  shall  deem  proper,  and  to  be  called 
the  chief  clerk  in  the  Department  of  War,  and  who,  whenever  the  said 
principal  officer  shall  be  removed  from  office  by  the  President  of  the 
United  States,  or  in  any  other  case  of  vacancy,  shall,  during  such  va- 
cancy, have  the  charge  and  custody  of  all  records,  books,  and  papers, 
appertaining  to  said  Department.  The  said  principal  officer,  and  every 
other  person  to  be  appointed  or  employed  in  said  Department,  shall, 
before  he  enters  on  the  execution  of  his  office  or  employment,  take  an 
oath  or  affirmation,  well  and  faithfully  to  execute  the  trust  committed 
to  him ;  "  (Act  Aug.  7,  1789.)  It  seems  impossible  to  read  this  act  of 
Congress,  and  contend  that  officers  of  the  army  are  a  portion  of  the  War 
Department.  And  the  statute  book  wall  be  searched  in  vain  to  find 
authority  given  to  the  Secretary  over  any  officers  other  than  officers  of 
Staff  Departments,  or  over  subjects  disconnected  with  the  custody  of 
public  records,  the  support  and  supply  of  troops,  the  manufacture  and 
care  of  warlike  stores,  the  keeping  of  exact  and  regular  returns  of  all 
the  forces  of  the  United  States,  or  other  kindred  administrative  matters ; 
such  as  receiving  the  proceedings  of  courts-martial,  and  laying  them 
before  the  President  of  the  United  States  for  his  approval  or  disap- 
proval, and  orders  in  the  case.  There  is  no  act  of  Congress  which 
authorizes  the  Secretary  of  War  to  command  the  troops,  and  he  being 


234  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [DEP 

no  part  of  the  army,  the  President,  of  course,  cannot  authorize  him  to 
do  so.  But  "  the  Secretary  of  War  is  (Peters'  Digest  of  Decisions  of 
Federal  Courts,  vol.  1,  p.  179)  the  regular  constitutional  organ  of  the 
President  for  the  administration  of  the  military  establishment  of  the 
nation  ;  and  rules  and  orders  publicly  promulgated  through  him,  must 
be  received  as  the  acts  of  the  Executive,  and  as  such  are  binding  upon 
all  within  the  sphere  of  his  legal  and  constitutional  authority." 

By  an  act  of  Congress,  approved  March  3,  1813,  it  is  provided : 
"  That  it  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  Secretary  of  War,  and  he  is  hereby 
authorized,  to  prepare  general  regulations,  better  defining  and  prescrib- 
ing the  respective  duties  and  powers  of  the  several  officers  in  the  adju- 
tant-general, inspector-general,  quartermaster-general,  and  commissary 
of  ordnance  departments,  of  the  topographical  engineers,  of  the  aids  of 
generals,  and  generally  of  the  general  and  regimental  staff;  which  reg- 
ulation, when  approved  by  the  President  of  the  United  States,  shall 
be  respected  and  obeyed,  until  altered  or  revoked  by  the  same  author- 
ity." Here  was  a  partial  delegation  of  legislative  power ;  and  under 
this  power  of  legislation  so  confined  to  the  several  staff  departments, 
the  Secretary  of  War,  with  the  approval  of  the  President,  established 
bureaus  of  the  War  Department,  making  the  head  of  each  staff  depart- 
ment'chief  of  a  bureau,  in  all  fiscal  and  administrative  matters  con- 
nected with  his  particular  department  under  the  general  direction  of 
the  Secretary  of  War.  The  War  Department  thus  centralized  all  army 
administration,  and  efforts  have  since  been  made  to  centralize  in  the 
same  way  the  command  and  government  and  regulation  of  the  army. 
But  as  the  62d  article  of  war  declares  that  when  different  corps 
come  together,  the  officer  highest  in  rank  shall  command  the  whole, 
and  give  orders  for  what  is  needful  to  the  service,  unless  otherwise  spe- 
cially directed  by  the  President  of  the  United  States,  according  to  the 
nature  of  the  case,"  while  the  61st  article  gives  the  command  to  the 
senior  regimental  officer  within  his  regiment,  when  other  troops  are  not 
present,  such  centralization,  if  not  a  violation  of  law,  would  be  a  viola- 
tion of  all  military  principles,  destructive  alike  to  discipline  and  mili- 
tary spirit.  For  (says  Odier)  :  "  Commands  given  immediately  by 
the  highest  authority  cause  agitation  rather  than  action.  The  superior 
authority  becomes  weakened  in  proportion  as  the  eye  becomes  accus- 
tomed to  it.  Fear  of  it  ceases,  and  when  the  highest  authority  habitu- 
ates itself  to  doing  every  thing,  as  soon  as  it  ceases  to  be  sufficient  to 
do  all,  there  is  nothing  done.  All  degrees  of  rank  and  command  have 
their  degree  of  importance.  Authority  must  regularly  ascend  and  de- 
scend. Every  inferior  grade  is  the  lieutenant  of  its  superior  grade,  even 


DEP.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  235 

to  the  oldest  soldier,  who  replaces  the  corporal.  Obedience  is  recipro- 
cal to  authority."  Rules  established  by  Congress,  defining  the  rights, 
powers,  and  duties  of  all  officers  and  soldiers,  are  much  needed.  (See 
SECRETARY  OF  WAR.) 

DEPLOYMENT.  All  tactical  manoeuvres  intended  to  pass  from 
close  column  to  the  order  of  battle  are  deployments.  Deployments, 
however  convenient  or  brilliant,  which  cause  the  soldier  to  turn  his  back 
to  the  enemy,  are  not  suited  to  war.  (Consult  Infantry  and  Light  In- 
fantry and  Rifle  tactics  for  the  prescribed  deployments.) 

DEPOSITION  OF  WITNESSES— when  not  of  the  line  or  staff 
of  the  army,  may  be  taken  in  cases  not  capital,  provided  the  prosecutor 
and  accused  are  present  at  the  taking  of  the  same,  or  duly  notified ; 
(ART.  74.  See  WITNESS.) 

DEPOT.  The  colonel  of  ordnance,  under  the  direction  of  the  Sec- 
retary of  W^ar,  is  authorized  to  establish  depots  of  arms,  ammunition, 
and  ordnance  stores,  in  such  parts  of  the  United  States,  and  in  such 
numbers,  as  may  be  deemed  necessary  ;  (Act  Feb.  8,  1815.) 

Three  recruiting  depots  have  also  been  established  under  the  direc- 
tion of  the  Secretary  of  War,  but  a  system  of  regimental  depots  is 
much  needed.  In  England  and  in  France,  regimental  depots  have  been 
found  indispensable.  In  France,  upon  taking  the  field,  a  regiment 
leaves  in  depot  the  quartermaster  and  the  accounting  officer  of  the 
corps,  the  clothing  officer,  workmen,  and  stores  ;  infirm  men,  those  too 
old  for  war,  and  uninstructed  recruits ;  these  make  the  depot ;  the 
wounded  and  sick  are  sent  there  to  be  re-established ;  new  levies  are 
received  there,  and  detachments  of  able-bodied  and  instructed  men  are 
successfully  directed  from  the  depot  towards  the  army.  The  depot,  like 
the  stomach,  receives,  elaborates,  and  gives  life  to  its  members.  It  is 
at  the  depot  that  the  clothing,  and  shoes,  and  all  the  wants  of  the  regi- 
ment are  provided ;  it  is  there  that  the  accountability  is  centralized, 
that  the  papers  are  kept ;  it  is  at  the  depot  that  all  regimental  adminis- 
tration goes  on ;  and  for  that  purpose  the  major  of  the  regiment  re- 
mains there,  and  likewise  commands.  In  England,  the  depot  company 
is  one  left  at  ho^me  by  regiments  embarking  for  India,  for  the  purpose 
of  recruiting.  There  are  four  reserve  companies  for  all  foreign  stations 
except  India,  which  remain  at  home  under  the  command  of  the  senior 
major.  A  roster  is  regularly  kept  of  the  officers  at  the  depot ;  and  to 
insure  that  each  individual  embarks  in  his  proper  turn  to  join  the  ser- 
vice companies,  a  figure  marking  his  place  on  the  roster,  is  annexed  to 
every  officer's  name  in  the  monthly  Returns  transmitted  to  the  adjutant- 
general.  Regimental  records,  with  the  attestations  and  service  records 


236  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [Dsp. 

of  the  men  doing  duty  with  the  regiment  abroad,  are  left  at  the  depot, 
and  filled  up  at  stated  periods. 

DERRICK — consists  of  a  spar  which  is  always  kept  in  an  oblique 
position  ;  one  end  of  it  on  the  deck  of  a  ship,  the  other  supported  by 
guys,  and  generally  used  to  hoist  heavy  weights.  (See  GIN.) 

DESERTER.  Punishable  by  stripes,  by  sentence  of  general 
court-martial.  Not  punishable  by  death  in  time  of  peace.  May  be 
tried  and  punished,  although  the  term  of  enlistment  may  have  elapsed 
previous  to  apprehension.  (ART.  20,  and  Acts  March  16,  1802,  May 
29,  1830,  May  16,  1812,  and  March  2,  1833.) 

Of  a  deserter  from  the  enemy,  we  demand  his  name,  his  country  j 
the  motive  of  his  desertion;  the  number  of  his  regiment ;  the  name  of 
his  colonel ;  his  immediate  general ;  that  of  the  commander-in-chief ; 
the  strength  of  his  particular  corps ;  that  of  the  whole  army  ;  whether 
distributions  are  regular ;  how  many  cartridges  each  man  has  ;  how 
many  guns  there  are ;  whether  there  are  many  sick  or  wounded  in  the 
camp  of  the  enemy ;  whether  the  soldiers  have  confidence  in  their  chief, 
and  whether  he  is  well  treated  by  them. 

DETACHED  BASTION— is  one  which  is  separated  from  the  en- 
ceinte by  a  ditch.  , 

DETACHED  WORKS— are  those  which  are  constructed  beyond 
the  range  of  the  musketry  of  the  main  works  ;  and  as  a  constant  and 
steady  communication  with  them  cannot  be  kept  up  during  a  siege,  they 
are  frequently  left  to  their  own  resources ;  nevertheless,  they  ought  to 
exercise  a  general  influence  on  the  defence  of  the  place. 

DETACHMENT.  (French  Origin.)  BARDIN,  Dictionnaire  de 
VArmee  de  Terre  thus  defines  it :  A  word  which  has  the  same  origin  as 
attach.  It  implies  any  fraction  of  a  body,  or  an  entire  corps  charged 
particularly  with  functions  which  are  dependent  for  their  duration  upon 
circumstances  in  war  or  actual  service.  The  Romans  expressed  by  the 
word  Globus*  nearly  the  meaning  of  detachment.  The  movable  col- 
umns of  the  French  army  were  detachments  formed  sometimes  of  whole 
corps,  sometimes  of  fractions  of  corps.  We  call  also  detachments,  the 
escorts  of  convoys  of  prisoners,  those  for  evacuations^certain  extra  du- 
ties, some  maritime  expeditions,  a  patrol,  &c.  Agreeably  to  the  defini- 
tion given  in  the  instructions  of  the  year  six,  the  separation  of  many 
men  from  a  single  or  from  different  corps,  and  the  subsequent  reunion 
of  those  men  under  a  military  chief,  constitutes  a  detachment,  and  it  is 
so  considered,  whether  upon  a  voyage,  or  stationed  in  a  depot  of  a  corps 

*  A  troop;  a  squadron,  or  party  of  soldiers;  a  knot  of  men  who  jointly  carry  on  any  design. 
AijfSwoETu's  Latin  Dictionary. 


DET.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  037 

or  in  garrison ;  whether  in  cantonment,  or  whether  in  reference  to  the 
means  of  transportation  that  may  be  necessary  for  it.  In  some  cases, 
picket  and  small  detachments  have  the  same  signification.  The  follow- 
ing illustrations  of  the  meaning  of  detachment  are  drawn  from  various 
sources  : — 

Rules  and  Articles  of  War  passed  Sept.  20,  1776. 

ART.  XII.  Every  officer  commanding  in  any  of  the  forts,  barracks, 
or  elsewhere,  where  the  corps  under  his  command  consists  of  detachments 
from  different  regiments,  or  of  independent  companies,  may  assemble 
courts-martial,  &c. ;  [such  courts  were  called  detachment  courts-martial.] 
ART.  II.  SEC.  17.  For  the  future,  all  general  officers  and  colonels, 
serving  by  commission  from  the  authority  of  any  particular  State,  shall, 
on  all  detachments,  courts-martial,  or  other  duty,  wherein  they  may  be 
employed  in  conjunction  with  the  regular  forces  of  the  United  States, 
take  rank,  &c. — When  regiments  or  detachments  are  united,  either  in 
camp,  garrison,  or  quarters,  the  eldest  officer,  whether  by  brevet  or 
otherwise,  is  to  command  the  whole;  (Regulations  British  Army.)  The 
detachments  which  are,  from  time  to  time,  sent  from  the  depots  at  home 
to  regiments  abroad,  &c. — The  periods  of  the  year  at  which  detach- 
ments are  required  to  embark  for  foreign  stations,  &c. ;  (Regulations 
British  Army.) — Whenever  recruits  are  to  be  sent  from  a  tfepot  or 
rendezvous  to  a  regiment  or  post,  a  separate  muster  and  description 
roll,  and  a  separate  account  of  clothing  of  each  detachment,  will  be  placed 
in  the  hands  of  the  officer  assigned  to  the  command  of  such  detachment  ; 
( U.  S.  Army  Regulations.) — Any  detachment  so  far  separated  from  the 
main  body  to  which  it  belongs  as  to  render  it  impracticable  for  the  com- 
mander of  the  latter  to  make  muster  and  inspection  enjoined  by  the 
general  regulations,  is  considered  as  a  separate  command  within  the 
meaning  and  for  the  purpose  of  this  regulation. — Where  a  field-officer 
is  serving  with  detached  companies  of  his  regiment,  the  captains  thereof 
will  make  their  company  monthly  returns  through  him,  which  returns 
he  will  transmit  with  his  own  personal  report  to  regimental  head-quar- 
ters ;  (Regulations  of  the  War  Department,  dated  Feb.  10,  1855.) 

SEC.  *  *  ^.nd  the  said  corps  may  be  formed  into  as  many  com- 
panies or  detachments  as  the  President  of  the  United  States  may 
direct.  (Act  of  Congress.) 

"  Corps,  formed  by  detachments,  are  the  usual  method  in  which 
brevet  officers  are  employed,  as  they  cannot  be  introduced  into  regi- 
ments without  displacing  other  officers,  or  violating  the  right  of  succes- 
sion, both  of  which  are  justly  deemed  injurious  in  every  service.  But 
the  reasoning  is  new  by  which  the  employing  such  officers  in  detached 


238  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [DKT. 

corps  is  made  an  infringement  of  the  rights  of  regimental  officers ; 
(Letter  of  General  Washington,  dated  August  11,  1780.) 

DETAIL  FOE-  DUTY— is  a  roster,  or  table,  for  the  regular  per- 
formance  of  duty  either  in  camp  or  garrison.  The  general  detail  is 
regulated  by  the  adjt.-general,  according  to  the  strength  of  the  several 
corps.  The  adjutant  of  each  regiment  superintends  the  detail  of  the 
officers  and  non-commissioned  officers  for  duty,  and  orderly  sergeants 
detail  the  privates.  * 

DEVIATION  OF  FIRING.     (See  FIRING.) 

DIMINISHED  ANGLE— is  that  formed  by  the  exterior  side  and 
the  line  of  defence  in  fortification. 

DISBURSING  OFFICERS.  Exclusively  of  the  paymasters  of 
the  army,  and  other  officers  already  authorized  by  law,  no  other  perma- 
nent agents  shall  be  appointed,  either  for  the  purpose  of  making  con- 
tracts, or  for  the  purchase  of  supplies,  or  for  the  disbursement  in  any 
other  manner  of  moneys  for  the  use  of  the  military  establishment,  but 
such  as  shall  be  appointed  by  the  President  of  the  United  States,  with 
the  advice  and  consent  of  the  Senate.  But  the  President  may  appoint 
such  necessary  agents  in  the  recess  of  the  Senate  to  be  submitted  for 
their  advice  and  consent  at  their  next  session,  provided  that  the  com- 
pensation allowed  to  either  shall  not  exceed  one  per  centum  per  annum, 
nor  be  more  than  $2,000  per  annum ;  (Act  March  3,  1809.)  All 
purchases  and  contracts  are  made  under  the  direction  of  the  Secretary 
of  War;  (Act  March  3,  1809.)  Shall  give  bonds  to  be  regulated  by 
the  President,  and  may  be  dismissed  by  the  President  on  failure  to  ren- 
der their  account.  (See  DEFAULTER  ;  DELINQUENT.) 

DISCHARGE.  After  a  non-comrnissioned  officer  or  soldier  shall 
have  been  duly  enlisted  and  sworn,  he  shall  not  be  dismissed  the  ser- 
vice without  a  discharge  in  writing ;  and  no  discharge  granted  to  him 
shall  be  sufficient,  which  is  not  signed  by  a  field-officer  of  the  regiment 
to  which  he  belongs,  or  commanding  officer,  where  no  field-officer  of  the 
regiment  is  present ;  and  no  discharge  shall  be  given  to  a  non-commis- 
sioned officer  or  soldier,  before  his  term  of  service  has  expired,  but  by 
order  of  the  President,  the  Secretary  of  War,  the  commanding  officer 
of  a  department,  or  the  sentence  of  a  general  court-martial ;  nor  shall  a 
commissioned  officer  be  discharged  the  service  but  by  order  of  the  -Pres- 
ident of  the  United  States,  or  by  sentence  of  a  court-martial ;  (ART. 
11.)  Under  this  article  it  has  been  contended  that  the  President  may 
arbitrarily  discharge  any  commissioned  officer  from  the  service ;  but  as 
the  Rules  and  Articles  of  War  provide  for  the  punishment  of  all  military 
crimes,  disorders,  or  neglects,  by  courts-martial,  all  arbitrary  and  ca- 


Dis.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  239 

pricious  action  over  such  matters  is  thereby  necessarily  excluded.  Be- 
sides, dismission  and  discharge  are  essentially  different.  The  latter,  in 
its  primitive  sense,  means  relieved  of  a  burden  or  obligation.  Thus,  as 
every  individual  who  enters  the  army  by  enlistment  or  commission 
must  remain  in  it  until  regularly  discharged,  under  penalty  of  being 
considered  a  deserter,  the  article  declares  that  no  discharge  of  a  com- 
missioned officer  is  regular  but  by  the  order  of  the  President  of  the 
United  States,  or  the  sentence  of  a  court-martial.  Voluntary  separations 
from  the  service,  therefore,  or  resignations,  are  only  legal  when  accepted 
by  the  President  of  the  United  States.  No  other  military  authority  is 
competent  to  release  an  officer  from  the  obligations  he  assumes  on  enter- 
ing the  army,  even  on  his  own  application.  Hence  the  use  of  the  word 
discharge  in  the  article,  so  as  to  embrace  voluntary  separations  authorized 
by  the  President,  and  involuntary  separations  by  sentence  of  court-mar- 
tial. But  the  article  gives  no  power  to  the  President  to  dismiss  sum- 
marily. Had  such  been  the  intention,  the  authority  would  have  been 
clearly  given,  as  it  has  been  by  the  act  of  Jan.  31, 1823,  in  the  case  of  delin- 
quent disbursing  officers — a  power  not  needed,  if  it  before  existed  under 
Article  11.  This  rule  of  making  the  acceptance  of  an  officer's  resigna- 
tion dependent  upon  the  President  or  highest  military  authority,  is 
necessary  ;  because  an  officer  who  was  amenable  to  punishment  for  in- 
fractions of  military  law,  might  otherwise,  by  the  resignation  of  his 
commission,  escape  punishment.  The  Court  of  King's  Bench  in  Eng- 
land have  decided,  therefore,  that  an  officer  of  the  East  India  Company's 
service  has  not  the  right  to  resign  his  commission  under  any  circum- 
stances, and  whenever  he  pleased  ;  (case  of  Capt.  Parker  ;  Prendergast, 
p.  248.)  In  the  case  of  Capt.  Vertue,  however,  (Prendergast,  p.  250,) 
while  the  court  held  that  Capt.  Vertue's  resignation  was  invalid,  aj 
having  been  made  in  pursuance  of  an  improper  combination  of  a  large 
number  of  officers,  yet  Mr.  Justice  Yates  intimated  that  there  may  be 
a  state  of  circumstances,  under  which  an  officer  may  have  a  legal  right 
to  resign,  and  so  to  obtain  a  release  of  exemption  from  military  law. 

Such  would  undoubtedly  be  the  decision  of  a  civil  court  in  the 
United  States.  The  power  given  to  the  President  of  accepting  or  with- 
holding his  acceptance  of  a  resignation  was  intended  for  the  maintenance 
of  justice,  and  not  the  oppression  of  individuals ;  and  if  that  power 
should  be  perverted,  a  court  of  justice  might,  and  no  doubt  would,  in- 
terpose its  writ  of  habeas  corpus. 

DISCIPLINE.  It  ought  to  result  from  a  perfect  uniformity  of 
rules ;  for  stability,  method,  exactness,  and  even  routine,  are  necessary 
to  insure  its  maintenance ;  under  a  perfect  discipline,  troops  in  peace 


240  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [Dis. 

and  in  war,  in  garrison  or  in  campaign,  would  be  fitted  for  all  the  du- 
ties of  war.  To  attain  this  perfection,  it  is  necessary  that  discipline 
should  rest  entirely  upon  law ;  it  ought  to  have  its  roots  in  patriotism  ; 
to  be  adapted  to  the  character  of  the  people  ;  to  the  spirit  of  the  age, 
and  the  nature  of  the  government.  It  is  essential  to  make  rights  and 
duties  inseparable.  This  absolute  necessity,  and  the  importance  of 
regularity  of  pay,  are  truths  dwelt  upon  by  French  writers.  Discipline 
may  be  distinguished  as  active  and  passive.  The  first  derives  its  power 
from  a  military  hierarchy  or  range  of  subordination,  skilfully  estab- 
lished and  regulated  ;  it  is  secured  by  calmness,  impartiality,  prompt- 
ness, firmness,  and  the  prestige  of  character  in  officers.  These  qualities 
are  manifested  by  preventing  wrongs  rather  than  by  punishing  faults, 
and  by  abstaining  from  arbitrary  corrections  when  obliged  to  chastise. 
Discipline,  intrusted  to  such  authorities  enlightened  by  military  expe- 
rience, will  partake  of  the  character  of  paternal  government,  and  will 
not  be  enforced  with  an  unsparing  harshness  suited  only  to  govern- 
ments essentially  despotic. 

The  dogma,  that  military  discipline  can  only  be  sustained  by  the 
aid  of  severe  and  unpitying  punishment,  is  far  removed  from  the 
idea  here  suggested.  That  unpitying  military  discipline  seems  to 
have  prompted  Peter  the  Great,  when  he  sacrificed  a  young  officer, 
who  triumphantly  fought  the  Swedes  without  orders.  Thus  also 
thought  Frederic  the  Great,  when  he  executed  the  unfortunate  Zietten, 
who  violated  an  order  by  keeping  a  light  a  little  too  long  in  his 
tent.  But  such  harsh  principles  are  no  longer  inculcated  in  the  best 
governed  armies  of  Europe.  Passive  discipline  is  the  fusion  of  indi- 
vidual interest  in  national  interest.  The  first  military  virtue  is  esprit 
de  corps,  with  fidelity  to  the  oath  taken  upon  assuming  the  military 
character.  These  duties  exact  obedience  to  the  laws,  and  to  the  lawful 
orders  of  the  President  of  the  United  States,  and  officers  set  over  us 
according  to  law.  These  laws  should  command  obedience  from  all 
inferiors,  and  distinctly  define  the  extent  of  all  authority.  They  ought 
to  bind  the  President  or  commander-in-chief  as  well  as  the  simple  sol- 
dier. RIGHTS  and  DUTIES  must  be  reciprocal,  and  be  alike  established 
by  law,  which  should,  to  maintain  discipline,  "  precisely  determine  the 
functions,  duties,  and  rights  of  all  military  men — soldiers,  officers, 
chiefs  of  corps,  generals."  Discipline  that  has  attained  this  perfection 
supplies  the  deficiency  of  numbers,  and  gives  new  solidity  to  valor  • 
since,  although  surrounded  by  dangers,  the  brave  man  feels  that  his 
leaders  and  comrades  are  not  less  devoted,  less  vigorous,  or  less  expe- 
rienced than  himself. 


Dis.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  241 

Discipline  is  sometimes  used  as  meaning  "  system  of  instruction," 
but  its  signification  is  much  broader.  Its  technical  military  sense  in- 
cludes not  only  the  means  provided  for  exercise  and  instruction,  but 
subjection  to  all  laws  framed  for  the  government  and  regulation  of  the 
army.  The  good  or  bad  discipline  of  an  army  depends  primarily  upon  the 
laws  established  for  its  creation,  as  well  as  its  government  and  regulation. 

DISEASE.     (See  SANITARY  PRECAUTIONS.) 

DISEMBARKATION.  In  disembarkations,  the  first  essential 
matter  is  to  determine  by  reconnaissance  the  proper  point  for  landing — 
how  near  the  landing  can  be  approached  with  vessels  of  light  draught, 
to  scour  the  beach  and  thus  cover  the  operation ;  and  secondly,  the  man- 
ner in  which  the  men,  horses,  and  some  field-artillery  are  to  be  disem- 
barked. The  landing  of  heavy  ordnance  and  all  supplies  is  a  subsequent 
matter.  Having  chosen  the  point  of  debarkation,  the  troops  are  put 
into  flat-bottomed  boats,  previously  provided,  as  expeditiously  as  pos- 
sible, but  without  hurry  or  disorder — they  are  to  sit  down  in  the  boats, 
and  positively  ordered  not  to  load  until  formed  on  tfie  beach.  Each  man 
should'  carry  three  days'  provisions  cooked  in  his  haversack,  at  least 
forty  rounds  of  ammunition,  and  his  canteen  filled  with  water.  The 
men  should  also  carry  their  intrenching  tools.  The  covering  vessels 
must  be  liberal  with  round  shot,  grape,  and  canister ;  and  under  cover 
of  their  fire,  the^rs^  line  of  boats  should  pull  boldly  in,  recollecting  that 
the  men  are  to  be  landed,  and  that  the  sooner  it  is  done  the  better. 
When  a  boat  grounds,  the  officer  jumps  out  over  the  bow,  and  the  men 
follow  also  over  the  bow.  If  the  boat  is  large,  or  there  are  rocks,  so  as 
to  render  it  unsafe  for  an  accoutred  man  to  jump,  the  gang-boards  must 
be  used.  The  men  follow  the  officer  to  the  sheltered  spot  selected  by 
him  for  their  formation.  Without  waiting  for  other  boats,  the  officer 
will  consider  his  men  part  of  a  line  of  skirmishers,  the  supports  of 
which  are  behind.  As  soon  as  each  boat  is  clear,  she  must  shove  ofF, 
and  pull  to  the  shipping  for  a  fresh  load. 

The  second  division  of  boats  will  land  as  the  first,  but  these  will  not 
commence  firing  until  the  whole  of  each  company  has  joined,  when  they 
will  act  as  supports,  under  the  command  of  their  proper  officers.  As 
soon  as  a  sufficient  number  of  well-united  companies  are  on  shore,  the 
irregularly  formed  skirmishers  first  landed  will  be  relieved,  formed  by 
companies,  and  sent  to  their  respective  battalions.  Boats  employed 
landing  troops  should  have  neither  guns,  masts,  nor  sails  ;  their  equip- 
ments should  be  gang-boards,  oars,  grapnels  and  painters,  boat  hooks, 
bailers,  hammers  and  nails,  sheet  lead,  grease,  and  canvas ;  the  latter 
articles  to  enable  them  to  stop  a  small  shot  hole,  in  case  of  accident. 
16 


242  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [Dis. 

The  launches  of  men-of-war  are  used  for  disembarking  field-artillery, 
when  opposed  by  the  'enemy.  Two  planks  are  laid  from  the  bow  to 
the  stern  of  the  launch,  parallel  to  each  other,  at  the  distance  of  the  space 
of  the  wheels  ;  a  bead  is  nailed  to  the  inside  edge,  to  prevent  the  wheels 
from  slipping  off.  Two  gang-boards,  which  can  be  laid  out  or  taken  on 
board,  are  fitted  to  the  bow  ends  of  the  planks,  so  as  to  reach  from 
them  to  the  shore,  as  a  ramp.  These  launches  are  towed  by  smaller 
boats.  It  is  very  desirable  that  this  portion  of  artillery,  with  their  offi- 
cers and  men,  should  be  on  board  men-of-war.  Each  two-decker  can 
take  a  couple ;  the  guns  are  stowed  away  on  the  upper  deck,  the  car- 
riages and  wheels  in  the  chains,  so  that  the  guns  can  be  mounted  and 
ready  to  be  lowered  into  the  boats  in  a  very  few  minutes.  The  muzzle 
of  the  gun  must  point  forward  in  the  launch,  and  as  soon  as  the  boat 
touches  ground,  the  gang-boards  are  put  out  and  the  guns  run  ashore. 
The  artillery  should  endeavor  to  gain  the  shore  and  land  with  the 
troops.  It  is  dragged  by  the  sailors  or  troops.  A  sufficient  supply  of 
ammunition  must  be  at  hand  in  a  boat  or  two,  close  to  the  shore.  In 
an  emergency  the  harness  may  be  at  once  sent  ashore,  and  if  the  vessels 
are  near,  horses  may  be  made  to  leap  out  and  swim  ashore.  Under 
other  circumstances,  boats  of  proper  capacity  must  be  provided  for  the 
disembarkation  of  horses,  heavy  ordnance,  &c. ;  or  it  may  be  necessary 
to  establish  temporary  wharves  on  trestles,  or  by  means  of  boats,  and 
to  erect  shears,  cranes,  or  derricks. 

On  a  smooth,  sandy  beach,  heavy  pieces  may  be  landed  by  rolling 
them  overboard  as  soon  as  the  boats  ground,  and  hauling  them  up  with 
sling  carts.  (See  EMBARKATION.  Consult  Aide  Memoire  of  the  Mili- 
tary Sciences;  SCOTT'S  Orders  and  Correspondences  during  the  Cam- 
paign in  Mexico.) 

DISINFECTANTS.     (See  SANITARY  PRECAUTIONS.) 

DISMISSION.  No  sentence  of  a  court-martial  in  time  of  peace 
dismissing  a  commissioned  officer,  or  which,  in  war  or  peace,  affects  a 
general  officer,  shall  be  carried  into  execution  without  the  approval  of 
the  President  of  the  United  States ;  (ART.  65.)  Disbursing  officers 
may  be  dismissed  by  the  President  alone,  without  the  intervention  of  a 
court-martial,  on  failure  to  account  properly  for  moneys  placed  in  their 
hands ;  (Act.  Jan.,  1823.)  A  general  court-martial  in  time  of  peace 
inay  dismiss,  with  the  approval  of  the  President,  in  all  cases  in  which 
they  are  authorized  to  sentence  to  "  death  or  such  other  punishment 
as  may  be  inflicted  by  a  general  court-martial."  (See  DEATH.)  Such 
court  may  also  sentence  a  commissioned  officer  to  be  cashiered  or  dis- 
missed the  service  in  the  following  cases  : — 1.  Drunkenness  on  duty  ; 


Dis.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  243 

(ART.  45.)  2.  Breach  of  arrest ;  (ART.  77.)  3.  Conduct  unbecoming 
an  officer  and  a  gentleman ;  (ART.  83.)  4.  Using  contemptuous  or 
disrespectful  words  against  the  President  of  the  United  States,  against 
the  Vice-president  thereof,  against  the  Congress  of  the  United  States, 
or  against  the  chief  magistrate  or  legislature  of  any  of  the  United  States 
in  which  he  may  be  quartered  ;  (ART.  5.)  5.  Signing  a  false  certificate 
relating  to  the  absence  of  either  officer  or  soldier,  or  relative  to  his  or 
their  pay ;  (ART.  14.)  6.  Making  a  false  muster  of  man  or  horse ; 
(ART.  15.)  7.  Taking  money  or  other  thing  by  way  of  gratification, 
on  mustering  any  regiment,  troop,  or  company,  or  on  signing  muster 
rolls.  8.  Making  a  false  return  to  the  Department  of  War,  or  to  any 
of  his  superior  officers  authorized  to  call  for  such  returns  of  the  state 
of  the  regiment,  troop,  or  company,  or  garrison  under  his  command ; 
or  of  the  army  ammunition,  clothing,  or  other  stores  thereunto '  belong- 
ing ;  (ART.  18.)  8.  Sending  and  accepting  a  challenge  to  another 
officer  or  soldier  to  fight  a  duel ;  (ART.  25.)  9.  An  officer  who  com- 
mands a  guard,  knowingly  and  wilfully  suffering  any  person  to  go  forth 
to  fight  a  duel,  and  all  seconds,  promoters,  and  carriers  of  challenges 
shall  be  punished  as  challengers  ;  (ART.  26.)  10.  Selling,  embezzling, 
misapplying,  or  wilfully,  or  through  neglect,  suffering  provisions,  arms, 
&c.,  to  be  spoiled  or  damaged;  (ART.  36.)  11.  Any  commanding 
officer  who  exacts  exorbitant  prices  for  houses  let  out  to  sut- 
lers, or  connives  at  like  exactions  from  others,  or  who  by  his  own 
authority  and  for  his  private  advantage  lays  any  duty  or  imposition 
upon,  or  is  interested  in,  the  sale  of  any  victuals,  liquors,  or  other 
necessaries  of  life  brought  for  the  use  of  the  soldiers,  maybe  discharged 
the  service;  (ART.  31.)  12.  Failure,  by  a  commanding  officer,  to  see 
justice  done  to  offenders,  and  reparation  made  to  the  party  injured,  by 
officers  or  soldiers  ill-treating  any  person,  or  disturbing  fairs  or  markets, 
or  committing  any  kinds  of  riots  to  the  disquieting  of  citizens  of  the 
United  States ;  (ART.  32.) 

DISMOUNT.  To  dismount  the  cavalry,  is  to  use  them  as  infantry. 
Guards,  when  relieved,  are  said  to  dismount.  They  are  to  be  marched 
with  the  utmost  regularity  to  the  parade-ground  where  they  were 
formed,  and  from  thence  to  their  regimental  parades,  previously  to 
being  dismissed  to  their  quarters.  To  dismount  a  piece  of  ordnance, 
is  to  take  it  from  the  carriage. 

DISOBEDIENCE  OF  ORDERS— punishable  by  a  court-martial 
with  death  or  otherwise,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  offence ;  (ART.  9.) 

DISORDERS.     (See  ABUSES  ;  CRIMES.) 

DISPART — is  the  difference  of  the  semi-diameter  of  the  base-ring 


244  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [Dis. 

and  the  swell  of  the  muzzle,  or  the  muzzle-band  of  a  piece  of  ordnance. 
(See  ORDNANCE.) 

DISRESPECT  TO  A  COMMANDING  OFFICER— punished 
by  court-martial. 

DISRESPECTFUL  WORDS— used  by  any  officer  or  soldier 
against  the  President,  Vice-president,  the  Congress  or  the  governor  of 
any  State  where  he  may  be  quartered,  punishable  with  cashiering  or 
otherwise,  as  a  court-martial  may  direct ;  (ART.  5.) 

DISTANCES.  Pacing  Distances. — "  If  you  count  the  strokes  of 
either  of  your  horse's  fore-feet,  either  walking  or  trotting,  you  will  find 
them  to  be  upon  an  average  about  950  to  a  mile.  In  a  field-book,  as  you 
note  each  change  of  bearing,  you  have  only  to  note  down  also  the  num- 
ber of  paces  (which  scon  becomes  a  habit)  ;  and  to  keep  count  of  these, 
it  is  only  necessary  to  carry  about  thirty-five  or  forty  small  pieces  of 
wood,  like  dice  (beans  or  peas  will  do),  in  one  waistcoat-pocket,  and  at 
the  end  of  every  100  paces,  remove  one  to  the  empty  pocket  on  the  op- 
posite side.  At  each  change  of  bearing  you  count  these,  adding  the  odd 
numbers  to  the  number  of  hundreds,  ascertained  by  the  dice,  to  be 
counted  and  returned  at  each  change  of  bearing  to  the  other  pocket. 
You  should  have  a  higher  pocket  for  your  watch,  and  keep  the  two 
lower  waistcoat-pockets  for  this  purpose.  Now,  to  plot  such  a  survey, 
you  have  only  to  take  the  half-inch  scale  of  equal  parts,  (on  the  six-inch 
scale,  in  every  case  of  instruments,)  and  allowing  ten  for  a  hundred,  the 
half-inch  will  represent  a  thousand  paces.  You  may  thus  lay  down  any 
broken  number  of  paces  to  a  true  scale,  and  so  obtain  a  tolerably  accu- 
rate map  of  each  day's  journey.  The  latitude  will,  after  all,  determine 
finally  the  scale  of  paces ;  and  you  can  at  leisure  adjust  each  day's 
journey  by  its  general  bearing  between  different  latitudes,  and  subse- 
quently introduce  the  details."  (Sir  THOMAS.MITCHELL.) 

A  traveller,  when  the  last  of  his  watches  breaks  down,  has  no  need 
to  be  disheartened  from  going  on  with  his  longitude  observations,  espe- 
cially if  he  observes  occupations  and  eclipses.  The  object  of  a  watch 
is  to  tell  the  number  of  seconds  that  elapse  between  the  instant  of  oc- 
cultation,  eclipse,  &c.,  and  that,  a  minute  or  two  later,  when  the  sextant 
observation  for  time  is  made  ;  and  all  that  it  actually  does,  is  to  beat 
seconds,  and  to  record  the  number  of  beats.  Now,  a  string  and  stone 
swung  as  a  pendulum  will  beat  time  ;  and  a  native  who  is  taught 
to  throw  a  pebble  into  a  bag  at  each  beat  will  record  it ;  and,  for  oper- 
ations that  are  not  tedious,  he  will  be  as  good  as  a  watch.  The  rate 
of  the  pendulum  is,  of  course,  determined  by  taking  two  sets  of  obser- 
vations, with  three  or  four  minutes'  interval  between  them ;  and,  if  the 


Dis.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  245 

distance  from  the  point  of  suspension  to  the  centre  of  the  stone  be 
thirty -nine  inches,  and  if  the  string  be  thin,  and  the  stone  very  heavy, 
it  will  beat  seconds  very  nearly  indeed.  The  observations  upon  which 
the  longitude  of  the  East  African  lakes  now  depends  (1859)  are  lunars 
timed  with  a  string  and  a  stone,  in  default  of  a  watch. 

Units  of  length. — A  man  should  ascertain  his  height ;  height  of  his 
eye  above  ground;  ditto,  when  kneeling;  his  fathom;  his  cubit;  the 
span,  from  ball  of  thumb  to  tip  of  one  of  his  fingers ;  the  length  of  the 
foot,  and  the  width  of  two,  three,  or  four  fingers.  In  all  probability, 
some  one  of  these  is  an  even  and  a  useful  number  of  feet  or  inches, 
which  he  will  always  be  able  to  recollect,  and  refer  to  as  a  unit  of 
measurement.  A  stone's  throw  is  a  good  standard  of  reference  for 
greater  distances.  Cricketers  estimate  by  the  length  between  wickets. 
Pacing  should  be  practised.  It  is  well  to  dot  a  scale  of  inches  on  a 
pocket-knife. 

Angles  to  measure. — A  capital  substitute  for  a  very  rude  sextant 
is  afforded  by  the  outstretched  hand  and  arm.  The  span  between 
the  middle  finger  and  the  thumb  subtends  an  angle  of  15°,  and  that 
between  the  forefinger  and  the  thumb  an  angle  of  11£°,  or  one  point 
of  the  compass.  Just  as  a  person  may  learn  to  walk  yards  accurately, 
so  may  he  learn  to  span  out  these  angular  distances  accurately ; 
and  the  horizon,  however  broken  it  may  be,  is  always  before  his  eyes 
to  check  him.  Thus,  if  he  begins  from  a  tree,  or  even  from  a  book  on 
his  shelves,  and  spans  all  round  until  he  comes  to  the  tree  or  book 
again,  he  should  make  twenty-four  of  the  larger  spans  and  thirty-two 
of  the  lesser  ones.  These  two  angles  of  15°  and  11^°  are  particularly 
important.  The  sun  travels  through  15°  in  each  hour ;  and  therefore, 
by  "  spanning  "  along  its  course,  as  imagined,  from  the  place  where  it 
would  stand  at  noon,  (aided  in  this  by  the  compass,)  the  hour  before 
or  after  noon,  and,  similarly,  after  sunrise,  or  before  sunset,  can  be 
instantly  reckoned.  Again,  the  angles  30°,  45°,  60°,  and  90°,  all  of 
them  simple  multiples  of  15°,  are  by  far  the  most  useful  ones  in  taking 
rough  measurements  of  heights  and  distances,  because  of  the  simple 
relations  between  the  sides  of  right-angled  triangles,  whose  other 
angles  are  30°,  45°,  &c.  As  regards  11|°,  or  one  point  of  the  com- 
pass, it  is  perfectly  out  of  the  question  to  trust  to  bearings  taken  by  the 
unaided  eye,  or  to  steer  a  steady  course  by  simply  watching  a  star  or 
landmark,  when  this  happens  to  be  much  to  the  right  or  the  left  of  it. 
Now,  nothing  is  easier  than  to  span  out  the  bearing  from  time  to  time. 

Squaring. — As  a  triangle  whose  sides  are  as  3,  4,  and  5,  must  be  a 
right-angled  one  (since  52=3a-f-42),  we  can  always  find  a  right  angle 


246 


MILITARY  DICTIONARY. 


[Dis. 


very  simply  by  means  of  a  measuring  tape.  We  take  a  length  of 
twelve  feet,  yards,  fathoms,  or  whatever  it  may  be,  and  peg  the  two 
ends  of  it,  close  together,  to  the  ground.  Next  a  peg  is  driven  in  at 
the  third  division,  and  then  the  third  peg  is  held  at  the  seventh  division 
of  the  cord,  which  is  stretched  out  till  it  becomes  taut,  and  the  peg  is 
driven  in.  These  three  pegs  will  form  the  corners  of  a  right-angled 
triangle. 

Measurements,  <£c.— The  breadth  of  a  river  may  be  measured  with* 
out  instruments  and  without  crossing  it,  by  means  of  the  following 
useful  problem  from  the  French  "  Manuel  du  Genie,"  which  requires 
pacing  only : 

To  measure  A  B  (Fig.  106),  produce  it  any  distance  to  D  ;  from  D, 
in  any  direction,  take  any  equal  distances,  D  C,  C  d,  and  produce  B  C 
to  5,  making  C  b  =  C  B  ;  join  d  b  and  produce  it  to  a,  where  A  C  pro- 
duced intersects  it ;  then  a  b  is  equal  to  A  B.  In  practice,  the  points 
D  C,  &c.,  are  marked  by  bushes  planted  in  the  ground,  or  by  men 
standing. 

Colonel  Everest,  the  late  surveyor-general  of  India,  has  pointed  out 
the  following  simple  way  of  measuring  an  angle,  and  therefore  a  triangle : 
A  B  is  the  base,  R  R  the  river,  C  an  object  on  the 
other  side ;  (Fig.  107.)  He  paces  any  length  A 
a1 ;  and  an  equal  length  A  a";  also  a1  a",  which 
is  the  chord  of  a'  A  a".  In  other  words — 


FIG.  106. 


A  a   a 

sin.  _  =:   

2          2  A  a' 


in  the  same  way  B  is  found.     A  B  being  known, 

FIG.  107. 


the  triangle  A  B  C  is  known,  and  the  breadth  of  the  river  can  be 
found.  The  problem  can  be  worked  out,  either  by  calculation  or  by 
protraction.  (GALTON'S  Art  of  Travel.  See  STADIA  ;  SURVEYS  ;  TAR- 
GET ;  VELOCITIES.) 


Drr.J  •         MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  047 

DISTRIBUTION — means,  generally,  any  division  or  allotment 
made -for  the  purposes  of  war,  and  minor  arrangements  made  for  the 
supply  of  corps. 

DISTRICT.  One  of  those  portions  into  which  a  country  is  di- 
vided, for  the  convenience  of  command,  and  to  insure  a  co-operation 
beween  distant  bodies  of  troops. 

DITCH — sometimes  called  the  Fosse — is  the  excavation  made 
round  the  works,  from  which  the  earth  required  for  the  construction  of 
the  rampart,  parapet,  and  banquette  is  obtained.  Iii  besieging  a  forti- 
fication, when  the  ditch  is  dry,  and  a  descending  gallery  has  been  con- 
structed, the  passage  of  the  ditch  consists  of  an  ordinary  sap  pushed 
from  the  opening  in  the  counterscarp  wall  to  the  slope  of  the  breach, 
and,  when  -necessary,  it  is  carried  on  to  crown  the  summit  of  the  breach. 
If  the  ditch  be  full  of  water,  and  the  locality  favors  its  being  drained, 
every  means  must  be  used  to  break  the  batardeaux,  to  cause  the  water 
to  flow  away  entirely  or  in  part.  If  none  of  the  batteries  can  see  the 
batardeaux,  the  sluices  must  be  sought  and  destroyed  by  shells,  or 
by  mining.  Should  the  assailants  be  unable  to  breach  the  batardeaux 
or  to  destroy  the  sluices,  a  bridge  or  causeway  must  be  thrown  across. 
This  is  one  of  the  most  difficult  operations  in  a  siege.  The  bridge  or 
causeway,  with  its  epaulement,  is  constructed  with  pontoons  or  casks, 
or,  if  without  them,  with  fascines,  hurdles,  gabions,  and  sand-bags, 
openings  being  loft  in  the  causeway  to  allow  the  free  flowing  of  the 
water,  if  it  be  a  running  stream,  or  can  be  made  so  by  the  defend- 
ers. A  wet  ditch  may  sometimes  be  crossed  by  a  raft  of  sufficient 
length,  which  should  be  constructed  along  the  counterscarp,  and  at- 
tached by  one  end  to  the  bottom  of  the  descent.  The  raft  is  then  al- 
lowed to  swing  round  with  the  current,  if  there  be  one,  or  is  rowed  or 
pulled  round,  if  there  is  not  one,  so  as  to  form  a  connection  across  the 
ditch  with  the  breach. 

The  following  experiment  for  crossing  a  wet  ditch  was  successfully 
tried  at  Chatham  by  Sir  Charles  Pasley  : — Two  hundred  large  casks 
were  prepared,  with  their  heads  taken  out ;  they  were  lashed  by  fours, 
end  to  end,  so  as  to  form  hollow  piers,  about  18  feet  in  length,  of  un- 
equal diameters,  in  consequence  of  the  unequal  size  of  the  casks. 
Each  pier  was  launched  in  succession  from  a  great  gallery,  represent- 
ing that  of  the  counterscarp  in  a  regular  siege.  These  piers  had  guys 
at  each  end,  by  which  they  were  hauled  round  into  their  intended 
position,  and  there  sunk  by  means  of  sand-bags.  After  this,  the  in- 
tervals between  the  upper  tiers  of  casks  were  filled  in  with  long  fas- 
cines; and  others  were  laid  over  these  at  right  angles,  till  a  general 


248  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [Div. 

level  was  obtained,  when  strong  skids  were  laid  over  all,  and  a  24- 
pounder,  on  a  travelling  carriage,  was  dragged  through  the  gallery, 
and  passed  along  these  skids  to  the  other  side.  In  this  manner,  a 
piece  of  water,  representing  a  wet  ditch,  was  bridged  over  with  ease 
and  comparative  expedition.  This  experiment  was  afterwards  tried 
with  full  success  in  the  Mast  Pond  of  Chatham  Dockyard,  where  a 
very  strong  current  was  produced,  much  stronger  than  could  occur  in 
the  ditches  of  any  fortified  place.  It  is  stated,  that  there  was  no  per- 
ceptible depression  in  the  bridge  as  the  24-pounder  passed  over.  The 
same  experiment  was  tried  with  common  gabions,  lashed  together,  end 
to  end,  in  like  manner,  forming  hollow  piers  or  cylinders,  which  were 
similarly  sunk  one  over  another  until  the  upper  layer  rose  above  the 
water,  and  were  covered  with  fascines  and  skids.  These,  also,  bore  a 
24-pounder,  which  caused  a  depression  of  more  than  6  inches  in  the  part 
over  which  it  was  passing.  The  gabions  were  very  weak  and  old.  The 
piers  of  casks  were  fastened  as  follows  :  on  being  placed  end  to  end, 
staples  were  driven  into  each  cask,  about  10  inches  from  their  ends,  in 
three  equi-distant  parts  of  their  circumference ;  strong  spun-yarn, 
connecting  the  staples,  lashed  the  four  casks  together.  Six  or  eight 
bushel  sand-bags  were  necessary  to  sink  each  pier  with  ease,  yet  with- 
out making  it  sink  too  rapidly.  To  get  them  into  the  water,  they 
were  launched  on  ways  made  of  planks.  In  making  the  gabion  bridge, 
each  pier  consisted  of  four  gabions  lashed  end  to  end  like  the  casks,  by 
spun-yarn,  at  three  equi-distant  points  of  the  circumference.  These 
were  not  loaded  to  make  them  sink.  It  was  found,  from  the  irregu- 
larity of  their  surface,  that  the  second  pier  merely  forced  the  first  out 
from  the  bank  to  make  room  for  itself;  the  third  the  second,  and  so  on, 
until  the  tier  of  gabions  connected  the  two  scarps.  On  rolling  other 
piers  on  the  top  of  them,  the  lower  ones  sunk  to  the  bottom,  and  brush- 
wood and  fascines  were  laid  in  the  intervals  of  the  gabions  to  form  a 
level  surface  ;  (HYDE'S  Fortifications.) 

DIVISION.  In  the  ordinary  arrangement  of  the  army,  two  regi- 
ments of  infantry  or  cavalry  shall  constitute  a  brigade,  and  shall  be 
commanded  by  a  brigadier-general ;  two  brigades,  a  division,  and  shall 
be  commanded  by  a  major-general.  Provided  always  that  it  shall  be 
in  the  discretion  of  the  commanding  general  to  vary  this  disposition 
whenever  he  shall  judge  proper  ;  (Act  March  3,  1799  ;  Sec.  8.) 

DOMICILE.  By  law  every  man's  domicile  is  in  the  country 
where  he  has  his  permanent  residence,  or  to  which  he  ordinarily  returns 
for  the  purpose  of  residence  after  occasional  absence  ;  and  in  case  of  his 
death,  the  right  of  succession  to  his  goods  and  chattels  and  personal 


Div.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  249 

property  of  all  sorts  is  regulated  by  the  law  of  the  country  of  his  dom- 
icile, although  he  may  happen  to  die  beyond  its  limits.  As  regards 
military  men,  their  employment  on  duty  involving  only  temporary 
absence  in  intention  would  not,  on  common  principles,  cause  a  change 
of  domicile  ;  and  as  the  laws  of  different  States  of  the  Union  vary  on 
the  subject  of  the  right  of  succession  to  property,  the  subject  is  of  great 
interest  to  military  men.  Recently,  an  officer  who  was  a  native  of 
South  Carolina  died  intestate  in  the  city  of  New  York,  and  no  heirs 
being  forthcoming,  his  estate  was  taken  possession  of  by  the  public  ad- 
ministrator, although  the  Rules  and  Articles  of  War  enacted  by  Con- 
gress provide  that,  in  such  cases,  an  officer  of  the  army  at  the  station 
shall  take  possession  of  the  effects  for  purposes  of  administration. 

"  Personal  property,  in  point  of  law,  has  no  locality,  and  in  case 
of  the  decease  of  the  owner,  must  go  wherever  in  point  of  fact  situate, 
according  to  the  law  of  the  country  where  he  had  his  domicile."  (ROB- 
ERTSON'S Law  of  Personal  Succession.) 

The  14th  Lord  Somerville  entered  the  army  in  1745,  and  continued 
in  the  service  till  the  peace  of  1763,  during  which  period  he  accompa- 
nied his  regiment  to  England,  Scotland,  and  Germany,  both  in  quarters 
and  on  active  duty.  At  his  death  in  1796,  a  question  arose,  whether, 
under  the  circumstances,  his  domicile  was  English  or  Scotch ;  and  the 
Master  of  the  Rolls,  (Sir  R.  P.  Arden.)  in  giving  judgment,  said  :  "  I  am 
clearly  of  opinion  Lord  Somerville  was  a  Scotchman  upon  his  birth, 
and  continued  so  to  the  end  of  his  days.  He  never  ceased  to  be  so, 
never  having  abandoned  his  Scotch  domicile,  or  established  another. 
The  decree,  therefore,  must  be,  that  the  succession  to  his  personal 
estate  ought  to  be  regulated  according  to  the  law  of  Scotland."  His 
honor  must  consequently  have  been  of  opinion,  that  a  Scotchman  en- 
tering the  British  army  does  not  thereby  lose  his  original  Scotch  dom- 
icile ;  and  since  the  union  of  England  and  Scotland,  the  army  is  cer- 
tainly as  much  that  of  Scotland  as  of  England. 

Sir  Charles  Douglas,  a  Scotchman  by  birth  and  original  domicile, 
left  his  native  country  at  the  age  of  twelve,  to  enter  the  navy.  From 
that  time  to  his  death,  he  was  in  Scotland  only  four  times :  1st,  as 
captain  of  a  frigate ;  2dly,  to  introduce  his  wife  to  his  friends,  on 
which  occasion  he  staid  about  a  year ;  3dly,  upon  a  visit ;  and  4thly, 
when,  upon  his  appointment  to  a  command  upon  the  Halifax  station,  he 
went  in  the  mail  coach  to  Scotland,  and  died  there  in  1789.  He  was 
not  for  a  day  resident  there  in  any  house  of  his  own  ;  nor  was  he  ever 
there  except  for  temporary  occasions.  He  also  commanded  the  Rus- 
sian navy  for  about  a  year,  and  was  afterwards  in  the  Dutch  service. 


250  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [Div. 

He  had  no  fixed  residence  in  England  till  1776,  in  which  year  he  took  a 
house  at  Gosport,  where  he  lived  as  his  home  when  on  shore.  This 
was  his  only  residence  in  the  British  dominions ;  and  when  he  went  on 
service  he  left  his  wife  and  family  at  Gosport.  At  his  death  it  became 
necessary  to  decide  whether  his  domicile  was  Scotch  or  English,  be- 
cause he  had  made  a  will,  bequeathing  a  legacy  to  his  daughter,  with 
certain  conditions,  which  were  void  by  the  law  of  Scotland,  but  valid 
by  the  law  of  England.  The  House  of  Lords  decided  that  his  original 
domicile  was  Scotch,  and  that  though  he  did  not  lose  it  in  this  first  in- 
stance, by  becoming  an  officer  in  the  British  navy,  he  abandoned  it  by 
entering  a  foreign  service,  and  acquired  a  Russian  domicile ;  that  0:1 
returning  to  England,  and  resuming  his  position  as  a  British  officer,  he 
acquired  an  English  domicile,  but  did  not  recover  his  Scotch  domicile, 
that  his  subsequent  visits  to  Scotland,  not  being  made  anirno  manendi, 
did  not  revive  his  Scotch  domicile,  and  that  the  succession  to  his  prop- 
erty, as  that  of  an  Englishman,  was  therefore  to  be  governed  by  the 
law  of  England,  in  which  country  he  last  acquired  a  domicile. 

In  connection  with  this  subject,  it  may  be  proper  to  notice  an  opin- 
ion expressed  by  the  Master  of  the  Rolls,  during  the  argument  of  Lord 
Somerville's  case — that  an  officer  entering  the  military  or  naval  service 
of  a  foreign  power,  with  consent  of  the  British  government,  and  taking 
a  qualified  oath  of  allegiance  to  the  foreign  state,  does  not  thereby 
abandon  or  lose  his  native  domicile. 

In  Forrest  v.  Funston,  the  defendant  was  a  lieutenant  in  the  king's 
army,  and  held  a  situation  of  master  gunner  at  Blackness  Castle  in 
Scotland,  where  he  had  the  charge  of  considerable  military  stores,  with 
an  apartment  for  his  residence.  He  was  a  native  of  Strabane  in  Ire- 
land ;  and  it  was  held  by  the  Court  of  Session,  that  though  it  was  his 
duty  to  reside  at  Blackness,  he  did  not  by  the  possession  of  his  office 
acquire  a  Scotch  domicile.  With  respect  to  the  East  India  Company's 
Service,  the  question  of  domicile  does  not  turn  upon  the  simple  fact  of 
the  party  being  under  an  obligation,  by  his  commission,  to  serve  in 
India ;  but  when  an  officer  accepts  a  commission  or  employment,  the 
duties  of  which  necessarily  require  residence  in  India,  and  there  is  no 
stipulated  period  of  service,  and  he  proceeds  to  India  accordingly, 
the  law  from  such  circumstances  presumes  an  intention  consistent  with 
his  duty,  and  holds  his  residence  to  be  animo  et  facto  in  India. 

In  the  recent  case  *of  General  Forbes,  in  the  Court  of  Chancery,  the 
subject  of  domicile  in  its  relation  to  military  men  was  extensively  dis- 
cussed before  the  Vice-chancellor  Wood.  Nathaniel  Forbes,  afterwards 
General  Forbes,  was  born  in  Scotland  of  Scotch  parents  ;  his  father 


Div.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  251 

being  possessed  of  an  ancestral  estate  called  Auchernach,  on  which 
there  was  then  no  house.  In  1786,  Nathaniel  Forbes,  being  then  a 
minor,  and  a  lieutenant  on  half-pay  in  the  102d  foot,  a  disbanded  regi- 
ment, contracted  a  marriage  with  a  Scotch  lady.  He  shortly  after- 
wards obtained  an  appointment  in  the  service  of  the  East  India  Com- 
pany ;  and  in  December,  1787,  he  sailed  for  India,  where  he  continued 
until  1808.  He  then  obtained  a  furlough,  and  returned  with  his  wife 
to  Scotland.  On  the  death  of  his  father  in  1794  he  had  succeeded  to 
the  family  estate  in  Scotland  ;  and  during  his  furlough  he  built  a  house 
there,  and  furnished  it,  and  made  some  improvements  in  the  grounds. 
In  1812  he  returned  with  his  wife  to  India,  and  remained  there  for  several 
years.  The  wife  left  India  in  1818  :  and  in  1822  her  husband,  who  had 
then  attained  the  rank  of  a  general  officer,  and  was  colonel  of  a  regi- 
ment, also  quitted  India,  according  to  the  rules  of  the  service,  with  the 
intention  of  never  returning  to  that  country;  and  he  never  did  return 
thither.  During  the  whole  of  his  service  under  the  East  India  Com- 
pany General  Forbes  retained  his  commission  and  rank  of  a  lieutenant 
in  the  king's  army.  His  domicile  was  without  doubt  originally  Scot- 
tish. After  his  final  return  from  India  he  had  an  establishment  at  a 
hired  house  in  Sloane-street,  London.  He  also  kept  his  house  at 
Auchernach  furnished  :  and  had  some  servants  there  also.  He  likewise 
became  a  justice  of  the  peace  and  a  commissioner  of  taxes  in  Scotland  : 
and  kept  his  pedigree  and  papers  (including  his  will)  at  Auchernach, 
where  he  was  in  the  habit  of  residing  half  the  year,  and  where  he  had 
constructed  a  mausoleum  in  which  he  wished  to  be  buried.  But  his 
health  did  not  permit  him  to  reside  constantly  at  Auchernach,  where 
his  establishment  was  also  not  suitable  for  his  wife ;  and  his  house  in 
Sloane-street  wras  manifestly  his  chief  establishment,  and  his  wife  re- 
sided there.  He  died  in  1851.  His  wife  thereupon  laid  claim  to  a 
share  of  his  property  according  to  the  Scotch  law  of  succession,  and 
contended  that,  in  the  events  which  had  happened,  he  must  be  consid- 
ered to  have  died  possessed  of  his  original  Scottish  domicile.  The  sub- 
stantial question  in  the  case  was,  whether  his  domicile  was  in  England 
or  in  Scotland.  If  he  had  been  a  single  man  his  final  domicile  would 
probably  have  been  considered  Scottish.  But  the  court  held  that  Sloane- 
street,  having  been  his  chief  establishment,  and  the  abode  of  his  wife, 
must  be  taken  to  have  been  the  seat  of  his  domicile.  In  pronouncing 
judgment  upon  the  case,  the  learned  Vice-chancellor  ruled  the  following 
points  :  1.  That  the  Scottish  domicile  of  General  Forbes,  notwithstand- 
ing his  having  gone  to  India  during  his  minority,  in  the  service  of  the 
East  India  Company,  continued  until  he  attained  the  age  of  twenty-one  : 


252  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [DBA. 

on  the  principle  that  a  minor  cannot  change  his  domicile  by  his  owu 
act.  2.  That,  on  attaining  twenty-one,  he  acquired  an  Anglo-Indian 
domicile  ;  and  thereupon  his  Scottish  domicile  ceased  :  on  the  principle 
that  a  service  in  India,  under  a  commission  in  the  Indian  army,  of  a 
person  having  no  other  residence,  creates  an  Indian  domicile.  3.  That 
the  circumstance  of  his  being  a  lieutenant  on  half-pay  in  a  disbanded 
king's  regiment,  did  not  affect  the  question.  4.  That  the  Anglo-Indian 
domicile  of  General  Forbes  continued  unchanged  until  his  departure 
from  India  in  1822  :  the  furlough,  or  limited  leave  of  absence,  implying 
by  its  nature  that  it  was  his  duty  to  return  to  India  on  its  expiration. 

5.  That  in  1822  the  Anglo-Indian  domicile  of  General  Forbes  was 
abandoned  and  lost :  the  possibility  of  his  being  called  upon,  as  colonel 
of  a  regiment,  to  return  at  some  indefinite  time  to  active  service  in 
India,  being  too  remote  to  have  any  material  bearing  upon  the  question. 

6.  That  he  had  acquired  by  choice  a  new  domicile  in  England  on  his 
return  from  India. 

DRAGOONS.  There  are  two  regiments  of  dragoons  in  our  army. 
(See  ARMY  ;  CAVALRY.) 

DRAG-ROPE.  This  is  a  4"  hemp  rope,  with  a  thimble  worked 
into  each  end,  one  of  the  thimbles  carrying  a  hook.  Six  handles,  made 
of  oak  or  ash,  are  put  in  between  the  strands  of  the  rope,  and  lashed 
with  marline.  It  is  used  to  assist  in  extricating  carriages  from  differ- 
ent positions  ;  by  the  men,  for  dragging  pieces,  &c.  Length  28  feet. 

DRAWING.     (See  RECONNOISSANCE.) 

DRILL.     The  manoeuvres  and  tactical  exercises  of  troops. 

DRUNKENNESS  ON  DUTY.  Any  commissioned  officer  who 
shall  be  found  drunk  on  his  guard,  post,  or  other  duty,  shall  be  ca- 
shiered. Any  non-commissioned  officer  or  soldier  so  offending,  shall 
suffer  such  corporal  punishment  as  shall  be  inflicted  by  a  court-mar- 
tial ;  (ART.  45.) 

DUEL.  Sending  and  accepting  a  challenge,  or,  if  a  commanding 
officer,  permitting  knowingly  a  duel,  or  seconding,  promoting,  or  carry- 
ing challenges  in  order  to  duels,  punishable  with  cashiering,  if  commis- 
sioned officers,  and  with  corporal  punishment  in  the  case  of  non-com- 
missioned officers  and  soldiers  ;  (ARTS.  25,  26.)  (See  CHALLENGES.) 

DUTY.  In  all  military  duties,  the  tour  of  duty  is  invariably  from 
the  eldest  downwards.  Brigade  duties  are  those  performed  by  one 
regiment  in  common  with  another.  Regimental  duties  are  those  per- 
formed by  the  officers  and  companies  of  a  regiment  among  themselves. 
A  court-martial,  the  members  of  which  have  been  assembled  and  sworn, 
is  reckoned  a  duty,  although  they  may  have  been  dismissed  without 


EMU.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  253 

trying  any  person.  If  an  officer's  turn  for  picket,  general  court-martial, 
or  fatigue,  happens  when  he  is  upon  any  other  duty,  he  is  not  obliged 
to  make  good  that  picket,  &c.,  when  he  comes  off,  but  his  tour  passes 
him ;  however,  if  an  officer  is  on  the  inlying  picket,  he  is  liable  to  be 
relieved,  and  placed  on  other  duties.  Officers  cannot  exchange  their 
duties  without  permission  of  the  commanding  officer.  A  guard,  de- 
tachment, or  picket,  having  once  marched  off  the  place  of  parade,  is 
reckoned  to  have  performed  a  duty,  though  it  may  have  been  dismissed 
immediately  afterwards.  Officers,  on  all  duties  under  arms,  are  to 
have  their  swords  drawn,  without  waiting  for  any  word  of  command 
for  that  purpose. 

DYSENTERY.     (See  SANITARY  PRECAUTIONS.) 

E. 

ECHELON.  An  arrangement  of  battalions,  so  that  each  has  a 
line  of  battle  in  advance  or  in  rear  of  its  neighboring  battalion.  (Con- 
sult Infantry  Tactics,  vol.  3.  See  also  MANOEUVRES  IN  COMBAT.) 

ELEVATION.  The  elevation  of  a  work  is  the  projection  of  its 
face  on  a  vertical  plane  by  horizontal  rays.  It  shows  the  height  or 
depth  of  a  work,  and  also  its  length,  when  the  plane  of  projection  is 
parallel  to  the  face.  Applied  to  a  piece  of  ordnance,  the  elevation  is 
the  inclination  of  the  axis  of  the  piece  above  the  plane  on  which  the  car- 
riage stands. 

EMBARKATION.  Field-batteries  should  always  be  embarked 
by  the  officers  and  men  belonging  to  them,  who  will  then  know  where 
each  article  is  stowed.  Articles  required  to  be  disembarked  first, 
should  be  put  in  last.  When  there  are  several  vessels  laden  with  ord- 
nance and  ordnance  stores  for  an  expedition,  each  vessel  should  have  on 
each  quarter,  and  on  a  signal  at  mast  head,  a  number  that  can  be  easily 
distinguished  at  a  distance.  The  same  numbers  should  be  entered  on 
the  list  of  supplies  shipped  in  each  vessel.  The  commander  will  then 
know  exactly  what  resources  he  has  with  him.  Articles  shipped  must 
be  divided  among  vessels  according  to  circumstances ;  but,  as  a  general 
rule,  place  in  each  vessel  every  thing  required  for  the  service  at  the 
moment  of  disembarkation,  so  that  there  will  be  no  inconvenience, 
should  other  vessels  be  delayed. 

If  boats  are  to  be  employed  in  the  embarkation,  and  the  boats  are 
much  lower  than  the  top  of  the  wharf,  the  guns  and  ammunition  boxes 
will  be  lowered  into  the  boat  by  means  of  cranes  ;  but  when  the  gun- 
wales are  nearly  level  with  the  wharf,  the  ammunition  boxes  may  be 
more  expeditiously  put  on  board  by  hand,  and  if  there  are  no  cranes, 


254  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [EMB. 

the  guns  may  be  parbuckled  into  the  boats.  Men  told  off  to  the  car- 
riages,  will  prepare  them  for  embarkation.  Each  carriage,  when  called 
for,  is  to  be  run  forward  to  the  boat  or  crane ;  the  gun  unlimbered  and 
dismounted ;  the  ammunition  boxes,  shafts,  wheels,  &c.,  &c.,  to  be 
taken  off;  the  washers  and  linch-pins^carefully  put  away.  If  they  are 
left  in  the  axle-tree  they  are  liable  to  be  lost.  When  a  battery  is  em- 
barked in  different  vessels,  every  part  should  be  complete,  and  a  pro- 
portion of  general  stores  on  each.  Should  two  batteries  be  on  the  same 
vessel,  they  should  be  stowed  on  different  sides  of  the  vessel. 

The  embarkation  of  horses  is  more  difficult  than  that  of  guns,  par- 
ticularly if  it  be  necessary  first  to  take  them  alongside  the  vessel  in 
boats.  In  bad  weather  the  guns  and  carriages  are  easily  hoisted,  but 
not  the  horses.  If  the  embarkation  of  both  cannot  go  on,  therefore,  at 
the  same  time,  the  horses  should  be  embarked  first.  Horse  ships  are 
always  provided  with  slings  for  hoisting  in  the  horses  ;  they  are  made 
of  stout  canvas,  and  are  about  6£  or  7  feet  long,  and  from  2£  to  2£ 
feet  wide.  It  may  be  necessary  to  embark  horses :  1st,  when  the 
transports  can  come  alongside  the  wharf,  and  the  horses  are  taken  on 
board  at  one  operation;  or,  2d,  when  the  transports  cannot  come  along- 
side the  wharf,  and  the  horses  are  embarked  first  in  boats  ;  or,  3d.  when 
the  horses  are  embarked  in  boats,  from  an  open  beach. 

The  first  case  is  the  best,  easiest,  and  most  expeditious — resembling 
in  all  respects  the  hoisting  a  cask  in  and  out  of  the  hold  of  a  vessel. 
Horses  should  generally  be  blindfolded  ,for  this  purpose,  as  this  pre- 
vents their  being  frightened  or  troublesome.  In  the  second  case  there 
are  two  operations :  first,  lowering  the  horse  into  the  boat,  and,  after  the 
passage  of  the  boat  to  the  vessel,  hoisting  the  horse  into  the  transport. 
Sheers  or  derricks  are  absolutely  necessary  for  this  purpose,  because 
the  tackle  must  be  of  such  a  description  as  to  raise  the  horse  off  the 
ground  instantaneously,  which  a  crane  cannot  do.  The  head  of  the  der- 
rick must  incline  inwards  while  the  horse  is  rising ;  but  when  he  is  high 
enough,  the  head  of  the  derrick  or  sheers  must  be  forced  out,  to  bring 
the  horse  directly,  over  the  boat.  Horses  may,  in  this  way,  be 
embarked  in  boats  from  a  beach.  Sand  or  straw  must  be  put  into  the 
boats  to  preserve  their  bottoms,  and  to  prevent  the  horses  from  slip- 
ping. The  horses  should  stand  athwart,  the  head  of  one  horse  being  on 
the  starboard  side,  and  the  head  of  the  next  to  him  on  the  larboard  side. 
The  conductors  must  sit  on  the  gunwale  or  stand  between  the  horses. 
Decked  gun-boats  or  coasting  vessels  are  very  convenient  for  this  pur- 
pose when  there  are  time  and  materials  for  the  necessary  preparation,  as 
they  not  only  hold  a  greater  number  of  horses,  but  can  come  alongside 


EMB.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  255 

of  a  wharf,  and  the  horses,  by  means  of  a  ramp,  may  be  walked  aboard. 
The  disembarkation  of  horses  is  carried  on  by  the  same  means  as  their 
embarkation.  (See  DISEMBARKATION.  Consult  Army  Regulations  for  the* 
rules  governing  troops  embarked  on  transports.) 

EMBEZZLEMENT — either  of  public  property  or  money,  punish- 
able in  the  case  of  an  officer  with  cashiering,  and  making  good  the  loss  ; 
if  a  non-commissioned  officer,  by  reduction  to  the  ranks,  corporal  punish- 
ment, and  making  good  the  loss  ;  (ART.  36  and  ART.  39.) 

By  SEC.  16  of  Act  approved  Aug.  6,  1846,  using  in  any  manner  for 
private  purposes,  loaning  or  depositing  in  bank  any  public  money,  and 
any  failure  to  pay  over  or  to  produce  public  money  intrusted  to  per- 
sons charged  with  its  safe  keeping,  transfer,  and  disbursement,  is  made 
prima  facie  evidence  of  embezzlement,  and  declared  to  be  felony.  The 
taking  of  receipts  and  vouchers  without  paying  the  amount  which  they 
call  for,  and  all  persons  advising  or  participating  in  said  act,  are  also 
declared  guilty  of  embezzlement  by  the  same  section. 

EMBRASURE.  An  embrasure  is  an  opening  cut  through  the 
parapet  to  enable  the  artillery  to  command  a  certain  extent  of  the  sur- 
rounding country.  The  space  between  every  two  of  these  openings, 
called  the  merlon,  is  from  15  to  18  feet  in  length.  The  opening  of  the 
embrasure  at  the  interior  is  two  feet,  while  that  towards  the  country  is 
usually  made  equal  to  half  the  thickness  of  the  parapet.  The  interior 
elevation  of  the  parapet,  which  remains  after  cutting  the  embrasure,  is 
called  the  genouillere,  and  covers  the  lower  part  of  the  gun  carriage. 
The  plongee,  or  slope  given  to  the  sole,  is  generally  less  than  the  incli- 
nation given  to  the  superior  slope  of  the  parapet,  in  order  that  the  fire 
from  the  embrasure  may  meet  that  of  the  musketry  from  the  parapet 
at  a  point  within  a  few  feet  from  the  top  of  the  counterscarp. 

Fig.  108  represents  the  rear  elevation  of  a  two-gun  portion  of  an  ele- 
vated battery  revetted  with  gabions.  In  this  figure  the  two  gabions  at  the 
necks  of  the  embrasures  are 

made  to  assume  a  small  de-  Fia  loa 

gree  of  slope  which  may 
usually  be  done,  because  the 
gabions,  one  with  another,  oc- 
cupy rather  less  than  the 
regular  average  space  of  2 

feet  each,  when  placed  very  close  together,  so  that  those  of -the  upper  tier 
will  generally  admit  of  being  closed  at  top,  and  eased  at  bottom,  to  favor 
this  arrangement.  If  not,  the  neck  of  the  embrasure  may  be  made  of 
equal  width  throughout,  without  attempting  the  kind  of  slope  alluded 


256  MILITAEY  DICTIONARY.  [EMO. 

to ;  but  the  gabions  which  form  the  cheeks  of  the  embrasures  should 
have  a  slope  gradually  increasing  from  the  neck  towards  the  front,  until 
the  fifth  gabion  (more  than  five  will  seldom  be  used)  has  a  slope  of  at 
least  one-third  of  its  height. 

Fig.  109  is  the  plan  of  a  portion  of  parapet  and  embrasure,  showing 
the  arrangement  of  gabions  above  adverted  to. 

Fig.  110  shows  in  elevation  the  arrangement  of  the  gabions  and  of 
the  sand-bags  above  them,  as  well  as  the  genonillere  or  solid  part  of  the 

FIG.  109.  FIG.  110. 


embrasure,  below  the  sole  of  it,  in  a  construction  that  frequently  arises 
in  sieges,  especially  in  the  offensive  crowning  batteries  on  the  crest  of 
the  glacis,  where  the  depression  of  the  sole  of  the  embrasure  is  consid- 
erable, to  allow  of  the  guns  being  pointed  to  spots  of  the  wall  some 
distance  below  them. 

EMOLUMENTS.  (See  PAY.) 

ENCAMPMENT.  (See  CAMP.) 

ENCEINTE— is  the  body  of  the  place,  or  the  first  belt  of  ramparts 
and  parapets  that  inclose  the  place. 

ENFILADE.  To  sweep  the  whole  length  of  the  face  of  any  work 
or  line  of  troops,  by  a  battery  on  the  prolongation  of  that  face  or  line. 

ENGINEER  CORPS.  (See  ARMY  for  its  organization.)  The  func- 
tions of  the  engineers  being  generally  confined  to  the  most  elevated 
branch  of  military  science,  they  are  not  to  assume,  nor  are  they  subject 
to  be  ordered  on,  any  duty  beyond  the  line  of  their  immediate  profes- 
sion, except  by  the  special  order  of  the  President  of  the  United  States  ; 
but  they  are  to  receive  every  mark  of  respect  to  which  their  rank  in  the 
army  may  entitle  them  respectively,  and  are  liable  to  be  transferred,  at 
the  discretion  of  the  President,  from  one  corps  to  another,  regard  being 
paid  to  rank ;  (ART.  63.) 

The  engineers  are  charged  with  planning,  constructing,  and  repair- 
ing all  fortifications  and  other  defensive  works  ;  with  disbursements  of 
money  connected  with  these  operations.  In  time  of  war,  they  present 


ENT.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  257 

plans  for  the  attack  and  defence  of  military  works ;  lay  out  and  con- 
struct field  defences,  redoubts,  intrenchments,  roads,  &c. ;  form  a  part 
of  the  vanguard  to  remove  obstructions ;  and  in  retreat,  form  a  part 
of  the  rear  guard,  to  erect  obstacles,  destroy  roads,  bridges,  &c.,  so  as 
to  retard  an  enemy's  pursuit.  (See  SAPPERS  AND  MINERS.)  (Consult 
'  LAISNE,  Aide  Memoire  d  V  Usage  des  Officiers  du  Genie.} 

ENGINEERS,  TOPOGRAPHICAL.  (See  ARMY  for  their  organiza- 
tion.) The  duties  of  the  corps  consist  in  surveys  for  the  defence  of  the 
frontiers,  and  of  positions  for  fortifications,  in  reconnoissances  of  the 
country  through  which  an  army  has  to  pass,  or  in  which  it  has  to  ope- 
rate ;  in  the  examination  of  all  routes  of  communication  by  land  or  by 
water,  both  for  supplies  and  military  movements ;  in  the  construction 
of  military  roads  and  permanent  bridges  connected  with  them  ;  and  the 
charge  of  the  construction  of  all  civil  works,  authorized  by  acts  of  Con- 
gress, not  specially  assigned  by  law  to  some  other  branch  of  the  ser- 
vice. (Consult  SALNEUVE,  Cours  de  Topographic  d  V  Usage  des  Eleves 
de  VEcole  d'Etat  Major.  R.  S.  SMITH'S  Topographical  Drawing.) 

ENLISTMENTS — are  voluntary,  and  made  for  five  years  ;  (Act 
June  17,  1850.)  Any  non-commissioned  officer  or  soldier  who  shall 
enlist  himself  in  any  other  regiment,  troop,  or  company,  without  a  reg- 
ular discharge  from  the  regiment,  troop,  or  company  in  which  he 
last  served,  to  be  considered  a  deserter ;  (ART.  22.)  Whenever  enlist- 
ments are  made  at  or  in  the  vicinity  of  military  posts  on  the  western 
frontier,  and  at  remote  and  distant  stations,  a  bounty  equal  in  amount 
to  the  cost  of  transporting  and  subsisting  a  soldier  from  the  principal 
recruiting  depot  in  the  harbor  of  New  York,  to  the  place  of  such  enlist- 
ment be,  and  the  same  is  hereby  allowed  to  each  recruit  so  enlisted,  to 
be  paid  in  unequal  instalments  at  the  end  of  each  year's  service,  so  that 
the  several  amounts  shall  annually  increase,  and  the  largest  be  paid  at 
the  expiration  of  each  enlistment ;  (Act  June  17,  1850.)  The  amounts 
and  instalments  have  been  fixed  in  the  regulations  for  the  Pay  Depart- 
ment. (See  RE-ENLISTMENT.) 

ENSIGN.     Lowest  grade  of  commisssioned  officers  of  infantry. 

ENTANGLEMENT.  Abattis,  so  called,  when  made  by  cutting 
only  partly  through  the  trunks,  and  pulling  the  upper  parts  to  the 
ground,  where  they  are  picketed. 

ENTICING.  Any  person  whatever  who  shall  procure  or  entice  a 
soldier  to  desert  the  service  of  the  United  States,  may  be  fined  not  ex- 
ceeding $300,  or  imprisoned  any  term  not  exceeding  one  year,  at  the 
discretion  of  any  court  having  cognizance  of  the  same ;  (Act  March  16, 
1802.) 

17 


258  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [EPA. 

EPAULEMENT.  An  elevation  thrown  up  to  cover  troops  from 
the  fire  of  an  enemy.  It  is  usually  composed  of  gabions  filled  with 
earth,  or  made  of  sand-bags,  &c. 

EPAULETTE.  Badge  of  rank,  of  bullion,  worn  by  officers  on  the 
shoulders.  The  Army  Regulations  prescribe  these  badges  under  author- 
ity given  by  law  to  the  President  to  establish  the  uniform  of  the  army. 

EPROUVETTE,  (PENDULUM.)  The  best  method  of  testing  the 
projectile  force  of  gunpowder,  is  to  ascertain  by  experiment  its  effects 
when  used  in  the  same  quantities  in  which  it  is  to  be  employed  in 
service.  This  method  has  been  adopted  by  establishing,  at  the  Wash- 
ington Arsenal,  a  cannon  pendulum  and  a  musket  pendulum,  which 
are  used  for  proving  samples  of  powder  sent  from  the  manufactories. 
The  apparatus  shows  the  initial  velocity  of  a  ball  fired  from  a  cannon 
or  musket. 

In  the  ordinary  eprouvettc,  gunpowder  of  small  grain  and  low  speci- 
fic gravity  gives  the  highest  range,  whilst  the  ballistic  pendulum  shows 
that  the  greatest  initial  velocity  in  a  shot  from  a  heavy  cannon  is  pro- 
duced by  powder  of  great  specific  gravity  and  coarse  grain.  (  Ordnance 
Manual.) 

EQUIPAGE,  CAMP  AND  GARRISON — are  tents,  kitchen  utensils^ 
axes,  spades,  &c.  (See  CLOTHING.) 

EQUIPMENT.  The  complete  dress  of  a  soldier,  including  arms, 
accoutrements,  &c. 

ESCALADE,  AND  SURPRISE  OF  A  FORTIFIED  PLACE.  A  place  is  taken 
by  surprise,  whenever  a  sufficient  number  of  men  are  secretly  intro- 
duced into  it  to  cause  the  defenders  to  abandon  or  surrender  it.  It  is 
taken  by  escalade,  when  ladders  are  used  to  cross  the  walls.  (Fig.  111.) 

The  surest  way  of  succeeding  in  a  surprise,  is  to  have  a  perfect 
knowledge  of  the  interior  of  the  place,  or  to  be  accompanied  by  reliable 
guides,  who  know  those  parts  of  the  place  which  may  be  penetrated 
with  least  difficulty.  Such  parts  are  ordinarily  dilapidated  portions  of 
the  body  of  the  place ;  houses  contiguous  to  the  walls,  the  windows  of 
which  are  not  barred,  &c.,  &c.  Aqueducts  and  sewers  have  also  some- 
times been  used  for  the  introduction  of  armed  men,  unknown  to  the 
garrison.  But  when  a  place  is  badly  guarded,  all  parts  are  accessible 
with  ladders,  and  it  is  sometimes  best  to  choose  the  highest  walls  for 
the  escalade,  as  the  enemy  will  probably,  from  a  feeling  of  security,  be 
less  vigilant  at  such  parts  of  the  body  of  the  place.  Thus,  at  the  siege 
of  Badajo^in  1812,  the  English  escaladed  the  highest  walls  in  the  city, 
and  penetrated  into  the  interior,  while  the  attack  directed  upon  breaches 
in  the  lower  walls,  although  vigorously  made,  was  repulsed.  When 


MILITARY  DICTIONARY. 
FIG.  111. 


250 


260  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [Esc. 

it  is  considered  how  slow  a  process  it  is  to  bring  up  ladders  to  tho 
counterscarp,  in  order  to  descend  by  them  into  the  ditch,  then  to  cross 
the  ditch,  and  to  rear  the  ladders  against  the  escarp,  and  to  mount  them, 
it  is  evident  that  success  will,  in  a  great  measure,  depend  upon  the 
number  of  men  that  can  mount  at  the  same  moment ;  in  other  words, 
upon  the  number  of  ladders.  A  ladder  beyond  a  certain  length  be- 
comes unwieldy,  and  the  rearing  of  it  difficult.  The  distance  from  the 
foot  of  the  ladders  to  the  wall  should  be  at  least  equal  to  one-fourth  of 
their  height.  If  the  distance  be  greater,  the  ladder  will  be  easily  broken 
under  the  weight  of  the  men  mounting  them  ;  if  much  less,  they  will 
be  so  erect  that  the  soldiers,  as  they  ascend,  must  be  continually  in 
danger  of  falling  headlong  down.  The  scaling  ladders  introduced  by 
Sir  Charles  Pasley,  are  in  pieces  of  12'  8(/  and  7'  6"  in  length,  fitting 
into  each  other  with  strong  double  iron  sockets,  arid  tied  by  stout  ropes. 
These  can  be  arranged  for  any  length,  and  quickly  adjusted.  Ladders 
made  of  long  spars  are  awkward  to  carry  ;  especially  if  there  be  nar- 
row sharp  turnings  in  approaching  the  point  of  escalade  :  nor  can  long 
sound  spars  be  always  procured.  It  is  desirable  that  ladders  should  be 
made  of  light,  tough  wood  :  teak  wood  is  too  heavy.  If  a  guy-rope  be 
attached  to  each  side  of  the  ladder,  they  greatly  assist  in  adjusting  and 
fixing  it  against  the  wall :  the  men  told  off  for  the  guy-ropes  should 
stand  close  to  the  wall,  within  the  slope  of  the  ladder  ;  these  guy-ropes 
should  be  fixed  at  5  or  G  feet  below  the  top  of  the  ladder,  to  prevent 
their  being  cut  by  the  enemy  on  the  wall.  The  total  lengths  of  the 
ladders  should  exceed  the  height  to  be  escaladed  by  3  or  4  feet,  in  order 
that  the  men  may  step  easily  off  the  ladders  on  to  the  parapet  or  wall. 
Many  failures  have  occurred  from  ladders  being  too  short.  It  is  desirable 
to  have  a  pair  of  stout  lifting  bars,  3  or  4  feet  long,  with  hooks,  for  each 
ladder.  When  an  escalade  is  to  take  place,  be  sure  to  practise  the  men 
intended  for  the  service  thoroughly  in  carrying,  in  fixing,  in  ascending, 
and  descending  the  ladders ;  descending,  for  going  down  a  counter- 
scarp ;  ascending,  for  getting  up  an  escarp.  Always  use  as  many  'lad- 
ders as  possible.  If  there  be  a  counterscarp  to  descend,  leave  half  the 
ladders  there,  while  the  other  half  are  used  against  the  escarp,  that  no 
time  may  be  lost.  Ascend  the  ladders  together,  on  as  large  a  front  as 
possible.  When  an  escalade  is  opposed  by  an  enemy,  take  care  that  a 
good  firing  party  covers  the  escalade,  with  especial  directions  to  fire 
upon  any  work  that  may  flank  the  ladders.  Avoid  night  attacks,  ex- 
cept under  peculiar  circumstances  :  the  example  of  gallant  men  is  lost 
at  night,  whilst  timidity  is  infectious.  Make  all  arrangements  under 
cover  of  darkness,  but  assault  at  day-break. 


Esc.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  261 

At  the  moment  of  the  escalade,  the  ladders  should  be  filled  with  sol- 
diers, and  it  is  necessary,  therefore,  that  they  should  be  underpropped 
about  the  middle.  Soldiers  exercised  in  gymnastics  are  capable  of 
mounting  high  walls  with  arms  and  accoutrements,  by  means  of  a  hook, 
helved  to  a  pole  sufficiently  long  to  reach  the  top  of  the  wall.  This 
exercise  is  practised  by  some  French  troops,  and  the  walls  of  the  cita- 
del of  Montpellier  are  thus  escaladed  with  the  greatest  facility. 

Precipitous  rocks  may  be  escaladed  by  grasping  bushes  and  roots, 
or  by  planting  the  bayonet  in  the  crevices  of  the  rocks,  in  order  to 
reach  the  top.  Such  escalades  are  very  dangerous  when  an  enemy  de- 
fends the  height,  as  heavy  stones  may  be  rolled  down  upon  the  assailants ; 
but  activity  and  ingenuity  accomplish  much,  as  was  shown  by  the 
French  in  the  attack  upon  Fort  Scharnitz  near  Innspruck.  They  tied 
their  haversacks  round  their  heads,  and,  protected  by  this  buckler,  they 
scrambled  up  the  rocks,  despite  the  stones  precipitated  upon  them. 
And  still  later  the  difficult  ascent  at  Alma  was  scaled  by  French  troops, 
in  the  face  of  Russian  artillery  and  infantry. 

The  most  favorable  time  for  a  surprise  is  that  of  a  winter  night, 
when  there  is  no  rnoon.  A  long  march  may  then  be  made  without  dis- 
covery, and  the  troops  may  arrive  an  hour  before  day.  This  is  the 
propitious  moment  for  the  execution  of  the  design.  It  is  then  that 
men  sleep  most  profoundly  ;  and  it  is  at  that  hour  the  attacking  force 
may  begin  in  the  dark,  and  end  the  work  by  daylight ;  such  favorable 
circumstances  are  much  increased  by  heavy  wind  and  rain  during  the 
night,  as  the  clanking  of  arms  and  other  inevitable  noises  made  by  the 
troops  cannot  be  heard  by  the  garrison,  and  the  latter,  besides,  are 
more  disposed  to  negligence.  It  is  extremely  important  for  the  men 
to  be  able  to  recognize  each  other  in  the  darkness,  and  the  simplest 
means  of  doing  so  is  to  put  the  shirt  outside  the  dress,  or  to  tie  a  white 
band  around  the  arm. 

The  party  must  be  furnished  with  petards,  axes,  and  levers,  to  force 
open  doors  ;  with  beams  and  ladders,  to  overthrow  and  scale  walls. 
Hurdles  and  fascines  are  necessary  to  cross  muddy  ditches,  or  broad 
planks  may  be  used  as  a  substitute  for  hurdles.  With  fascines  small 
ditches  and  pools  are  filled  up.  All  these  articles  should  be  carried  by 
the  men  from  the  last  halting-place.  Wagons  and  animals  would  lead 
to  discovery,  and  are  therefore  lefb  at  a  safe  distance,  while  every  pre- 
caution is  taken  to  maintain  silence  in  the  assailing  party.  The  soldiers 
should  also  not  light  their  pipes,  as  the  fire  can  be  seen  from  a  long 
distance  in  the  dark.  Barking  dogs  must  be  quieted  without  the  use 
of  fire-arms,  and  every  one  must  be  on  the  alert. 


MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [Esc. 

The  dispositions  made  for  the  attack  will  vary  with  circumstances, 
but  in  general  it  is  well  to  divide  the  force  into  three  parts :  the  first  to 
penetrate  into  the  city ;  the  second  to  remain  without  and  protect,  if 
necessary,  the  retreat  of  the  first ;  and  the  third  to  take  such  position  as 
is  most  likely  to  prevent  aid  from  reaching  the  enemy. 

When  the  first  division  has  penetrated  the  city  by  escalade  or  other- 
wise, it  surrounds  at  once  some  of  the  adjacent  quarters,  and  holds  the 
outlets  of  the  principal  streets,  whilst  detachments  quickly  open  the 
gates  to  the  troops  outside,  after  having  taken  or  killed  the  guards.  As 
soon  as  the  gates  are  opened,  and  sufficient  numbers  are  at  hand,  the 
troops  spread  themselves  in  the  city,  after  leaving  good  reserves,  upon 
which  to  retreat  in  case  of  check.  The  house  of  the  commandant,  bar- 
racks, arsenal,  and  the  guards  of  the  interior  are  at  once  sought,  to  pre- 
vent, if  possible,  any  re-union  of  the  defenders,  and  to  paralyze  all  their 
efforts  by  the  seizure  of  the  commanding  officer.  If  time  and  means  of 
recovering  from  his  stupor  and  concentrating  his  force  in  the  interior 
of  the  city  be  left  to  the  enemy,  great  risk  will  be  run  of  being  driven 
out,  as  the  attacking  force  is  necessarily  everywhere  weak,  from  the 
great  number  of  points  occupied. 

The  famous  example  of  Cremona,  where  Prince  Eugene,  after  hav- 
ing made  himself  master  of  a  great  part  of  the  city,  and  after  having 
seized  Marshal  Villeroi,  who  commanded  there,  was  nevertheless  then 
driven  out  by  the  defenders,  shows  that  all  is  not  lost  to  the  defenders 
when  the  enemy  has  seized  the  exterior  posts.  Another  example  may 
be  cited  in  the  surprise  of  Bergen-op-Zoom  in  1814,  by  Gen.  Graham, 
where,  although  the  surprise  was  successful,  yet  the  assailants,  in  the 
end,  were  obliged  by  the  garrison  to  surrender  after  considerable  loss. 

Much  may  then  be  done  by  defenders  even  under  such  circum- 
stances, but  much  more  may  be  accomplished  by  the  most  unceasing 
vigilance,  and  this  quality,  instead  of  being  relaxed  in  stormy  nights, 
should  be  then  redoubled.  (Consult  Cours  de  Tactique,  par  le  General 
DUFOUR.) 

ESCARP,  (or  SCARP)— is  the  side  of  the  ditch  next  to  the  place, 
which,  in  permanent  fortifications,  is  usually  faced  with  masonry. 

ESCORT.  (See  CONVOY.)  There  are  also  funeral  escorts  ;  escorts 
of  honor  ;  color  escorts  ;  &c.,  &c. 

ESPLANADE.  Empty  space  for  exercising  troops  in  fortified 
places. 

ESPRIT  DE  CORPS.  The  brotherhood  of  a  corps;  military 
and  regimental  pride.  Nothing  is  so  prejudicial  to  it,  as  the  failure  to 
unite  the  companies  of  a  regiment.  It  might  also  be  promoted  by  re- 


Evi.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  2G3 

cording  the  distinguished  services  of  a  regiment  on  its  colors.  (See 
SOLDIER.) 

EVACUATE.  To  withdraw  from  a  town  or  fortress,  in  conse- 
quence either  of  a  treaty  or  a  capitulation,  or  of  superior  orders. 

EVIDENCE — is  that  which  makes  clear,  demonstrates,  or  ascertains 
the  truth  of  the  very  fact  or  point  in  issue ;  (3.  El.  Comm.,  367.)  Evi- 
dence may  be  considered  with  reference  to,  1,  the  nature  of  the  evidence  j 
2,  the  object  of  the  evidence ;  3,  the  instruments  of  evidence ;  and,  4,  the 
effect  of  evidence. 

As  to  its  nature,  evidence  may  be  considered  with  reference  to 
its  being,  1,  the  primary  evidence  ;  2,  secondary  evidence  ;  3,  positive  ; 
4,  presumptive  ;  5,  hearsay  ;  and,  6,  admissions. 

1.  Primary  evidence.     The  law  generally  requires   that   the   best 
evidence  the  case  admits  of  shall  be  given  ;  (1  Stark.  Ev.,  102,  390.) 

2.  Secondary  evidence  is  that  species  of  proof  which  is  admissible  on 
the  loss  of  primary  evidence.     Before  it  is  admitted,  proof  must  be  made 
of  the  loss  or  impossibility  of  obtaining  the  primary  evidence. 

3.  Positive  evidence  is  that  which,  if  believed,  establishes  the  truth 
of  a  fact  in  issue,  and  does  not  arise  from  any  presumption.     Evidence 
is  positive  when  the  very  facts  in  dispute  are  communicated  by  those 
who  have  actual  knowledge  of  them  by  means  of  their  senses ;  (1  Stark. 
19.) 

4.  Presumptive  evidence  is  that  which  is  not  direct,  but  where,  on 
the  contrary,  a  fact  which  is  not  positively  known,  is  presumed  from 
one  or  more  other  facts  or  circumstances  which  are  known ;  (1  Stark. 
18.) 

5.  Hearsay  is  the  evidence  of  those  who  relate  not  what  they  know 
themselves,  but  what  they  have  heard  from  others.     As  a  general  rule, 
nearsay  evidence  of  a  fact  is  not  admissible.     But  evidence  given  on  a 
former  trial  by  a  person  since  dead  is  admissible,  as  is  also  the  dying 
declarations  of  a  person  who  has  received  a  mortal  injury.     A  few 
more  exceptions  may  be  found  in  Phillips'  Ev.t  chap.  7 ;  1  Stark.  Ev.,  40. 

6.  Admissions,  which  are  the  declarations  made  l/y  a  party  for  him- 
self or  those  acting  under  his  authority.     These  admissions  are%  gener- 
ally evidence  of  facts  declared,  but  the  admissions  themselves  must  be 
proved. 

The  object  of  evidence  is  to  ascertain  the  truth  between  the  parties. 
Experience  shows  that  this  is  best  done  by  the  following  rules,  which 
are  now  binding  in  law :  1.  The  evidence  must  be  confined  to  the  point 
in  issue ;  2.  The  substance  of  the  issue  must  be  proved,  but  only  the 
substance  is  required  to  be  proved ;  3.  The  affirmative  of  the  issue 


264  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [Evo. 

must  be  proved.  A  witness,  on  being  admitted  in  court,  is  first  sub- 
jected to  the  examination  of  the  party  in  whose  behalf  he  is  called. 
This  is  termed  the  examination  in  chief.  The  principal  rule  to  bo 
observed  by  the  party  examining  is,  that  leading  questions  are  not  to  be 
asked.  The  witness  is  then  cross-examined  by  the  other  party.  The 
object  of  cross-examination  is  twofold :  to  weaken  the  evidence  given 
by  the  witness  as  to  the  fact  in  question,  either  by  eliciting  contradictions 
or  new  explanatory  facts ;  or,  secondly,  to  invalidate  the  general  credit  of 
the  witness.  In  the  latter  case/  it  is  a  general  rule,  that  a  witness  may 
refuse  to  answer  any  question,  if  his  answer  will  expose  him  to  criminal 
liability.  The  general  practice  of  English  courts  also  seems  to  authorize 
his  refusal  to  answer  any  question  which  will  disgrace  him.  The  credit 
of  a  witness  may  likewise  be  impeached  by  the  general  evidence  of  others 
as  to  his  character ;  but  in  this  case  no  evidence  can  be  given  of  par- 
ticular facts  which  militate  against  his  general  credit.  Witnesses  are 
excluded  from  giving  evidence  by  :  1.  Want  of  reason  or  understand- 
ing ;  2.  Want  of  belief  in  God  and  a  future  state ;  3.  Infancy  ;  and,  4. 
Interest.  Besides  witnesses,  records  and  private  writings  are  also  in- 
struments of  evidence. 

1.  Records,  in  all  cases  where  the  issue  is  mil  ticl  reord,  are  to  bo, 
proved  by  an  exemplification  duly  authenticated;  that  is,  an  attestation 
made  by  a  proper  officer,  by  which  he  certifies  that  a  record  is  in  due 
form  of  law,  and  that  the  person  who  certifies  it  is  the  officer  appointed 
by  law  to  do  so.     In  other  cases  an  examined  copy,  duly  proved,  will 
in  general  be  evidence. 

2.  Private  writings  are  proved  by  producing  the  attesting  witness, 
or,  in  case  of  his  absence,  death,  or  other  legal  inability  to  testify,  as  if, 
after  attesting  the  paper,  he  becomes  infamous,  his  handwriting  may  bo 
proved.     When  there  is  no  witness  to  the  instrument,  it  may  be  proved 
by  evidence  of  the  handwriting  of  the  party,  by  a  person  who  has  seen 
him  write,  or  in  a  course  of  correspondence  has  become  acquainted  with 
his  hand.     Parol  evidence  is  admissible  to  defeat  a  written  instrument 
on  the  ground  of  fraud,  mistake,  &c. ;  or  to  apply  it  to  its  proper  subject 
matter,  or,  in  some  instances,  as  ancillary  to  such  application,  to  explain 
the  meaning  of  doubtful  terms,  or  rebut  presumptions  arising  extrinsic- 
ally.     But  in  all  cases  the  parol  evidence  does  not  usurp  the  place  or 
arrogate  the  authority  of  the  written  instrument.     (Consult  generally 
Treatises  on  Evidence  by  PHILLIPS  and  STARKIE  ;  BOUVIER'S  Law  Die* 
tionary  ;  BRANDE'S  Encyclopcedia.) 

EVOLUTIONS.     (See  MANOEUVRES.) 

EXECUTION  OF  LAWS.     On  all  occasions  when  the  troops  are 


EXE.]  MILITARY  DICTIOXARY.  265 

employed  in  restoring  or  maintaining  public  order  among  their  fellow- 
citizens,  the  use  of  arms,  and  particularly  fire-arms,  is  obviously  attend- 
ed with  loss  of  life  or  limb  to  private  individuals ;  and  for  these  con- 
sequences, a  military  man  may  be  called  to  stand  at  the  bar  of  a  criminal 
court.  A  private  soldier  also  may  occasionally  be  detached  on  special 
duty,  with  the  necessity  of  exercising  discretion  as  to  the  use  of  his 
arms ;  and  in  such  cases  he  is  responsible,  like  'an  officer,  for  the 
right  use  or  exercise  of  such  discretion.  One  of  the  earliest  reported 
cases  on  this  subject  occurred  in  1735,  when  Thomas  Macadam,  a  pri- 
vate sentinel,  and  James  Long,  a  corporal,  were  tried  before  the  Admi- 
ralty Court  of  Scotland,  upon  a  charge  of  murder  under  the  following 
circumstances :  They  were  ordered  to  attend  some  custom-house  officers, 
for  their  protection  in  making  a  legal  seizure ;  and  being  in  a  boat  with 
the  officers  in  quest  of  the  contraband  goods,  one  Frazer  and  his  com- 
panions came  up  with  them,  leaped  into  the  boat,  and  endeavored  to 
disarm  the  soldiers.  In  the  scuffle,  the  prisoners  stabbed  Frazer  with 
their  bayonets,  and  threw  him  into  the  sea.  For  this  homicide  the 
prisoners  were  tried  and  convicted  of  murder  by  a  jury  ;  and  the  Judge- 
admiral  sentenced  them  to  death.  But  the  High  Court  of  Justiciary  re- 
versed this  judgment,  on  the  ground  that  the  homicide  in  question  was 
necessary  for  securing  the  execution  of  the  trust  committed  to  the 
prisoners.  The  report  of  this  case  contains  the  following  remarks  upon 
it  by  Mr.  Forbes,  afterwards  Lord  President  of  the  Court  of  Session  of 
Scotland  ;  and  they  appear  to  be  of  great  importance  to  military  men  : 
"  Where  a  man  has  by  law  weapons  put  into  his  hands,  to  be  employed 
not  only  in  defence  of  his  life  when  attacked,  but  in  support  of  the  exe- 
cution of  the  laws,  and  in  defence  of  the  property  of  the  Crown,  and  the 
liberty  of  any  subject,  he  doubtless  may  use  those  weapons,  not  only 
when  his  own  life  is  put  so  far  in  danger  that  he  cannot  probably  es- 
cape without  making  use  of  them,  but  also  when  there  is  imminent 
danger  that  he  may  by  violence  be  disabled  to  execute  his  trust,  with- 
out resorting  to  the  use  of  those  weapons ;  but  when  the  life  of  the 
officer  is  exposed  to  no  danger,  when  his  duty  does  not  necessarily  call 
upon  him  for  the  execution  of  his  trust,  or  for  the  preservation  of  the 
property  of  the  Crown,  or  the  preservation  of  the  property  or  liberty 
of  the  subject,  to  make  use  of  mortal  weapons,  which  may  destroy  His 
Majesty's  subjects,  especially  numbers  of  them  who  may  be  innocent,  it 
it  is  impossible  from  the  resolution  of  the  Court  of  Justiciary  to  expect 
any  countenance  to,  or  shelter  for,  the  inhuman  act."  This  quotation, 
in  the  latter  part  of  it,  has  a  direct  bearing  on  the  case  of  the  unfortu- 
nate  Captain  Porteus,  whose  trial  took  place  in  the  following  year,  and 


266  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [EXE. 

whose  melancholy  fate  is  the  groundwork  of  Sir  Walter  Scott's  "  Heart 
of  Mid  Lothian."  In  the  year  1736,  the  collector  of  customs  on  the 
coast  of  Fife  made  a  seizure  of  contraband  goods  of  considerable  value, 
which  were  condemned  and  sold. '  Two  of  the  proprietors  of  these  goods 
took  an  opportunity  of  robbing  the  collector  of  just  so  much  money  as 
these  goods  had  sold  for.  They  regarded  this  as  merely  a  fair  reprisal, 
and  no  robbery  ;  but  they  were  nevertheless  taken  up,  tried,  and  con- 
demned to  death  for  the  fact.  With  the  exception  of  some  smuggling 
transactions,  in  which  they  had  been  concerned,  the  prisoners  were  men 
of  fair  character ;  and  the  mob  expressed  much  dissatisfaction  with  their 
sentence,  and  the  prospect  of  their  execution.  On  the  Sunday  preced- 
ing the  day  appointed  for  the  execution,  the  prisoners  were  taken  to  a 
church  near  the  gaol,  attended  by  only  three  or  four  of  the  city  guards, 
to  hear  divine  service.  None  of  the  congregation  had  assembled,  and 
the  guards  being  feeble  old  men,  one  of  the  prisoners  made  a  spring 
over  the  pew  where  they  sat,  while  the  other,  whose  name  was  Wilson, 
in  order  to  facilitate  his  companion's  escape,  caught  hold  of  two  of  the 
guards  with  his  hands,  and  seized  another  with  his  teeth,  and  thus  en- 
abled his  companion  to  join  the  mob  outside,  who  bore  him  otT  to  a 
place  of  safety.  Wilson  then  composedly  resumed  his  own  seat,  with- 
out making  any  attempt  to  recover  his  own  liberty.  This  generous 
conduct  of  Wilson  created  a  strong  public  feeling  in  his  favor ;  and  the 
magistrates  of  Edinburgh  soon  learned  that  an  attempt  would  be  made 
by  the  mob  to  rescue  him  at  the  place  of  execution.  They  therefore 
procured  some  of  the  regular  forces  on  duty  in  the  suburbs  to  be  posted 
at  a  convenient  distance  from  the  spot,  so  as  to  support  the  city  guard, 
in  case  they  should  be  vigorously  attacked.  The  officer,  whose  turn  it 
was  to  do  duty  as  captain  of  the  city  guard,  being  deemed  unfit  for  the 
critical  duties  of  the  day,  Captain  Porteus,  unfortunately  for  himself, 
was  appointed  to  the  command  on  the  occasion.  His  men  were  served 
with  ball-cartridge ;  and,  by  order  of  the  magistrates,  they  loaded  their 
pieces  when  they  went  upon  duty.  The  execution  took  place  without 
any  disturbance  until  the  time  arrived  for  cutting  down  the  body,  when 
the  mob  severely  pelted  the  executioner  with  stones,  which  hit  the 
guards  as  they  surrounded  the  scaffold,  and  provoked  them  to  fire  upon 
the  crowd.  Some  persons  at  a  distance  from  the  place  of  execution 
were  thus  killed.  As  soon  as  the  body  was  removed,  Captain  Porteus 
withdrew  his  men,  and  marched  up  the  West  Bow,  which  is  a  narrow 
winding  passage.  The  mob,  having  recovered  from  the  fright  occasioned 
by  the  previous  firing,  followed  the  guard  up  this  passage,  and  pelted 
the '  rear  with  stones,  which  the  guards  returned  with  some  dropping 


MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  267 

shot,  whereby  some  where  killed,  and  others  wounded.  On  reaching 
the  guard-house  they  deposited  their  arms  in  the  usual  form,  and  Cap- 
tain Porteus  went  with  his  piece  in  his  hand  to  the  Spread  Eagle  Tav- 
ern, where  the  magistrates  were  assembled.  On  his  arrival  there,  he 
was  charged  with  the  murder  of  the  persons  who  had  been  slain  by  the 
city  guards,  on  the  allegation  that  he  had  commanded  the  guards  to  fire. 
The  mob  was  very  riotous,  and  called  for  justice  upon  him ;  and  the 
magistrates,  after  adjourning  to  the  council  chamber,  committed  him 
to  the  Tolbooth  for  trial.  The  strongest  feeling  existed  against  him 
on  the  part  of  the  mob,  until  the  hour  of  his  trial  before  the  High 
Court  of  Justiciary  arrived,  when,  to  their  great  satisfaction,  he  was 
found  guilty,  and  condemned  to  be  hanged.  The  higher  classes  of  so- 
ciety, however,  unaffected  by  the  popular  prejudice  against  the  unfor- 
tunate prisoner,  exerted  themselves  strenuously  in  his  behalf,  and  suc- 
ceeded in  obtaining  a  reprieve.  This  created  the  greatest  discontent 
among  the  lower  orders,  who,  on  the  night  before  the  day  originally  ap- 
pointed for  the  execution,  broke  open  the  gaol,  dragged  the  unhappy 
Captain  Porteus  down  stairs  by  the  heels,  carried  him  to  the  common 
place  of  execution,  and  there,  throwing  a  rope  over  a  dyer's  pole,  hanged 
him  with  many  marks  of  barbarity.  The  perpetrators  of  this  outrage 
were  never  discovered,  and  the  subject  gave  rise  to  very  warm  debates 
in  Parliament,  particularly  in  the  House  of  Lords,  with  respect  to  the 
conduct  of  the  city  magistrates  and  officers. 

It  was  quite  clear,  however,  with  reference  to  the  criminality  of 
Captain  Porteus,  that  he  had  ordered  his  men  to  fire  without  sufficient 
cause  or  justification ;  and,  under  such  circumstances,  he  was  in  point 
of  law  justly  found  guilty  of  murder. 

Ensign  Hugh  Maxwell,  of  the  Lanarkshire  Militia,  was  tried  in 
1807,  before  the  High  Court  of  Justiciary  of  Scotland,  for  the  murder 
of  Charles  Cottier,  a  French  prisoner  of  war  at  Greenlaw,  by  improperly 
ordering  John  Gow,  a  private  sentinel,  to  fire  into  the  room  where  Cot- 
tier and  other  prisoners  were  confined,  and  so  causing  him  to  be  mor- 
tally wounded.  It  appeared  that  Ensign  Maxwell  had  been  appointed 
to  the  military  guard  over  300  prisoners  of  war,  chiefly  taken  from 
French  privateers.  The  building  in  which  they  were  confined  was  of 
no  great  strength,  and  afforded  some  possibilities  of  escape.  The  pris- 
oners were  of  a  very  turbulent  character,  and  to  prevent  their  escape 
during  the  long  winter  nights,  an  order  was  given  that  all  lights  in  the 
prison  should  be  put  out  by  nine  o'clock,  and  that  if  this  was  not  done 
at  the  second  call,  the  guard  were  to  fire  upon  the  prisoners,  who  were 
often  warned  that  this  would  be  the  consequence  of  disobedience  with 


268  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [Exs. 

regard  to  the  lights.  On  the  night  in  question,  there  was  a  tumult  in 
the  prison,  but  of  no  great  importance  ;  and  Ensign  Maxwell's  attention 
having  been  on  that  account  drawn  to  the  prisoners,  he  observed  a  light 
burning  beyond  the  appointed  hour,  and  twice  ordered  it  to  be  put  out. 
This  order  not  being  obeyed  he  ordered  the  sentry  to  fire,  but  the  mus- 
ket merely  snapped.  He  repeated  the  order ;  the  sentinel  fired  again, 
and  Cottier  received  his  mortal  wound.  At  this  time  there  was  no< 
symptom  of  disorder  in  the  prison,  und  the  prisoners  were  all  in  bed. 
The  general  instructions  issued  from  the  adjutant-general's  office  in 
Edinburgh,  for  the  conduct  of  the  troops  guarding  the  prison,  contained 
no  such  order  as  that  which  Ensign  Maxwell  had  acted  upon ;  and  it 
appeared  that  the  order  in  question  was  a  mere  A'erbal  one,  which  had 
from  time  to  time,  in  the  hearing  of  the  officers,  been  repeated  by  the 
corporal  to  the  sentries,  on  mounting  guard,  and  had  never  been  coun- 
termanded by  those  officers,  who  were  also  senior  to  Ensign  Maxwell. 
The  Lord  Justice  Clerk  described  the  case  to  the  jury  as  altogether  the 
most  distressing  that  any  court  had  ever  been  called  upon  to  con- 
sider, and  laid  it  down  most  distinctly,  that  Ensign  Maxwell  could  only 
defend  himself  by  proving  specific  orders,  which  he  was  bound  to  obey 
without  discretion ;  or  by  showing  that  in  the  general  discharge  of  his 
duty  he  was  placed  in  circumstances,  which  gave  him  discretion,  and 
called  upon  him  to  do  what  he  did.  His  lordship  was  of  opinion  that 
both  these  grounds  of  defence  failed  in  the  present  case  ;  and  the  jury 
having  found  Ensign  Maxwell  guilty  of  the  minor  offence  of  culpable 
homicide,  with  a  recommendation  to  mercy,  the  court  sentenced  him  to 
nine  months'  imprisonment.  Ensign  Maxwell's  conduct  certainly  ex- 
hibited none  of  those  gross  features  which  characterize  murder  ;  but  at 
the  same  time  he  was  guilty  of  a  rash  and  inconsiderate  act,  which,  if 
he  had  not  been  engaged  at  the  time  in  military  duty,  though  he  was 
mistaken  in  the  exercise  of  it,  would  probably  have  been  held  to  amount 
to  murder.  In  Maxwell's  case,  the  soldier  who  fired  the  shot  was  not 
prosecuted  for  the  act,  nor  was  he  liable  to  such  prosecution. 

It  is  laid  down  in  a  book  of  authority,  that  if  a  ship's  sentinel  shoot 
a  man,  because  he  persists  in  approaching  the  ship  when  he  has  been 
ordered  not  to  do  so,  it  will  be  murder,  unless  such  an  act  was  neces- 
sary for  the  ship's  safety.  And  it  will  be  murder,  though  the  sentinel 
had  orders  to  prevent  the  approach  of  any  boats,  had  ammunition  given 
to  him  when  he  was  put  on  guard,  and  acted  on  the  mistaken  impres- 
sion that  it  was  his  duty.  In  Rex  v.  Thomas,  the  prisoner  was  sentinel 
on  board  H.M.S.  Achille,  when  she  was  paying  off.  The  orders  to  him 
from  the  preceding  sentinel  were  to  keep  off  all  boats,  unless  they  had 


EXE.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  269 

officers  in  uniform  in  them,  or  unless  the  officer  on  deck  allowed  them 
to  approach  :  and  he  received  a  musket,  three  blank-cartridges,  and 
three  balls.  The  boats  pressed,  upon  which  he  repeatedly  called  to 
them  to  keep  off;  but  one  of  them  persisted,  and  came  close  under  the 
ship,  and  he  then  fired  at  a  man  in  the  boat  and  killed  him.  It  was  put 
to  the  jury  to  find  whether  the  sentinel  did  not  fire  under  the  mistaken 
impression  that  it  was  his  duty  ;  and  they  found  that  he  did.  But  the 
case  being  reserved  for  the  opinion  of  the  judges,  their  lordships  were 
unanimous  that  it  was  murder.  They  thought  it,  however,  a  proper 
case  for  a  pardon  :  and  further,  they  were  of  opinion  that  if  the  act  had 
been  necessary  for  the  preservation  of  the  ship,  as  if  the  deceased  had 
been  stirring  up  a  mutiny,  the  sentinel  would  have  been  justified. 

The  cases  already  cited  turned  upon  the  improper  exercise  of  dis- 
cretion by  the  officers  concerned.  But  in  the  following  case,  though 
not  attended  with  actual  consequences  involving  a  criminal  charge,  the 
discretion  in  the  use  of  arms  was  wisely  exercised,  and  indicated  great 
presence  of  mind,  and  correctness  of  judgment. 

Some  years  ago,  the  public  journals  of  London  recorded  the  meri- 
torious behavior  of  a  private  sentry,  upon  the  occasibn  of  a  riotous 
mob  assembled  at  the  entrance  of  DowTning-street,  with  the  intention 
of  attacking  the  government  offices  in  that  quarter  of  the  town.  This 
man  standing  alone  presented  his  musket,  and  threatened  to  fire  upon 
the  crowd,  if  the  slightest  attempt  were  made  to  approach  the  particular 
office  for  the  defence  of  which  he  was  placed  on  duty,  and  succeeded  by 
the  terror  thus  created,  though  at  a  great  risk  of  consequences  to  him- 
self, in  keeping  the  rioters  at  bay  until  a  larger  force  arrived  to  assist 
him.  The  soldier's  conduct  was  publicly  much  approved.  It  was  also 
clearly  legal  according  to  Macadam's  case;  and  if  after  the  announce- 
ment of  his  intentions  the  mob  had  pressed  forward  to  execute  their 
purpose,  he  would  have  been  held  justified  at  law  in  firing  at  the  rioters 
upon  his  own  responsibility.  The  Duke  of  Wellington,  as  Constable 
of  the  Tower,  testified  his  marked  approbation  of  this  man's  conduct,  by 
promoting  him  at  once  to  a  Wardership  at  that  fortress. 

During  the  Irish  insurrection  of  1848,  Smith  O'Brien  was  arrested 
at  the  railway  station  of  Thurles,  on  a  charge  of  high  treason.  A  pub- 
lic passenger  train  was  on  the  point  of  starting  for  Dublin,  and  the 
engineeer  was  mounted  on  the  engine,  with  the  steam  up,  and  every 
thing  in  readiness  for  the  immediate  prosecution  of  the  journey.  The 
scene  of  the  arrest  lay  in  the  disturbed  distrct,  which  was  in  the  occu- 
pation of  the  troops  employed  to  suppress  the  insurrection  and  prevent 
its  extension.  General  Macdonald's  aide-de-camp,  having  been  apprised 


270  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [EXE. 

of  the  arrest,  proceeded  instantly  to  the  station,  and  there  commanded 
the  engineer  to  dismount  from  the  engine,  and  to  stop  the  train ;  it  be- 
ing of  the  utmost  importance  to  the  public  safety  and  service  that  the 
news  of  the  arrest  should  not  be  carried  along  the  line  of  railway,  as 
the  country  people  might  assemble  in  great  numbers  and  destroy  the 
rails,  and  rescue  the  prisoner,  or  otherwise  impede  th*e  conveyance  of 
the  prisoner  to  Dublin.  Such  interference  would  obviously  have  occa- 
sioned great  loss  of  life,  besides  the  danger  to  the  public  service  at  such 
a  season.  The  engineer  at  first  refused  to  obey  the  aide-de-camp's  or- 
ders, whereupon  the  officer  presented  his  pistol  at  the  engineer,  and 
threatened  him  with  instant  death  if  he  persisted  in  his  refusal.  The 
man  then  dismounted  ;  but  it  is  conceived  that  the  officer  pursued  a 
correct  line  of  conduct,  and  exercised  upon  the  occasion  a  sound  dis- 
cretion, which  would  have  been  a  good  legal  defence  to  him,  if  he  had 
ultimately  proceeded  to  execute  his  threat  upon  the  engineer.  "  Power 
in  law  (says  Sir  Edward  Coke)  means  power  with  force." 

The  right  of  officers  or  soldiers  to  interfere  in  quelling  a  felonious 
riot,  whether  with  or  without  superior  military  orders,  or  the  direction 
of  a  civil  magistrate,  is  quite  clear,  and  beyond  the  possibility  of  mis- 
take. This  subject,  however,  was  formerly  little  understood ;  and 
military  men  failed  in  their  public  duty  through  excess  of  caution. 

George  III.  and  his  Attorney -general  (Wedderburn)  both  deservedly 
acquired  high  credit  for  their  energy  in  the  crisis  of  the  riots  of  1780. 
When  the  king  heard  that  the  troops  which  had  been  marched  in  from 
all  quarters  were  of  no  avail  in  restoring  order,  on  account  of  a  scruple 
that  they  could  not  be  ordered  to  fire  till  an  hour  after  the  Riot  Act 
had  been  read,  he  called  a  cabinet  council,  at  which  he  himself  presided, 
and  propounded  for  their  consideration  the  legality  of  this  opinion. 
There  was  much  hesitation  among  the  councillors,  as  they  remembered 
the  outcry  that  had  been  made  by  reason  of  some  deaths  from  the  in- 
terference of  the  military  in  Wilkes's  riots,  and  the  eagerness  with 
which  grand  juries  had  found  indictments  for  murder  against  those  who 
had  acted  under  the  command  of  their  superiors.  At  last  the  question 
was  put  to  the  Attorney-general,  who  attended  as  assessor,  and  he  gave 
a  clear,  unhesitating,  and  unqualified  answer  to  the  effect,  that  if  the 
mob  were  committing  a  felony,  as  by  burning  down  dwelling-houses, 
and  could  not  be  prevented  from  doing  so  by  other  means,  the  military, 
according  to  the  law  of  England,  might  and  ought  to  be  ordered  to  fire 
upon  them:  the  reading  of  the  Riot  Act  being  wholly  unnecessary 
and  nugatory  under  such  circumstances.  The  exact  words  used  by 
him  on  this  occasion  are  not  known ;  but  they  must  have  been  nearly 


EXE.]  MILITAEY  DICTIONARY*.  271 

the  same  which  he  employed  when  he  shortly  afterwards  expounded 
from  the  judgment  seat  the  true  doctrine  upon  the  subject.  The  re- 
quisite orders  were  issued  to  the  troops,  the  conflagrations  were 
stopped,  and  tranquillity  was  speedily  restored. 

This  eminent  lawyer  having  become  Chief  Justice  of  the  Court  of 
Common  Pleas,  with  the  title  of  Lord  Loughborough,  delivered  a 
charge  to  the  grand  jury  on  the  special  commission  for  the  trial  of  the 
rioters  of  1780,  in  the  following  terms  :  "  I  take  this  public  opportunity 
of  mentioning  a  fatal  mistake  into  which  many  persons  have  fallen.  It 
has  been  imagined,  because  the  law  allows  an  hour  for  the  disper- 
sion of  a  mob  to  whom  the  Riot  Act  has  been  read  by  the  magistrate, 
the  better  to  support  the  civil  authority,  that  during  that  time  the  civil 
power  and  the  magistracy  are  disarmed,  and  the  king's  subjects,  whose 
duty  it  is  at  all  times  to  suppress  riots,  are  to  remain  quiet  and  pas- 
sive. No  such  meaning  was  within  view  of  the  legislature,  nor  doe* 
the  operation  of  the  act  warrant  such  effect.  The  civil  magistrates  are 
left  in  possession  of  all  those  powers  which  the  law  had  given  them 
before.  If  the  mob  collectively,  or  a  part  of  it,  or 'any  individual  within 
or  before  the  expiration  of  that  hour,  attempts,  or  begins  to  perpetrate 
an  outrage  amounting  to  felony,  to  pull  down  a  house,  or  by  any  other 
act  to  violate  the  law,  it  is  the  duty  of  all  present,  of  whatever  descrip- 
tion they  may  be,  to  endeavor  to  stop  the  mischief,  and  to  apprehend 
the  offender." 

"  A  riot  (says  Mr.  Justice  Gaselee)  is  not  the  less  a  riot,  nor  an 
illegal  meeting,  because  the  proclamation  of  the  Riot  Act  has  not  been 
read ;  the  effect  of  that  proclamation  being  to  make  the  parties  guilty 
of  a  capital  offence  if  they  do  not  disperse  within  an  hour ;  but  if  that 
proclamation  be  not  read,  the  common  law  offence  remains,  and  it  is  a 
misdemeanor ;  and  all  magistrates,  constables,  and  even  private  indi- 
viduals are  justified  in  dispersing  the  offenders ;  and  if  they  cannot 
otherwise  succeed  in  doing  so,  they  may  use  force." 

After  the  suppression  of  the  great  riots  of  London  in  1780,  by  the 
aid  of  the  troops,  as  already  mentioned,  the  government  was  acrimo- 
niously attacked  both  in  and  out  of  parliament,  on  the  ground  that  the 
employment  of  a  military  force,  to  quell  riots  by  firing  on  the  people, 
could  only  be  justified,  if  at  all,  by  martial  law  proclaimed  under  a 
special  exercise  of  the  royal  prerogative  ;  and  it  was  thence  argued  that 
the  nation  was  living  under  martial  law.  But  Lord  Mansfield,  the 
Chief  Justice  of  the  King's  Bench,  addressed  the  House  of  Lords  on  this 
subject,  and  placed  it  in  its  true  light.  "I  hold  (said  his  lordship)  that 
His  Majesty,  in  the  orders  he  issued  by  the  advice  of  his  ministers,  acted 


272 


^ 

MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [EXE. 


perfectly  and  strictly  according  to  the  common  law  of  the  land,  and  the 

principles  of  the  Constitution Every  individual  in  his  private 

capacity  may  lawfully  interfere  to  suppress  a  riot,  much  more  to  pre- 
vent acts  of  felony,  treason,  and  rebellion.  Not  only  is  he  authorized 
to  interfere  for  such  a  purpose,  but  it  is  his  duty  to  do  so  :  and  if  called 
upon  by  a  magistrate,  he  is  punishable  in  case  of  refusal.  What  any 
single  individual  may  lawfully  do  for  the  prevention  of  crime  and  pres- 
ervation of  the  public  peace,  may  be  done  by  any  number  assembled 
to  perform  their  duty  as  good  citizens.  It  is  the  peculiar  business  of 
all  constables  to  apprehend  rioters,  to  endeavor  to  disperse  all  unlawful 
assemblies,  and  in  case  of  resistance,  to  attack,  wound,  nay  kill  those 
who  continue  to  resist ; — taking  care  not  to  commit  unnecessary  vio- 
lence, or  to  abuse  the  power  legally  vested  in  them.  Every  one  is 
justified  in  doing  what  is  necessary  for  the  faithful  discharge  of  the 
duties  annexed  to  his  office,  although  he  is  doubly  culpable  if  he  wan- 
tonly commits  an  illegal  act  under  the  color  or  pretext  of  law.  The 
persons  who  assisted  in  the  suppression  of  those  tumults  are  to  be 
considered  mere  private  individuals  acting  as  duty  required.  My 
lords,  we  have  not  been  living  under  martial  law,  but  under  that  law 
which  it  has  long  been  my  sacred  function  to  administer.  For  any 
violation  of  that  law  the  offenders  are  amenable  to  our  ordinary  courts 
of  justice,  and  may  be  tried  before  a  jury  of  their  countrymen.  Sup- 
posing a  soldier  or  any  other  military  person  who  acted  in  the  course 
of  the  late  riots,  had  exceeded  the  power  with  which  he  was  invested, 
I  have  not  a  single  doubt  that  he  may  be  punished,  not  by  a  court-mar- 
tial, but  upon  an  indictment  to  be  found  by  the  Grand  Inquest  of  the 
City  of  London  or  the  County  of  Middlesex,  and  disposed' of  before  the 
ermined  judges  sitting  in  Justice  Hall  at  the  Old  Bailey.  Conse- 
quently the  idea  is  false,  that  we  are  living  under  a  military  govern- 
ment, or  that,  since  the  commencement  of  the  riots,  any  part  of  the 
laws  or  of  the  Constitution  has  been  suspended  or  dispensed  with.  I 
believe  that  much  mischief  has  arisen  from  a  misconception  of  the  Riot 
Act,  which  enacts  that  after  proclamation  made  persons  present  at  a 
riotous  assembly  shall  depart  to  their  homes  ;  those  who  remain  there 
above  an  hour  afterwards  shall  be  guilty  of  felony  and  liable  to  suffer 
death.  From  this  it  has  been  imagined  that  the  military  cannot  act, 
whatever  crimes  may  be  committed  in  their  sight,  till  an  hour  after 
such  proclamation  has  been  made,  or,  as  it  is  termed,  '  the  Riot  Act  is 
read.'  But  the  Riot  Act  only  introduces  a  new  offence — remaining  an 
hour  after  the  proclamation — without  qualifying  any  pre-existing  law, 


EXE.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  273 

or  abridging  the  means  which  before  existed  for  preventing  or  punish- 
ing crimes." 

In  the  case  of  Handcock  v.  Baker,  which  was  an  action  brought  against 
the  defendants,  who  were  not  constables,  for  forcibly  detaining  and  con- 
fining the  plaintiff,  in  order  to  prevent*him  from  murdering  his  wife, 
Mr.  Justice  Heath  made  the  following  observations  :  "  It  is  a  matter 
of  the  last  consequence  that  it  should  be  known  upon  what  occasions 
bystanders  may  interfere  so  as  to  prevent  felony.  In  the  riots  which 
took  place  in  1780,  this  matter  was  much  misunderstood,  and  a  gen- 
eral persuasion  prevailed  that  no  indifferent  person  could  interpose 
without  the  authority  of  a  magistrate ;  in  consequence  of  which  much 
mischief  was  done  which  might  otherwise  have  been  prevented."  And 
in  the  same  case  Mr.  Justice  Chambre  said:  "There  is  a  great  differ- 
ence between  the  right  of  a  private  person  in  cases  of  intended  felony 
and  breach  of  the  peace.  It  is  lawful  for  a  private  person  to  do  any 
thing  foB,the  prevention  of  a  felony."  And  in  so  doing  it  becomes 
quite  immaterial  whether  the  persons  wounded  or  slain  are  taking  any 
active  part  in  the  riot.  In  the  case  of  Clifford  v.  Brandon,  which  was 
an  action  by  a  barrister  of  great  eminence  against  the  box-keeper  of 
Covent  Garden  Theatre,  who  had  arrested  him  in  the  theatre  for  wear- 
ing in  his  hat  a  ticket  with  O.P.  on  it — this  being  a  badge  of  the  party 
by  whom  the  celebrated  O.P.  riots  relative  to  the  prices  of  admission 
were  carried  on — and  nothing  else  having  been  proved  against  him — 
the  Lord  Chief  Justice,  Sir  James  Mansfield,  said  :  "  If  any  person  en- 
courages, or  promotes,  or  takes  part  in  riots,  whether  by  words,  signs, 
or  gestures,  or  by  wearing  the  badge  or  ensign  of  the  rioters,  he  is  him- 
self to  be  considered  a  rioter,  he  is  liable  to  be  arrested  for  a  breach  of 
the  peace.  In  this  case  all  are  principals." 

But  notwithstanding  the  existence  of  a  clear  right  and  duty  on  the 
part  of  military  men  voluntarily  to  aid  in  the  suppression  of  a  riot,  it 
would  be  the  height  of  imprudence  to  intrude  with  military  force,  ex- 
cept upon  the  requisition  of  a  magistrate,  unless  in  those  cases  where 
the  civil  power  is  obviously  overcome,  or  on  the  point  of  being  over- 
come, by  the  rioters. 

With  regard  to  the  requisition  of  military  aid  by  the  civil  magis- 
trate, the  rule  seems  to  be,  that  when  once  the  magistrate  has  charged 
the  military  officer  with  the  duty  of  suppressing  a  riot,  the  execution 
of  that  duty  is  wholly  confided  to  the  judgment  and  skill  of  the  military 
officer,  who  thenceforward  acts  independently  of  the  magistrate  until 
the  service  required  is  fully  performed.  The  magistrate  cannot  dictate 
to  the  officer  the  mode  of  executing  the  duty ;  and  an  officer  would 
18 


274  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [ExE. 

desert  his  duty  if  he  submitted  to  receive  any  such  orders  from  tho 
magistrate.  Neither  is  it  necessary  for  the  magistrate  to  accompany 
the  officer  in  the  execution  of  his  duty. 

The  learning  on  these  points  may  be  gathered  from  the  charge  of 
Mr.  Justice  Littledale  to  the  jui^,  in  the  trial  of  the  mayor  of  Bristol, 
for  breach  of  duty  in  not  suppressing  the  riots  at  that  city  in  1831. 
"  Another  charge  (said  His  Lordship)  against  the  defendant  is,  that 
upon  being  required  to  ride  with  Major  Beekwith,  he  did  not  do  so. 
In  my  opinion  he  was  not  bound  to  do  so  in  point  of  law.  I  do  not 
apprehend  it  to  be  the  duty  of  a  justice  of  the  peace  to  ride  along  and 
charge  with  the  military.  A  military  officer  may  act  without  the  au- 
thority of  the  magistrate,  if  he  chooses  to  take  the  responsibility  ;  but 
although  that  is  the  strict  law,  there  are  few  military  men  who  will  take 
upon  themselves  so  to  do,  except  on  the  most  pressing  occasions. 
Where  it  is  likely  to  be  attended  with  a  great  destruction  of  life,  a 
man,  generally  speaking,  is  unwilling  to  act  without  a  magistrate's 
authority ;  but  that  authority  need  not  be  given  by  his  presence.  In 
this  case  the  mayor  did  give  his  authority  to  act ;  the  order  has  been 
read  in  evidence ;  and  he  was  not  bound  in  law  to  ride  with  the  sol- 
diers, more  particularly  on  such  an  occasion  as  this,  when  his  presence 
elsewhere  might  be  required  to  give  general  directions.  If  he  was 
bound  to  make  one  charge,  he  was  bound  to  have  made  as  many  other 
charges  as  the  soldiers  made.  m  It  is  not  in  evidence  that  the  mayor  was 
able  to  ride,  or  at  least  in  the  habit  of  doing  so ;  and  to  charge  with 
soldiers  it  is  not  only  necessary  to  ride,  but  to  ride  in  the  same  manner 
as  they  do ;  otherwise  it  is  probable  the  person  would  soon  be  un- 
horsed, and  would  do  more  harm  than  good  :  besides  that,  if  the  mob 
were  disposed  to  resist,  a  man  who  appeared  in  plain  clothes  leading 
the  military  would  be  soon  selected  and  destroyed.  I  do  not  appre- 
hend that  it  is  any  part  of  the  duty  of  a  person  who  has  to  give  gen- 
eral directions,  to  expose  himself  to  all  kinds  of  personal  danger.  The 
general  commanding  an  army  does  not  ordinarily  do  so,  and  I  can  see 
no  reason  why  a  magistrate  should.  A  case  may  be  conceived  where 
it  might  be  prudent,  but  here  no  necessity  for  it  has  been  shown." 

This  subject  was  also  luminously  expounded  by  the  late  Lord  Chief 
Justice  Tindal,  in  his  charge  to  the  grand  jury  on  the  special  commis- 
sion held  at  Bristol,  on  the  2d  of  January,  1832,  for  the  trial  of  the  par- 
ties implicated  in  the  formidable  riots  and  devastations  committed  in 
that  city  during  the  autumn  of  the  previous  year :  "  It  has  been  well 
said  that  the  use  of  the  law  consists,  first,  in  preserving  men's  persons 
from  death  and  violence  ;  next,  in  securing  to  them  the  free  enjoyment 


EXE.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  275 

of  their  property  ;  and  although  every  single  act  of  violence,  and  each 
individual  breach  of  the  law,  tends  to  counteract  and  destroy  this  its 
primary  use  and  object,  yet  do  general  risings  and  tumultuous  meet- 
ings of  the  people  in  a  more  especial  and  particular  manner  produce 
this  effect,  not  only  removing  all  security,  both  from  the  persons  and 
property  of  men,  but  for  the  time  putting  down  the  law  itself,  and 

daring  to  usurp  its  place In  the  first  place,  by  the  common 

law,  every  private  person  may  lawfully  endeavor,  of  his  own  authority, 
and  without  any  warrant  or  sanction  of  the  magistrate,  to  suppress  a 
riot  by  every  means  in  his  power.  He  may  disperse,  or  assist  in  dis- 
persing, those  who  are  assembled ;  he  may  stay  those  who  are  engaged 
in  it  from  executing  their  purpose ;  he  may  stop  and  prevent  others 
whom  he  shall  see  coming  up,  from  joining  the  rest ;  and  not  only  has 
he  the  authority,  but  it  is  his  bounden  duty,  as  a  good  subject  of  the 
king,  to  perform  this  to  the  utmost  of  his  ability.  If  the  riot  be  gen- 
eral and  dangerous,  he  may  arm  himself  against  the  evil-doers  to  keep 
the  peace.  Such  was  the  opinion  of  all  the  judges  of  England  in  the 
time  of  Queen  Elizabeth,  in  a  case  called  '  The  Case  of  Arms,'  (Pop- 
ham's  Reports,  p.  121,)  although  the  judges  add,  that '  it  would  be  more 
discreet  for  every  one  in  such  a  case  to  attend  and  be  assistant  to  the 
justices,  sheriffs,  or  other  ministers  of  the  king  in  doing  this.'  It  would, 
undoubtedly,  be  more  advisable  so  to  do  ;  for  the  presence  and  author- 
ity of  the  magistrate  would  restrain  the  proceeding  to  such  extremities, 
until  the  danger  was  sufficiently  immediate,  or  until  some  felony  was 
either  committed  or  could  not  be  prevented  without  recourse  to  arms  ; 
and  at  all  events  the  assistance  given  by  men  who  act  in  subordination 
to,  and  in  concert  with,  the  civil  magistrate,  will  be  more  effectual  to 
attain  the  object  proposed,  than  any  efforts,  however  well  intended,  of 
separate  and  disunited  individuals.  But  if  the  occasion  demands  im- 
mediate action,  and  no  opportunity  is  given  for  procuring  the  advice  or 
sanction  of  the  magistrate,  it  is  the  duty  of  every  subject  to  act  for  him- 
self, and  upon  his  own  responsibility  in  suppressing  a  riotous  and  tu- 
multuous assembly  ;  and  he  may  be  assured  that  whatever  is  honestly 
done  by  him  in  the  execution  of  that  object,  will  be  supported  and 
justified  by  the  common  law.  And  wrhilst  I  am  stating  the  obligation 
imposed  by  the  law  on  every  subject  of  the  realm,  I  wish  to  observe 
that  the  law  acknowledges  no  distinction  in  this  respect  between  the 
soldier  and  the  private  individual.  The  soldier  is  still  a  citizen,  lying 
under  the  same  obligation,  and  invested  with  the  same  authority  to 
preserve  the  peace  of  the  king  as  any  other  subject.  If  the  one  is  bound 
to  attend  the  call  of  the  civil  magistrate,  so  also  is  the  other  ;  if  the  one 


276  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [EXE. 

may  interfere  for  that  purpose  when  the  occasion  demands  it,  without 
the  requisition  of  the  magistrate,  so  may  the  other  too ;  if  the  one 
may  employ  arms  for  that  purpose,  when  arms  are  necessary,  the  sol- 
dier may  do  the  same.  Undoubtedly  the  same  exercise  of  discretion 
which  requires  the  private  subject  to  act  in  subordination  to,  and  in  aid 
of,  the  magistrate,  rather  than  upon  his  own  authority,  before  recourse 
is  had  to  arms,  ought  to  operate  in  a  still  stronger  degree  with  a  mili- 
tary force.  But  where  the  danger  is  pressing  and  immediate,  where 
a  felony  has  actually  been  committed,  or  cannot  otherwise  be  prevented, 
and  from  the  circumstances  of  the  case  no  opportunity  is  offered  of  ob- 
taining a  requisition  from  the  proper  authorities,  the  military  subjects 
of  the  king,  like  his  civil  subjects,  not  only  may,  but  are  bound  to  do 
their  utmost,  of  their  own  authority,  to  prevent  the  perpetration  of  out- 
rage, to  put  down  riot  and  tumult,  arid  to  preserve  the  lives  and  prop* 
erty  of  the  people." 

It  is  one  result  of  the  law,  as  laid  down  by  the  foregoing  authorities, 
that  a  military  officer  refusing  or  failing,  on  a  proper  occasion,  to  bring 
into  action  against  a  riotous  or  an  insurrectionary  mob,  the  force  under 
his  command,  would  be  guilty  of  an  indictable  offence  at  common  law, 
and  might  be  prosecuted  accordingly  for  breach  of  duty,  independently 
of  his  liability  to  military  censure. 

The  most  recent  case  on  this  subject  arose  out  of  the  conduct  of  the 
military  at  Six-mile  Bridge,  in  the  County  of  Clare,  during  the  parlia- 
mentary election  for  that  county  in  the  year  1852.  At  the  ensuing 
Spring  Assizes  held  at  Ennis  in  February,  1853,  nn  indictment  for 
murder  wras  preferred  against  the  magistrate  and  the  officers  and  men 
whose  conduct  was  impeached  ;  but  the  grand  jury  threw  out  the  bill : 
and  the  case  is  here  noticed  only  for  the  sake  of  the  charge  delivered 
to  them  by  Mr.  Justice  Perrin,  who  thus  commented  upon  the  law  in 
its  application  to  the  offence  of  which  the  military  were  accused : 

"  It  appears  that  there  was  an  escort  of  soldiers,  consisting  of  forty 
men,  with  two  sergeants,  as  a  safe-gu^rd  for  some  persons  going  to  the 
hustings  at  Six-mile  Bridge,  under  the  command  of  a  captain  and  a  lieu- 
tenant, and  the  conduct  of  a  magistrate — a  very  difficult  and  a  very 
nice  service.  With  respect  to  the  requisition,  its  terms,  grounds, 
or  sufficiency,  the  soldiers  could  have  no  knowledge.  The  orders  of  the 
general,  wThich  they  are  bound  to  obey,  and  not  permitted  to  canvass, 
were  obligatory  on  them ;  and  for  its  sufficiency  they  are  not  respon- 
sible, and  you  are  happily  relieved  from  any  inquiry  into  that  matter. 
Under  that  order,  and  the  command  of  Captain  Eager,  and  the  con- 
duct of  Mr.  Delmege,  they  assembled.  They  proceeded  to  Six-mile 


EXE.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  277 

Bridge,  and  were  there,  with  their  arms  in  their  hands,  in  obedience  to 
orders.  Those  orders  will  not  justify  any  unlawful  conduct  or  violence 
in  them,  but  it  accounts  for  their  presence  there  in  arms  :  for  ordinary 
persons  going  on  such  an  occasion  as  that  to  the  hustings  would  act 
very  indiscreetly  and  very  dangerously,  if,  perhaps,  not  very  illegally, 
to  arm  themselves  with  deadly  weapons,  in  order  to  meet  obstruction 
or  opposition,  if  it  were  expected.  But  the  soldiers  were  bound,  and 
were  there  under  orders  ;  and  that  which  in  other  persons  might  denote 
a  previous  evil  or  deadly  intention,  you  will  see,  plainly  suggests  none 
in  them,  for  they  must  obey  their  orders  as  soldiers.  There  was  noth- 
ing illegal  in  their  proceeding  through  the  crowd  with  the  freeholders, 
possibly  like  any  other  body  of  freeholders  and  their  companions,  but 
doing  or  offering  no  unnecessary  violence,  nor  were  they  to  be  subject  to 
any  violence  beyond  others.  They  had  no  right  to  force  a  way  through 
the  crowd  by  violence,  nor  to  remove  any  obstruction  by  arms,  still  less  by 
discharging  deadly  fire-arms.  They  had  no  right  to  repel  a  trespass  on 
themselves,  or  on  the  escort,  by  firing  or  inflicting  mortal  wounds.  You 
will  observe  the  distinction  I  take  between  removing  an  obstruction 
and  repelling  a  trespass  in  another  part  of  the  case.  They  had  a  right 
to  lay  hold  of,  as  every  subject  of  Her  Majesty  has,  and  to  arrest  persons 
guilty  of  any  assault  or  trespass,  or  other  act  tending  to  a  riot,  either  to 
restrain  or  make  them  amenable.  There  is  no  distinction  between  sol- 
diers and  others  in  that  respect,  Lord  Mansfield  says,  and  his  attention 
was  very  much  called  to  this  subject,  touching  the  military  engaged, 
not  as  soldiers,  but,  he  says,  as  citizens,  and  I  say,  as  subjects  of  Her 
Majesty.  No  matter  whether  their  coats  be  red  or  brown,  they  are 
employed  not  to  subvert,  but  to  preserve  the  laws  which  they  ought  to 
prize  so  highly,  taking  care  not  to  commit  any  unnecessary  violence,  or 
to  abuse  the  power  vested  in  them.  Every  one  is  justified  in  doing 
what  is  necessary  for  the  faithful  discharge  of  his  duty,  although  he  is 
deeply  culpable  if  he  wantonly  commits  any  illegal  act  under  the  color 
or  pretext  of  law.  Those  persons  who  assist  in  the  suppression  of  tu- 
mults are  to  be  considered  as  mere  private  individuals,  acting  as  duty 
requires.  It  is  a  mistake  to  suppose  that  having  resort  to  soldiers,  is 
introducing  martial  law  or  military  government.  Suppose  a  soldier, 
or  any  other  military  person,  who  acted  in  the  course  of  the  late  occur- 
rence, had  exceeded  the  powers  with  which  he  was  invested,  there  is  no 
doubt  that  he  may  be  punished,  not  by  a  court-martial,  but  by  an  in- 
dictment, to  be  found  by  the  Grand  Inquest  of  the  County  of  Clare,  and 
to  be  disposed  of  before  the  criminal  judge,  acting  with  the  assistance 
of  the  jury,  in  the  court  of  the  county.  If  assaulted,  or  struck  with 


278  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [EXE. 

stones,  they  had  a  right  to  repel  force  by  force,  but  not  with  deadly  or 
mortal  weapons  ;  though  if  provoked  by  blows,  so  as  to  lose  the  com- 
mand of  their  tempers — though  more  forbearance,  perhaps,  would  be 
expected  from  soldiers  than  from  others — if  they  did,  when  so  provoked, 
use  the  mortal  weapons  in  their  hands,  not  with  any  previous  premedi- 
tation on  their  parts  so  to  use  them — and  I  have  marked  the  distinction 
between  soldiers  and  others  under  such  circumstances — in  such  repul- 
sion or  affray,  the  law,  in  consideration  of  the  provocation  and  the 
frailty  of  human  nature,  reduces  the  crime,  which  would  otherwise  be 
murder,  to  manslaughter.  And  if  it  should  still  further  appear  that, 
having  been  so  assailed  and  attacked,  they  had  been  guilty  of  no  aggres- 
sion, and  repelling  force  by  force,  the  violence  proceeded  so  far  that, 
without  any  misconduct  on  their  part,  their  lives  were  threatened,  and 
in  actual  danger ;  and  if  it  appears  that,  in  order  to  save  themselves 
and  their  lives,  they  were  obliged  to  fire,  and  did  fire,  in  the  defence  of 
their  lives,  and  slay,  the  homicide  is  excusable  and  justifiable.  But  in 
order  to  warrant  that  finding  by  the  jury,  or  that  proceeding  by  the  sol- 
diers, you  must  be  convinced  by  actual  proof  that  their  conduct  had  been 
all  through  correct,  and  by  actual  proof — not  the  saying  nor  the  opinions 
of  any  individual — that  their  lives  were  in  danger,  and  were  saved  by  the 
firing,  and  only  by  the  firing.  In  order  to  warrant  such  a  finding  as 
that,  you  must  entertain  that  conviction  founded  upon  the  evidence 
given  before  you.  The  facts  evincing  danger  imminent  to  their  lives, 
and  which  could  be  prevented  only  by  the  firing,  must  be  established 
by  clear  evidence,  demonstrating  that  such  danger  existed,  and  could  be 
preserved  only  by  resorting  to  that  deplorable  remedy.  In  considering 
that  matter,  you  will  recollect  that  there  were  of  the  party  forty  soldiers 
fully  armed,  with  fixed  bayonets,  under  the  command  of  two  officers  and 
two  sergeants ;  and  further,  that  it  is  at  least  doubtful  whether  there 
was  any  legal  command  upon  them  to  fire.  No  command  was  given 
by  their  officers — I  think  that  is  admitted  on  all  hands.  And  further, 
you  must  recollect  that  the  firing  cannot  be  justified  upon  the  ground  merely 
that  otherwise  the  freeholders  might  either  have  escaped  or  been  with- 
drawn. That  would  afford  no  justification  for  slaying  the  assailants. 
You  will  also  consider  where  the  matter  occurred — in  this  respect  fa- 
vorable to  the  accused — a  narrow  lane.  In  another  point  of  view,  (but 
that  is  a  matter  for  inquiry,)  it  is  said  to  have  been  near  the  court- 
house, and  near  an  open  road,  where  there  was  a  large  body  of  police, 
and  a  strong  detachment  of  soldiers  stationed,  and  where  several  magis- 
trates were  in  attendance.  You  will  also  consider  the  matter  I  have 
before  taken  into  consideration,  whether  the  soldiers  fired  without  or- 


EXE.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  279 

ders,  and  whether  they  showed  the  steadiness  and  forbearance  that 
they  ought.  I  need  not  again  repeat  to  gentlemen  of  your  intelligence, 
that  when  I  state  any  thing,  I  merely  state  what  I  have  been  informed ; 
and  I  will  not  state  a  word  as  to  that,  but  you  will  look  to  the  evidence 
before  you.  If  it  shall  appear  to  you  that  shots  were  fired,  and  some 
persons  were  killed,  at  a  considerable  distance  from  the  lane,  and  out 
of  that  lane,  and  by  some  of  the  soldiers  who  had  occupied  and  imme- 
diately come  from  it,  and  gained  the  open  ground  without  any  continued 
resistance — where  there  was  no  pretence  of  danger  to  their  lives,  and 
the  persons  were,  some  at  a  great  distance,  and  some  of  them  with  their 
backs  turned — if  that  state  of  facts  appeared,  without  previous  ex- 
citement and  previous  provocation,  it  would  amount  to  a  case  of  mur- 
der ;  but  it  will  be  for  you  to  say  whether  such  a  state  of  facts  as  to 
some  individual  soldiers  should  appear — whether  there  was  any  previ- 
ous excitement  and  provocation  (which,  as  I  before  told  you,  would  re- 
duce the  killing,  though  it  would  not  justify  it,  to  manslaughter)  con- 
tinuing for  a  sufficient  time,  and  preventing  the  blood  from  cooling. 
You  will  consider  how  far  that  consideration  in  your  mind  operates, 
and  leads  you  to  the  conclusion  that  they  acted,  not  from  a  deliberate 
intention  to  take  away  life,  but  from  the  excitement  and  warmth  pro- 
duced by  previous  provocation.  That  would  reduce  the  crime  to  man- 
slaughter. Therefore,  gentlemen,  as  to  those  persons  who  were  slain 
on  what  is  called  the  Lodge  Road,  or  near  Miss  Wilson's,  your  inquiry 
will  be :  first,  as  to  whether  any  persons  were  slain ;  next,  by  whom  they 
were  slain  :  because,  unless  it  appears  that  the  whole  body  of  soldiers 
were  forward,  and  if  it  should  appear  there  were  only  a  few  there,  it 
will  be  your  duty  to  inquire  with  respect  to  them  if  it  make  any  distinc- 
tion in  the  finding — to  identify  and  particularize  those  individuals.  If 
you  should  find  that  the  homicide  was  of  the  worst  description,  and  that 
they  had  unnecessarily,  and  without  provocation  and  excitement  to  ex- 
cuse, and  also  a  warmth  of  blood,  for  which  there  is  allowance  made, 
you  could  not  visit  their  act  upon  the  whole  body ;  and,  therefore,  it 
will  be  material  for  you  to  ascertain  who  those  individual  persons  were. 
That  is  as  much  and  as  important  a  part  of  the  bill  as  any  other. 
Then,  gentlemen,  if  they  be  distinguishable,  it  is  your  duty  to  do  so. 
If  you  find  them  guilty  of  a  higher  degree  of  offence  than  any  of  the 
others,  you  must  be  able  to  distinguish  them  :  for  you  cannot  find  a 
general  verdict  against  all  upon  that.  With  respect  to  those  slain  in 
the  lane,  if  you  are  convinced  that  the  soldiers  were  not  the  aggressors, 
but  that  when  they  fired  they  were  unlawfully  assailed,  so  as  to  be  in 
real  danger  of  their  own  lives,  and  could  not  otherwise  save  them — as 


280  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [EXE. 

I  before  mentioned,  it  would  amount  to  justifiable  homicide,  and  ought 
to  be  so  found.  But  if  you  think  that,  though  they  were  not  the  aggress- 
ors, and  that  they  were  assailed  and  struck,  and,  being  thereby  pro- 
voked, repelled  force  by  force,  with  the  affray  thickening,  and  they  re- 
ceiving blows,  either  from  weapons  in  the  hands,  or  from  stones  cast 
upon  them — that  they  were  provoked  so,  and  repelled  force  by  force, 
so  as  to  get  their  blood  so  heated  that  they  fired  and  slew  them — I 
think  then  you  ought  to  find  a  bill  of  manslaughter  against  all,  that  is, 
against  every  man  who  is  proved  to  you  to  have  discharged  his  musket 
on  that  occasion ;  but  you  must  have  such  proof,  of  course.  And 
whatever  you  find  in  respect  to  those  slain  in  the  lane — manslaughter  or 
homicide  in  self-defence — you  ought  to  find  a  bill  of  manslaughter,  at 
the  very  least,  against  every  soldier  who  is  proved  to  have  fired  in  the 
broad  street,  or  what  is  called  the  Lodge  Road.  These  are  the  obser- 
vations that  I  think  it  right  to  suggest  for  your  assistance.  I  cannot, 
of  course,  in  my  imperfect  view  of  the  facts,  give  you  such  advice  and 
assistance  as  1  would  give  a  jury  upon  a  case  which  I  had  heard  ;  but  I 
will  be  ready  and  happy,  if  you  find  any  difficulty  in  applying  any  thing 
I  have  said  upon  the  evidence,  to  give  you  such  further  assistance  as  I 
can,  and  answer  any  questions  which  you  shall  put  to  me  on  the 
subject." 

It  may,  perhaps,  be  useful  to  subjoin  a  general  order  issued  to  the 
commander-in-chief  at  Madras,  in  April,  1825,  during  the  government 
of  Sir  Thomas  Munro,  shortly  after  a  melancholy  affair  at  Kittoor,  in 
which  one  or  two  civil  servants  of  the  East  India  Company  lost  their 
lives  under  circumstances  which,  in  the  opinion  of  the  public  authorities, 
indicated,  both  in  the  civil  and  military  functionaries,  a  want  of  general 
knowledge  respecting  the  subject  of  the  order. 

^The  Honorable,  the  Governor  in  Council,  deems  it  necessary  to 
lay  down  the  following  rules  relative  to  the  exercise  of  the  authority 
with  which  civil  magistrates,  and  other  officers  acting  in  a  similar  ca- 
pacity, are  vested,  for  calling  out  military  force  to  preserve  the  peace 
of  the  country : 

"  1.  The  first  and  most  important  rule  is,  that  no  civil  officer  shall 
call  out  troops  until  he  is  convinced,  by  mature  consideration  of  all  the 
circumstances,  that  such  a  measure  is  necessary. 

"  2.  When  the  civil  officer  is  satisfied  of  the  necessity  of  the  measure, 
he  should,  before  carrying  it  into  execution,  receive  the  sanction  of 
government,  unless  the  delay  requisite  for  that  purpose  is  likely  to 
prove  detrimental  to  the  public  interests.  In  that  case,  also,  he  should 
fully  report  the  circumstances  to  government. 


EXE.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  281 

"  3.  When  the  civil  officer  may  not  deem  it  safe  to  wait  for  the  orders 
of  government,  he  should  address  his  requisition  for  troops,  not  to  any 
subordinate  military  officer,  but  to  the  officer  commanding  the  division, 
to  whom  he  should  communicate  his  object  in  making  it,  and  all  the 
information  he  may  possess  regarding  the  stength  and  designs  of  those 
by  whom  the  public  peace  is  menaced  or  disturbed.  His  duty  is  confined 
to  these  points.  He  has  no  authority  in  directing  military  operations. 

"  4.  The  officer  commanding  the  troops  has  alone  authority  to  de- 
termine the  number  and  nature  of  those  to  be  employed  ;  the  time  and 
manner  of  making  the  attack,  and  every  other  operation  for  the  reduc- 
tion of  the  enemy. 

"  5.  Whenever  the  officer  commanding  the  division  may  think  the 
troops  at  his  disposal  inadequate  to  the  enterprise,  he  should  call  upon 
the  officer  commanding  the  neighboring  division  for  aid,  and  report  to 
government  and  to  the  cornmander-in-chief. 

"  6.  No  assistant  or  subordinate  magistrate  is  authorized  to  call  out 
troops.  When  any  such  officer  thinks  military  aid  necessary,  he  must 
refer  to  his  superior,  the  principal  magistrate  of  the  district. 

"  The  foregoing  rules  are  to  be  observed,  when  it  can  be  done  with- 
out danger  to  the  public  safety.  Should  any  extraordinary  case  occur, 
which  admits  of  no  delay,  civil  and  military  officers  must  then  act  ac- 
cording to  the  emergency  and  the  best  of  their  judgment.  Such  cases, 
however,  can  rarely  occur,  unless  when  an  enemy  becomes  the  as- 
sailant ;  and  therefore  occasion  can  hardly  ever  arise  for  departing 
from  the  regular  course  of  calling  out  troops,  only  by  the  requisition 
of  the  principal  civil  magistrates  of  the  province,  to  the  officer  com- 
manding the  division. 

"  Ordered,  that  the  foregoing  resolutions  be  published  in  general  or- 
ders to  the  army,  and  be  communicated  for  the  information  and  guid- 
ance of  such  civil  officers  as  they  concern."  (Consult  PRENDERGAST. 
See  CALLING  FORTH  MILITIA  ;  OBSTRUCTION  OF  LAWS  ;  INSURRECTION  ; 
MARSHALS  ;  POSSE  COMITATUS.) 

EXEMPTS  FROM  MILITIA  DUTY.  The  Vice-president  of  the 
United  States  ;  the  officers,  judicial  and  executive,  of  the  government 
of  the  United  States  ;  the  members  of  both  houses  of  Congress,  and 
their  respective  officers ;  all  custom-house  officers,  with  their  clerks ; 
all  post-officers  and  stage-drivers,  who  are  employed  in  the  care  and 
conveyance  of  the  mail  of  the  post-office  of  the  United  States  ;  all  ferry- 
men employed  at  any  ferry  on  the  post  road ;  all  inspectors  of  ex- 
ports ;  all  pilots  and  mariners  actually  employed  in  the  service  of  any 
citizen  or  merchant  within  the  United  States ;  and  all  persons  who 


282  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [Exp. 

are  or  may  be  exempted  by  the  laws  of  the  different  States ;  (Act  May 
8,  1792.) 

EXPEDITION — is  an  enterprise  undertaken  either  by  sea  or  by 
land  against  an  enemy,  the  fortunate  termination  of  which  principally 
depends  on  the  rapidity  and  unexpected  nature  of  its  movements.  To 
be  successful,  the  design  and  preparations  for  an  expedition  should,  as 
far  as  may  be  practicable,  be  carefully  concealed  ;  the  means  employed  be 
proportioned  to  the  object  in  view  ;  the  plan  carefully  arranged,  and  its 
execution  intrusted  to  a  general  whose  talents  are  known  to  fit  him  for 
such  a  command,  and  who  possesses  a  perfect  knowledge  of  the  scene 
of  action. 

EXPENSE  MAGAZINES— are  small  powder  magazines  contain- 
ing ammunition,  &c.,  made  up  for  present  use.  There  is  usually  one 
in  each  bastion. 

EXTERIOR  SIDE— is  the  side  of  the  polygon,  upon  which  a  front 
of  fortification  is  formed. 

EXTERIOR  SLOPE— is  a  slope  given  to  the  outside  of  the  para- 
pet. It  is  found  by  experience  that  earth  of  common  quality  will 
naturally  acquire  a  slope  of  45°,  even  when  battered  by  cannon.  This 
inclination  is  therefore  given  to  the  slope. 

EXTRA  ALLOWANCES.  Officers  shall  not  receive  any  addi- 
tional pay,  extra  allowance,  or  compensation  in  any  form  whatever,  for 
disbursements  of  public  money,  or  any  other  service  or  duty  whatso- 
ever, unless  the  same  shall  be  authorized  by  law,  and  the  appropriation 
therefor  explicitly  set  forth ;  that  is,  for  such  additional  pay,  extra  al- 
lowance, or  compensation  ;  (Act  Aug.  23,  1842.) 

EXTRA  EXPENSES.  Where  any  commissioned  officer  shall  be 
obliged  to  incur  any  extra  expense  in  travelling,  and  sitting  on  general 
courts-martial,  he  shall  be  allowed  one  dollar  and  twenty-five  cents  per 
day,  if  not  entitled  to  forage,  and  one  dollar  if  so  entitled ;  (Act  Jan. 
29,  1813.) 

F 

FACE  OF  A  GUN.  The  superficies  of  the  metal  at  the  extremity 
of  the  muzzle. 

FACES  OF  A  BASTION— are  the  two  sides  extending  from  the 
salient  to  the  angle  of  the  shoulder. 

FACES  OF  A  SQUARE.  The  sides  of  a  battalion  when  formed 
in  square. 

FACINGS.  The  movement  of  soldiers  to  the  right,  left,  right 
about,  left  about,  &c. 


FIE.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  283 

FALSE  ALARMS.     Punishable.     (See  ALARM.) 

FALSE  CERTIFICATES.  Punishable  with  cashiering;  (ART. 
14.)  (See  CERTIFICATE.) 

FALSEHOOD.  The  onus  probandl  in.  all  accusations  lies  with 
the  accuser.  If  A  accuses  B  of  having  told  a  falsehood,  A  must  prove 
it  by  legal  evidence. 

FARRIER  AND  BLACKSMITH.  Allowed  to  cavalry  regi- 
ments. (See  ARMY  ;  VETERINARY.) 

FASCINES — are  long  cylindrical  fagots  of  brushwood,  and  when 
designed  for  supporting  the  earth  of  extensive  epaulements,  are  called 
saucissons,  and  are  about  18  feet  long,  and  ten  inches  thick ;  those  for 
the  revetment  of  the  parapets  of  batteries  are  eight  or  ten  feet  long ; 
those  for  covering  wet  or  marshy  ground  from  6  to  9  feet  long.  (See 
REVETMENT  for  construction  of  fascines.) 

FATIGUE  DUTY.  Soldiers  on  fatigue  duty  allowed  an  extra  gill 
of  whiskey  ;  (Act  March  2,  1829.) 

That  the  allowance  of  soldiers  employed  at  work  on  fortifications, 
in  surveys,  in  cutting  roads,  and  other  constant  labor,  of  not  less  than 
ten  days,  authorized  by  an  act  approved  March  second,  eighteen  hun- 
dred and  nineteen,  entitled  "  An  act  to  regulate  the  pay  of  the  army 
when  employed  on  fatigue  duty,"  be  increased  to  twenty-five  cents  per 
day  for  men  employed  as  laborers  and  teamsters,  and  forty  cents  per 
day  when  employed  as  mechanics,  at  all  stations  east  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  and  to  thirty-five  cents  and  fifty  cents  per  day,  respectively, 
when  the  men  are  employed  at  the  stations  west  of  those  mountains. 
— Approved  August  4,  1854. 

FAUSSE  BRAIE — is  a  second  enceinte,  exterior  to,  and  parallel 
to  the  main  rampart,  and  considerably  below  its  level. 

FEVER.     (See  SANITARY  PRECAUTIONS  ;  MEDICINE.) 

FIELD.     In  a  military  sense,  the  scene  of  a  campaign  or  battle. 

FIELD  DAY.  A  term  used  when  a  regiment  is  taken  out  to  the  field, 
for  the  purpose  of  being  instructed  in  the  field  exercise  and  evolutions. 

FIELD  MARSHAL.  The  highest  military  rank  excepting  that 
of  captain-general. 

FIELD  OFFICERS.  Colonels,  lieutenant-colonels,  and  majors, 
are  called  field  officers.  They  should  always  be  mounted,  in  order  to 
give  ground  for  movements,  circulate  orders,  and  correct  pivots. 

FIELD  WORKS.  Their  object  is  to  provide  a  body  of  troops,  or 
a  town,  with  a  secure  protection  against  a  sudden  assault  of  superior 
numbers  by  the  interposition  of  a  parapet  of  some  material  capable  of 
resisting  the  effects  of  projectiles.  This  parapet  may  be  made  of  very 


284 


MILITARY  DICTIONARY. 


[FlE. 


miscellaneous  materials,  but  is  usually  of  earth,  excavated  from  a  ditch, 
which  will  itself  be  an  obstacle  to  attack.  The  usual  figure  of  a  parapet 
with  its  ditch  is  shown  in  Fig.  112. 

The  exterior  slope  e  /,  which  is  always  exposed  to  the  action  of  the 


FIG.  112. 


weather,  and  during  an  engagement  to  enemy's  shot,  must  have  that  in- 
clination or  slope  which  the  materials  composing  it  would  assume  when 
poured  loosely  from  a  height,  and  at  which  they  would  therefore  stand 
without  any  additional  support.  This  inclination  for  earth  of  ordinary 
tenacity,  is  about  45° ;  i.  e.,  the  base  on  which  the  slope  stands  is  equal 
to  its  height,  or  it  has  a  depression  of  1  in  1.  The  parapet  would  afford 
the  best  cover  if  its  superior  slope,  d  e,  were  horizontal,  or  rather 
parallel  to  the  plane  of  site ;  but  in  this  case  a  musket-shot,  fired  along 
its  surface,  could  not  reach  the  ground  within  a  very  considerable  dis- 
tance in  front  of  it ;  a  gentle  inclination  is  therefore  given  to  it,  and  ex- 
perience has  fixed  this  slope  at  a  depression  of  1  in  6.  The  interior 
slope,  d  c,  of  this  parapet  must  be  nearly  vertical,  that  soldiers  may 
lean  against  it  and  fire  easily  over  it.  It  must,  therefore,  be  supported 
by  a  wall  of  some  material,  called  a  revetment.  The  base  of  this 
slope  is  usually  one-fourth  the  height.  It  has  a  depression,  therefore,  of 
4  in  1.  A  step,  b  c,  called  the  banquette,  is  added,  of  a  height  sufficient 
to  enable  a  man  of  ordinary  stature  to  fire  conveniently  over  the  crest, 
and  sloping  away  gently  towards  the  rear  to  facilitate  the  alternate  ad- 
vance and  retirement  of  each  soldier  to  discharge  and  load  his  firelock. 
The  base  of  this  slope  is  usually  l£  to  2  times  the  height.  The  depres- 
sion is,  therefore,  1  in  H  or  2.  The  thickness  of  a  parapet,  that  is,  of 
its  superior  slope,  must  be  sufficient  to  withstand  the  effects  of  the  pro- 
jectiles likely  to  be  discharged  against  it.  To  afford  security  against 
Musketry  .  .  .  its  thickness  must  be  5  feet. 


6-pounders 

9-pounders    . 
12-pounders 
18-pounders    . 
24-pounders  and  heavier  guns 


6     " 
9     <; 

12  '• 
18  " 
20  to  24  feet. 


FIE.] 


MILITARY  DICTIONARY. 


283 


In  field-works,  which  are  seldom  made  to  resist  heavy  artillery,  a 
thickness  of  parapet  of  11  feet  will  generally  be  sufficient. 

The  height  of  a  parapet  will  greatly  depend  upon  its  position.  It 
will  readily  be  seen  from  Fig.  112,  that  a  bullet  striking  the  parapet 
near  the  upper  part  will  have  to  traverse  a  small  portion  only  of  the 
thickness  of  the  parapet  in  order  to  pass  through. 

It  becomes  necessary,  therefore,  to  give  to  a  parapet  a  height  rather 
greater  than  that  to  which  cover  is  required.  Hence  on  a  plain  where 
the  attacking  and  defending  parties  are  on  the  same  level,  the  height 
of  a  parapet,  to  furnish  cover  to  men  6  feet  high,  is  usually  7£  feet. 
Should  the  parapet  be  situated  upon  the  brow  of  a  hill,  the  defenders 
could  obtain  cover  to  any  desired  extent  by  merely  retiring  from  it.  In 
this  case  a  height  sufficient  to  protect  the  soldiers  while  firing  is  all  that 
will  be  necessary  ;  this  will  usually  be  from  4  to  6  feet.  (Fig.  113.) 

Should  these  conditions  be  reversed,  that  is,  should  the  attacking 
party  be  in  possession  of  the  higher  ground,  a  height  of  parapet  up  to 
10  or  12  feet  may  be  indispensable,  and  when  the  slope  of  the  ground  is 
considerable,  even  this  will  afford  cover  to  a  small  distance  only  behind 
it ;  (Fig.  114.)  It  may  be  said  generally  then  that  the  height  of  para- 
pets varies  from  4  to  12  feet,  and  the  thickness  from  4  to  25  feet. 

FIGS.  113,  114. 


In  the  defence  of  field  positions  the  following  considerations  require 
special  notice : — 

1st.  The  period  likely  to  elapse  before  the  position  is  attacked. 

2d.  The  number  of  troops  by  whom  the  position  is  to  be  held. 

3d.  The  number  of  men  available  for  the  construction  of  the  work, 
and  the  nature  of  the  materials  at  hand. 


286  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [FiE. 

On  the  first  of  these  considerations  will  depend  the  height  and  thick- 
ness of  the  parapet,  depth  and  width  of  the  ditch,  and  the  nature  of  the 
obstacles  which  may  be  added,  as  only  a  certain  amount  of  work  can 
be  executed  in  a  given  time,  and  a  work  of  even  feeble  profile  thorough- 
ly complete  will  be  capable  of  a  better  defence  than  a  stronger  work 
only  partially  executed.  The  extent  which  it  may  be  desirable  to  give 
to  the  work  will  be  limited  by  the  number  of  men  available  for  its  de- 
fence. There  must,  at  least,  be  sufficient  to  man  the  whole  of  the 
parapet,  and  a  reserve,  in  addition,  is  almost  essential.  The  length  of 
crest  line  measured  in  yards,  must  not  exceed  half  the  number  of  men 
allotted  for  its  defence.  When  either  labor  or  materials  are  scarce,  it 
may  be  necessary  to  reduce  the  profile,  and  to  contract  the  extent  of  the 
work  below  that  which  would  be  desirable  under  other  circumstances ; 
but  in  this  case  the  details  should  be  so  arranged  as  to  admit  of  subse- 
quent additions,  should  circumstances  allow  it,  so  as  to  bring  the  whole 
work  to  that  condition  which  might  have  been  desirable,  though  unat- 
tainable in  the  first  instance.  When  time,  labor,  and  materials  are 
abundant,  a  good  parapet  and  ditch  should  always  be  made  to  secure 
the  defenders.  The  dimensions  and  construction  of  such  a  parapet  have 
already  been  given.  But  cover  can  be  obtained  for  a  limited  number 
of  men  in  a  more  expeditious  way.  Thus  a  man  will  be  equally  pro- 
tected from  an  enemy's  fire,  by  standing  behind  a  parapet  6  feet  high, 
or  in  a  trench  3  feet  deep,  with  a  bank  of  earth  3  feet  high  in  front  of 
him.  Now  to  dig  a  trench  3  feet  deep,  and  throw  the  earth  to  the  front 
so  as  to  form  a  bank  3  feet  high,  may  be  performed  by  the  same  num- 
ber of  men  in  at  most  £  of  the  time  required  for  the  construction  of  a 
complete  parapet  6  feet  high.  A  trench  and  breastwork  then  will  be 
generally  used  when  the  time  is  limited,  and  when  cover  and  not  the 
creation  of  an  obstacle  is  the  principal  object  of  the  work.  Fig.  115 


FIG.  11 


represents  a  section  of  the  slightest  work  of  this  nature  which  can  be  of 
any  service.  Here  a  trench  2£  feet  deep  is  dug,  and  the  earth  thrown 
to  the  front  forms  a  rough  parapet  2  feet  high.  The  trench  can  contain 
one  rank  only,  and  the  total  cover  being  4^  feet  high,  the  men  will  not 


FIE.] 


MILITARY  DICTIONARY. 


287 


be  safe  except  when  sitting  or  stooping.  A  trench  and  breastwork  of 
these  dimensions  can  be  completed  in  about  1^  hours.  The  next  sec- 
tion (Fig.  116)  is  more  serviceable;  the  total  height  of  cover  in  this 


FIG.  116. 


case  is  6  feet.  The  men  will  be  safe  therefore  so  long  as  they  remain 
in  the  trench,  which  provides  room  for  one  rank  only  at  a  time.  The 
completion  of  this  work  would  require  about  3  hours. 

Fig.  117  is  a  section  of  a  breastwork  and  trench  of  a  capacity  suffi- 


cient for  most  of  the  purposes  for  which  works  of  this  nature  are  usually 
required.  The  trench  is  wide  enough  to  contain  two  ranks  of  men  at 
the  same  time,  and  affords  cover  6  feet  in  height.  Such  a  work  can  be 
executed  in  about  5  hours. 

FIG.  118. 


Fig.  118  is  a  profile  adapted  to  marshy  or  rocky  situations  where 
shallow  trenches  only  are  practicable. 


288  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [FIE. 

This  work  can  be  constructed  very  rapidly  when  labor  is  abundant, 
as  two  working  parties,  one  in  front  and  the  other  in  rear,  can  be  em- 
ployed at  the  same  time.  The  work  to  be  performed  then  will  gener- 
ally be  the  excavation  of  a  trench  or  ditch,  and  the  formation  of  a  para- 
pet or  breastwork,  with  the  earth  thrown  out  of  it.  It  will  in  most 
cases  be  executed  by  the  troops  themselves,  though  sometimes  laborers 
may  be  obtained.  In  constructing  a  simple  trench  and  breastwork  one 
row  of  workmen  only  can  be  advantageously  employed  at  the  same 
time,  and  it  will  be  found  desirable  to  place  them  6  feet  apart ;  as  at 
this  distance  each  man  can  use  his  arms  freely,  without  interfering  with 
or  injuring  his  neighbor.  When  the  saving  of  time  is  of  more  conse- 
quence than  economy  of  labor,  the  diggers  may  be  placed  4  feet  apart, 
and  the  completion  of  the  work  will  be  accelerated,  though  not  in  pro- 
portion to  the  increase  in  the  number  of  workmen.  An  ordinary  labor- 
er or  common  soldier  can  excavate  one  cubic  yard,  i.  e.  27  cubic  feet,  in 
any  but  the  hardest  soils  per  hour ;  and  can  continue  working  at  this 
rate  for  8  hours.  Should  the  soil  be  loose  or  sandy,  so  that  the  pickaxe 
is  seldom  required,  this  estimate  may  be  nearly  doubled.  The  trench 
or  breastwork  will  be  completed  in  the  time  in  which  each  man  will 
finish  his  portion,  that  is,  a  portion  equal  in  length  to  the  interval  be- 
tween any  two  adjacent  diggers :  therefore  the  number  of  hours  will  be 
equal  to  the  number  of  cubic  yards  in  such  portion.  "Whence  the  follow- 
ing rule  is  at  once  obtained  : 

To  find  the  time  required  for  the  construction  of  a  trench  or  parapet, 
in  ordinary  soil — 

Multiply  the  area  of  the  section  of  the  trench  in  square  feet  by  the 
interval  between  the  diggers  (not  less  than  6  feet),  and  divide  this  prod- 
uct by  27,  the  quotient  is  the  number  of  hours  required  for  the  con- 
struction of  the  work.  Conversely,  to  find  the  area  of  the  section  of  the 
trench  or  breastwork  which  can  be  executed  in  a  given  time — 

Multiply  the  number  of  hours  by  27,  and  divide  the  product  by  the 
interval  (in  feet)  between  the  diggers,  the  result  will  be  the  area,  in 
square  feet,  of  the  section  of  the  trench  or  breastwork. 

It  will  frequently  happen  that  cover  can  be  speedily  obtained,  and  po- 
sitions rendered  defensible  in  a  very  short  time,  by  taking  aavantage  of 
the  hedges,  ditches,  or  walls,  which  may  be  met  with,  or  of  the  obstacles 
which  may  be  presented  by  the  natural  features  of  the  ground.  Gen- 
eral rules  for  proceeding  under  all  the  various  circumstances  which  rnay 
occur  cannot  be  given,  but  the  following  examples  will  show  what  may 
be  effected  in  certain  cases,  and  indicate  the  character  of  the  operations 
usually  required.  Fig.  119  represents  a  common  hedge  and  ditch 


FIE.] 


MILITARY  DICTIONARY. 


289 


FIG.  120. 


turned  into  a  breastwork  to  be  defended  from  the  hedge  side.  If  the 
hedge  be  thick  and  planted  on  a  bank,  as  is  generally  the  case,  and  es- 
pecially if  the  ditch  be  FlG  119 
tolerably  deep  and  con- 
tain water,  the  breast- 
work will  be  rendered 
strong  at  the  expense  of 
little  labor.  A  shallow 
trench  should  be  exca- 
vated behind  the  hedge, 
and  the  earth  thrown  up 
to  raise  the  bank  suffi- 
ciently to  form  a  rough 
breastwork  some  18 
inches  thick  at  the  top. 
Should  the  hedge  be 
more  than  6  feet  high, 
it  should  be  cut  to  that 
height,  and  the  branches 
interwoven  with  the  low- 
er part  to  strengthen  it. 
A  hedge  to  be  defended 
from  the  ditch  side  (Fig. 
120)  is  a  ready-made  trench  and  breastwork,  and  will  become  a  conve- 
nient work  by  a  little  scarping  of  the  sides  and  widening  and  levelling  of 
the  bottom  of  the  ditch,  and  by  the  addition,  if  necessary,  of  a  banquette. 
A  good  nine-inch  brick 
wall  is  musket -shot 
proof.  Such  a  wall  4 
feet  high  will  require 
no  alteration,  but  may 
be  used  as  a  parapet 
by  forming  loopholes 
with  sand-bags  laid  on 
the  top,  Fig.  121.  Should 
there  be  time,  a  ditch 
should  be  dug  in  front, 
and  the  earth  thrown  up 

against  the  front  of  the  wall  to  prevent  the  enemy  from  using  the  loop- 
holes against  the  defenders.    A  wall  15  feet  high  can  be  pierced  with  two 
tiers  of  loopholes,  one  at  8  feet  above  the  ground,  the  other  at  the  top  of 
19 


FIG.  121. 


290 


MILITARY  DICTIONARY. 


[FlE. 


FIG.  122. 


FIG.  123. 


the  wall.  In  rear  a  scaffolding  must  be  erected  of  two  stages  to  servo 
as  banquettes.  Such  an  arrangement  is  shown  in  the  diagram,  (Fig.  122.) 

A  wall  8  feet  high 

may  also  be  pierced  with 

two  tiers  of  loopholes  as 

shown 

trench 


in   Fig.  123. 
must   be   dug 


in 


this  case,  to  enable  the  de- 
fenders to  make  use  of 
the  lower  tier  of  loop- 
holes, and  a  scaffolding 
erected  to  serve  as  a  ban- 
quette for  the  upper.  On 
an  emergency,  materials 
of  almost  any  conceivable  description,  as  sacks  or  casks  of  earth, 
of  sand,  of  coal,  or  even  of  corn  or  flour,  bales  of  cotton,  of  cloth, 
packs  of  wool,  mattresses,  trusses  of  hay,  fagots,  carts  or  wagons 
of  stable  litter,  brick  rubbish  or  paving  stones,  may  be  formed  into 
parapets  of  defence,  while  the  approach  of  an  enemy  may  be  rendered 
exceedingly  difficult,  by  a  judicious  combinatipn  of  obstacles  \vhich,  un- 
der urgent  circumstances,  may  be  extemporized  of  trees,  bushes,  posts, 
wagons,  wheels,  strong  palings,  chairs,  tables,  and  miscellaneous  articles 
of  furniture,  with  iron  rails,  pitchforks,  and  agricultural  implements, 
carefully  arranged  in  the  front,  and  secured  by  chains  or  ropes  strongly 
picketed  to  the  ground.  Every  soldier  should  be  able  to  form  for  him- 
self a  rifle  pit.  This  can  be  accomplished  by  digging  a  hole  in  the 
ground  about  3  feet  deep  and  3  feet  square  at  the  top,  with  a  little  step 
to  enable  him  to  get  in  or  out  with  ease.  The  excavated  earth  should 
be  thrown  up  to  the  front  to  form  a  protection.  A  loophole  should  be 
made  by  three  sand-bags ;  two  placed  longitudinally,  and  one  across. 

FIG.  124. 


i 
$f — 


A  rifle  pit  of  this  construction  is  shown  in  plan,  section,  and  elevation 
in  Fig.   124.      Approach   to   field-works  should  be  rendered  difficult 


FIE.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  291 

by  the  formation  of  obstacles  of  various  kinds,  so  that  troops  when 
coming  to  the  assault  may  be  detained  under  heavy  fire  as  long  as 
possible  while  they  are  endeavoring  to  force  or  surmount  the  obstacle. 
Contrivances  of  this  nature  are  very  numerous.  (See  ABATIS,  TROUS- 
DE-LOUP,  CROWS'-FEET,  CHEVAUX-DE-FRIZE,  INUNDATIONS.)  In  defensive 
warfare  it  is  frequently  necessary  to  intrench  towns  and  villages,  to  se- 
cure them  from  the  incursions  of  small  parties,  or  to  serve  as  points  of 
support  for  the  movements  of  troops!  If  a  town  or  village  be  com- 
manded on  all  sides,  or  even  by  great  elevations  on  one  side,  if  the 
houses  be  of  wood  and  the  roofs  thatched,  so  as  to  be  easily  set  on  fire, 
such  a  position  should  be  avoided.  Neither  should  a  detachment  of 
troops  occupy  a  town  or  village  too  extensive  for  their  number,  unless 
a  part  of  the  village  can  be  easily  and  effectually  separated  from  the 
rest.  The  number  of  the  detachment  should  at  least  equal  the  number 
of  yards  in  the  exterior  line  of  works  by  which  the  village  is  surround- 
ed. To  place  a  village  in  a  state  of  defence,  the  first  object  will  be  to 
complete  a  continuous  line  of  defensive  works,  by  which  it  may  be  en- 
tirely surrounded.  To  this  end  advantage  is  taken  of  all  buildings, 
fences  and  walls,  near  the  exterior  edge.  The  buildings,  when  substan- 
tial, may  serve  as  bastions  to  flank  the  connecting  lines  of  works,  and 
when  due  preparations  have  been  made  will  become  strong  positions. 
The  walls  and  hedges  must  be  strengthened  by  banks  of  earth,  and  will 
form  curtains  connecting  the  stronger  portions.  All  openings  remain- 
ing must  be  closed  by  parapets,  strengthened  by  ditches,  abatis,  pali- 
sading, and  such  obstacles  as  the  locality  may  present,  and  the  streets 
must  be  barricaded  at  intervals.  Barricades  may  be  constructed  of 
materials  of  almost  any  kind  of  earth,  of  timber,  of  paving  stones,  of 
wagons  of  stable  litter  ;  (the  wheels  should  be  taken  off.)  In  buildings 
occupied  for  defence  the  doors  and  windows  should  be  blocked  up  with 
sand-bags,  supported  by  frames  of  wood,  and  the  glass 
must  be  removed  from  the  windows.  Should  there  be 
no  projecting  wings  or  porches,  it  will  be  necessary  to 
obtain  a  flanking  fire  by  the  construction  of  balconies 
projecting  from  the  windows,  and  furnished  with  loop- 
holes in  the  -sides  and  bottom,  so  that  a  flanking  fire 
can  be  brought  to  bear  on  the  ground  at  the  foot  of 
the  wall.  This  arrangement  is  shown  in  the  diagram, 
(Fig.  125.)  The  beams  supporting  the  gallery  or 
balcony  are  bolted  to  the  flooring  within  ;  the  balcony 
is  surrounded  with  good  oak  boarding  of  4"  or  5" 
thick.  That  the  communications  of  the  defenders  may  be  free, 


292  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [FiE. 

all  interior  hedges  and  walls  which  can  in  any  way  impede  their 
movements  must  be  levelled,  so  that  they  may  be  able  to  bring 
support  rapidly  to  any  point  pressed  by  an  enemy.  Those  hedges 
which  it  may  be  desirable  to  retain  must  be  strengthened  in  the  man- 
ner already  pointed  out.  The  strength  of  the  position  may  (when  cir- 
cumstances admit)  be  greatly  increased  by  the  formation  of  an  interior 
keep,  whither  the  defenders  may  retire  and  obtain  favorable  terms  of 
capitulation  should  they  be  unable  to  withstand  the  assaults  of  their  as- 
sailants. A  substantial  building  within  the  town,  as  a  gaol,  may  be  con- 
verted into  a  keep  by  blocking  up  unnecessary  openings ;  by  covering 
entrances  or  any  unflanked  portions  of  the  walls  with  tambours ;  by 
loopholing  the  walls  and  surrounding  them  if  possible  with  a  ditch, 
palisade,  and  abatis.  In  the  absence  of  a  building  of  this  nature,  it  will 
be  desirable  to  construct  a  redoubt,  of  as  strong  a  character  as  time 
will  allow.  If  the  village  be  of  considerable  extent,  and  a  position  can 
be  found  which  cannot  be  commanded  from  the  neighboring  buildings, 
the  redoubt  may  be  of  earth,  as  in  an  ordinary  field-work.  While  the 
actual  defences  of  the  village  are  thus  being  prepared,  parties  will  be 
occupied  on  the  ground  without,  in  creating  obstacles  and  entanglements 
in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  place,  and  in  removing  and  levelling  all 
obstructions  between  such  obstacles  and  the  limits  of  rifle  range.  The 
greatest  obstacle  which  can  be  presented  to  an  attacking  force,  will,  in 
future,  be  a  long  level  tract,  fully  commanded  by  a  sweeping  fire.  It 
is,  in  fact,  difficult  to  see  how  an  assaulting  body  could  pass  over  such  a 
tract  of  1,000  or  800  yards  in  extent,  to  attack  a  work  in  daylight  with- 
out being  annihilated.  To  remove  every  object,  whether  tree  or  bush, 
rising  ground,  dry  ditch,  or  hedge,  which  could  afford  cover  or  conceal- 
ment to  a  rifleman,  will  be  an  object  of  primary  importance  in  execut- 
ing the  arrangements  for  defence.  Ditches  full  of  water,  or  which  can 
be  filled,  may  generally  be  left,  as  they  impede,  and  cannot  assist  the 
assaulting  party.  Fig.  126  gives  an  illustration  of  the  means,  already 
described,  usually  applicable  for  placing  a  village  in  a  state  of  defence. 

A  very  little  time  devoted  to  the  study  of  the  subject,  would  enable 
an  officer  in  command  of  a  picket  or  charged  with  the  defence  of  an 
outpost  to  determine  the  construction  of  all  the  works  that  are  requi- 
site for  protection  and  defence.  THE  SELECTION  OF  THE  POST  is  what 
will  first  engage  attention,  and  the  following  considerations  must  have 
their  weight  in  determining  the  point : 

The  inequalities  of  the  ground,  and  the  objects  upon  it,  such  as 
buildings  or  fences,  &c.,  should  be  of  such  a  nature,  and  in  that  relative 
situation  to  each  other,  as  to  be  convertible  into  a  fortified  post  with 


FIE.] 


MILITARY  DICTIONARY. 


293 


DEFENCE  OF  A  FOKTIFIED  VILLAGE. 

w,  loopholed  walls;   P,  parapets  and  ditches;  c,  ditto  of  casks;   o\  abatis;  r,  stockades;  5, 
Darners ;  1 1,  free  communication,  road  or  passage  ;  H,  fortified  house ;  K,  keep. 

ATTACK  OF  THIS  FOETIFIED  VILLAGE.  ' 

D  D,  flying  sap-parallel  or  trench  of  cover ;  B,  open  field  battery,  first  opened  at  about  850 
yards  distance;  E,  ditto,  advanced  to  breach;  F,  one  9-pounder  and  one  24-pounder  howitzer,  to 
made  flunking  d  fences  e  e'  e",  breaches;  A,  storming  party;   Z,  supporting  ditto ;  *  «  #,  firing 
11        S'  S  a'          attacks» to  divert  the  attention  of  the  garrison  at  the  moment  of 


294  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [FIE. 

THE  LEAST   POSSIBLE    LABOR,  AND    IN    THE    SHORTEST    TIME.       The    position 

should  not  be  commanded,  especially  on  the  flanks  or  in  the  rear, 
within  the  ordinary  range  of  a  field-piece.  There  should  be  plenty  of 
materials  on  the  spot  for  the  construction  of  temporary  works,  and  for 
forming  obstructions  in  front  of  them.  The  soil  should  be  of  a  nature 
that  is  easily  worked,  if  it  is  foreseen  that  any  trenches  or  ditches  will 
have  to  be  executed.  It  should  generally  be  DIFFICULT  OF  ACCESS,  and 
yet  offer  the  MEANS  OF  RETREATING  in  security.  And  should  be  in  a 
situation  for  fulfilling  the  object  for  which  the  detachment  is  to  be 
posted. 

In  arranging  the  general  plan  of  defensive  wrorks,  the  following 
points  will  require  more  particular  attention  : — It  must  be  ascertained 
from  a  minute  examination  of  the  position,  what  figure  will  give  the  great- 
est quantity  of  fire  over  the  most  accessible  points  of  attack,  and  the 
general  contour  of  the  intrenchment  should  make  available  buildings  or 
fences  on  the  ground.  THE  OBJECT  THE  WORK  is  EXPECTED  TO  FULFIL 
in  reference  to  the  supporting  force ;  the  distance  from  that  force ;  or 
whether  it  is  to  bo  left  to  itself  to  hold  an  enemy  in  check  as  long  as 
possible ;  or  whether  it  is  to  be  defended  to  the  last  extremity.  ITS 
SITUATION  WITH  RESPECT  TO  THE  ENEMY  as  to  distance,  &c. ;  whether  it 
is  likely  to  be  attacked  by  overwhelming  forcrs,  or  only  subject  to  the 
brusque  attack  of  cavalry  or  infantry  in  smaller  bodies ;  whether  ar- 
tillery is  likely  to  be  brought  up  against  it,  for  in  that  case  earthen 
works,  when  merely  for  the  purposes  of  cover,  are  in  some  respects 
bettor  than  buildings  or  stockades  ;  the  parapets,  too,  must  be  thicker  ; 
— whether  it  can  be  surrounded,  for  in  such  a  case  it  must  be  inclosed 
all  round,  &c.  THE  NUMBER  OF  MEN  THERE  WILL  BE  FOR  ITS  DEFENCE, 
taking  it  as  an  established  rule,  that  it  is  better  to  have  a  force  concen- 
trated, than  too  much  distributed,  and  therefore  injudicious  to  make 
works  of  a  greater  extent  than  can  be  well  manned  and  vigorously  de- 
fended. For  instance,  in  small  works  there  might  be  a  file  of  men  for 
every  pace  or  yard  in  the  length  of  their  breastwork,  and  in  larger 
ones  the  same,  with  a  reserve  of  from  one-fourth  to  one-sixth  of  the 
whole  in  addition.  On  some  sucji  general  basis,  a  calculation  of  the 
proportionate  extent  of  a  work  might  be  made.  All  this  of  course  de- 
pends very  much  upon  circumstances.  THE  NUMBER  OF  MEN,  whether 
soldiers  or  inhabitants,  that  can  be  collected  together  for  working,  and 
whether  there  are  tools  enough  for  them,  so  as  not  to  undertake  more 
work  than  can  be  well  done.  And,  which  is  a  very  important  point, 
'  THE  TIME  THERE  is  TO  DO  IT  IN.  Whether  an  immediate  attack  is  to  be 
apprehended,  or  otherwise,  for  this  will  decide  not  only  the  nature  of 


FIE.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  295 

the  works,  but  the  parts  of  them  that  require  the  first  attention ;  as 
will  be  more  apparent  when  the  details  of  execution  are  brought  under 
consideration.  THE  NATURE  OF  THE  MATERIALS  that  can  be  had  on  the 
spot,  or  procured  in  the  neighborhood.  This  will  have  a  great  influence 
on  the  details  of  the  plan  to  be  pursued,  and  will  afford  opportunity  for 
the  display  of  considerable  tact  and  intelligence,  in  appropriating  and 
adapting  the  means  at  hand  for  carrying  the  general  plan  into  effect, 
and  securing  its  objects  with  the  LEAST  POSSIBLE  LABOR.  No  one  who 
is  not  conversant  with  work  of  this  description,  can  have  any  idea  of 
the  great  saving  of  time  and  labor  that  may  be  effected,  by  taking  ad- 
vantage of  what  might  appear  at  a  casual  glance  to  be  very  unimpor- 
tant and  local  features  ;  such,  for  instance,  as  gentle  undulations  in  the 
ground. 

Details  of  Execution. — The  following  description  of  tools  and  stores 
would  be  found  more  or  less  necessary,  where  temporary  works  were 
to  be  thrown  up.  They  are  classed  in  three  divisions,  that  their  sep- 
arate uses  may  be  apparent. 

Class  1.  Field  Exercise  Tools. 

Shovels, 

p.  ,  Tor  sinking  trenches,  forming  breastworks, 

-p  „.  \  felling  timber,  making  abatis  and  obstructions, 

Bill-hooks,  '        J  &C* 
Class  2.  For  Houses,  Walls,  &c. 


SI  ed  ge-hamm  ers, 
Hand-borers, 
Crowbars, 
Saws. 


For  forming  loopholes,  breaking  through 
walls  ;  preparing  timber  for  barricades,  stock- 


kade  work,  &c. 
Augers, 

Spike-nails, 

•^ 

Class  3.  General  service  and  purposes  of  defence. 

Sand-bags,  The  sand-bags  for  blocking  up  windows, 

Rockets,  [forming    loopholes,    &c.  ;     the    rockets    and 

Small  shells,         [shells   for   defence    of    houses    and   intrench- 
Hand-grenades,   J  ments. 

The  proportions  of  these  necessary  to  be  demanded  would  of  course 
vary  with  the  description  of  work  which  might  be  anticipated.  For 
example,  in  throwing  up  earthen  works  in  an  open  country,  a  pickaxe 
and  shovel  for  every  man  that  could  be  employed  on  the  breastworks 
would  be  wanted.  If  an  abatis  could  be  formed,  and  there  were  fences 


296  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [FiE. 

to  be  cut  up  and  levelled,  one-third  of  the  men  would  be  advantageously 
employed  with  felling-axes  and  bill-hooks.  In  a  case  where  houses  were 
to  be  placed  in  a  state  of  defence,  walls  would  have  to  be  broken  through 
for  making  loopholes,  and  windows,  doors,  and  passages  to  be  barri- 
caded ;  here  crowbars,  hand-borers,  sledge-hammers,  spike-nails,  and 
saws  would  be  required  in  greater  proportion  than  spades  and  pick- 
axes. Sand-bags  are  included  as  being  very  useful  for  many  purposes, 
such  as  protecting  men  when  firing  over  a  parapet  or  breastwork, 
quickly  blocking  up  the  lower  parts  of  windows,  &c. 

A  man  will  carry  one  hundred  empty  sand-bags,  weighing  about 
60  Ibs.,  each  of  which  will  contain  a  bushel  of  earth,  and  when  full  they 
are  musket-proof.  Rockets,  small  shells,  and  grenades,  are  mentioned 
as  being  very  powerful  and  attainable  auxiliaries  in  the  defence  of  posts 
and  houses ;  and  one  great  advantage  of  them  is,  that  any  body  who 
has  common  sense  may  use  them,  or  at  least  be  instructed  in  the  requi- 
site precautions  in  a  few  minutes.  A  CERTAIN  DIVISION  OF  LABOR  must 
also  be  attended  to,  and  a  man  should  always  have  a  tool  put  into  his 
hand  that  he  has  been  accustomed  to  use ;  carpenters  should  therefore 
be  employed  where  saws  and  axes  are  wanted ;  miners  and  blacksmiths 
where  walls  are  to  be  broken  through ;  laborers  where  the  spade  and 
pickaxe  come  into  play.  Those  who  never  handled  tools  of  these  de- 
scriptions, would  be  most  usefully  employed  in  collecting  materials. 
It  would  be  well  also  to  select  such  men  for  the  first  tour  of  duty,  as 
patrols,  and  sentries,  and  to  employ  the  best  workmen  in  overcoming 
the  greatest  difficulties,  which  are  usually  found  in  the  commencement. 
A  little  foresight  will  not  be  misapplied  in  considering  these  points. 
It  is  essential  to  obtain  the  assistance  of  the  inhabitants  in  executing 
works  of  this  description,  and  an  officer  should  always  have  authority 
to  enforce  their  attendance,  and  to  pay  them  in  proportion  to  their  ex- 
ertions. They  should  also  be  required  to  bring  with  them  whatever 
tools  they  can  best  use,  or  that  are  most  wanted. 

A  stick  may  be  cut  to  measure  lines,  and  stakes  will  be  driven  to 
show  the  slope  and  general  form  of  the  profile  necessary  in  each  par- 
ticular case.  Whatever  form  is  to  be  given  to  a  work,  it  is  traced 
upon  the  ground  by  laying  off  its  angles  according  to  the  number  of 
their  degrees,  and  its  sides  are  designated  by  little  furrows  dug  with 
the  mattock  or  spade  along  cords  stretched  in  the  proper  direction. 
To  profile  a  work  is  to  figure  upon  the  ground  its  elevation  by  means 
of  poles  and  laths  nailed  together  ;  (Fig.  127.)  The  officer  who  directs 
the  work  ought  to  take  with  him  four  or  five  soldiers  who  carry  mat- 
tocks, 100  pickets,  twenty  poles  ten  or  twelve  feet  long,  twenty  laths, 


FIE.]  MILITAKY  DICTIONARY.  297 

some  camp  colors,  and  a  cord  65  feet  in  length.     There  ought  also  to 
be  a  carpenter,  who  carries  hammer,  nails,  and  a  saw. 


FIG.  127. 


Field- works  necessary  or  desirable  in  the  operations  of  an  army 
in  the  field  to  strengthen  lines  of  battle,  keep  open  lines  of  com- 
munication, protect  bridges  from  destruction,  &c.,  will  generally  be 
constructed  under  the  supervision  of  engineers.  They  may  have  any 
extent,  from  a  simple  redan,  or  a  battery,  to  a  line  or  several  lines  of 
works,  some  of  considerable  magnitude,  extending  over  a  position  of 
ten  or  twenty  miles.  It  will  only  be  possible  here  to  give  a  brief  de- 
scription of  the  works  usually  adopted  for  these  purposes. 
Field-works,  then,  are  usually  arranged  in  three  classes : — 

First-Class,  consisting  of  works  open  at  the  gorge — 
Redan  Double  Redan 

Redan  with  flanks  Tenaille  Head 

Lunette  Bastion  Head 

Second  Class,  consisting  of  works  inclosed  all  round — 
Redoubt 
Bastion  Fort 

Third  Class,  consisting  of  lines  both  continuous  or  at  intervals — 
Lines  of  Redans  Lines  of  Bastions 

Lines  of  Tenailles  Lines  at  intervals 

Indented  Lines  a  la  Cremaillere 

A  redan  is  a  work  of  the  simplest  kind.  It  consists  of  two  faces  of 
parapet  and  ditch,  forming  a  salient  angle.  Redans  serve  to  cover 
bridges,  causeways,  avenues,  &c.,  and  being  quite  open  at  the  gorge, 
are  only  suited  for  positions  in  which  their  extremities  rest  on  rivers 
or  other  obstacles,  so  that  they  cannot  be  turned,  or  else  when  protected 
by  the  full  sweeping  fire  of  works  in  their  rear.  Redans  in  front  of 
other  works  are  generally  mere  covers  for  an  advanced  post ;  for  ex- 
ample, if  a  strong  redoubt  occupies  the  commanding  summit  of  .a  hill, 


298  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [FIE. 

its  elevation  and  position  usually  prevent  the  deep  hollows  and  ap- 
proaches by  the  valleys  being  fully  seen  from  its  faces.  Redans  may 
then  be  advantageously  constructed  on  the  lower  knolls,  or  under  fea- 
tures of  the  hill,  to  command  all  the  hollows,  which  cannot  always  be 
reached  by  the  fire  of  the  main  redoubt. 

Lines. — Continuous  lines  of  rampart,  parapet,  and  ditch,  are  some- 
times used  to  connect  important  redoubts,  or  to  cover  the  front  of  a 
position,  and  they  may  have,  according  to  circumstances,  a  variety  of 
tracings.  To  cover  any  considerable  extent  of  country  with  continuous 
lines  is  generally  considered  injudicious,  but  must  not  be  altogether 
condemned  ;  as  in  particular  cases,  especially  on  ground  unfavorable  for 
manoeuvring,  it  may  be  an  advantageous  constructon.  Continuous  lines 
require  a  great  expenditure  of  labor  in  their  construction,  and  a  large 
force  is  necessary  for  their  defence  ;  if  forced  at  one  point,  the  whole  is 
lost,  and  they  interfere  greatly  with  the  offensive  movements  of  the 
troops  they  cover.  When  circumstances  oblige  any  considerable  ex- 
tent of  country  to  be  defended,  lines  at  intervals  are  more  generally 
adopted.  Lines  at  intervals  are  a  series  of  detached  works  arranged  in 
two  or  more  rows,  mutually  supporting  each  other,  and  each  capable 
of  enduring  an  independent  attack.  In  lines  at  intervals  the  most  ad- 
vanced positions  are  usually  occupied  by  simple  works  open  at  the 
gorge  as  Redans  and  Lunettes,  within  range  of  each  other,  that  is,  not 
more  than  600  or  700  yards  apart.  These  works,  being  open  at  the 
gorge,  can  be  fully  commanded  by  the  works  in  rear,  which  can  bring 
a  fire  upon  every  point  within  them  ;  if  taken  by  an  enemy,  they  can- 
not, therefore,  be  held  by  him' until  the  latter  works  are  also  subdued. 
The  second  line  of  works  are  generally  a  series  of  redoubts,  adapted 
in  shape  to  the  features  of  the  ground,  400  or  500  yards  behind  the 
salient  works,  covering  their  intervals,  and  protecting  their  faces  and 
ditches  by  a  powerful  flanking  fire.  If  necessary,  a  third  line  of  works 
on  similar  principles  may  be  added.  The  works  in  the  second  line, 
i.  e.  the  redoubts,  must  be  made  as  strong  in  rear  as  in  front,  or  an 
enemy  would  not  fail  to  attempt  to  carry  them  by  an  attack  on  the 
rear,  and  the  faces  of  all  the  works  should,  as  far  as  possible,  be  di- 
rected on  ground  which  the  enemy  cannot  occupy,  so  as  to  be  protected 
from  his  enfilade  fire.  The  annexed  diagram  (Fig.  128)  exhibits  a 
tract  of  ground  defended  by  lines  at  intervals,  and  will  convey  an  idea 
of  the  general  arrangement  of  works  of  this  nature. 

In  the  construction  of  these  and  all  other  field-works,  the  following 
maxims  must  be  strictly  observed  :  1st.  That  the  works  to  be  flanked, 
are  never  to  be  beyond  the  range  of  the  weapons  of  the  works  flanking 


MILITARY  DICTIONARY. 


299 


them,  that  is,  never  out  of  the  effective  range  of  musketry.     2d.  That 
the  angles  of  defence  should  be  about  right  angles.    3d.  That  the  salient 


FIG.  123. 


angles  of  works  should  be  as  obtuse  as  circumstances  will  permit  4th. 
That,  although  ditches  cannot  always  be  as  fully  flanked,  as  in  perma- 
nent fortification,  yet  that  partial  flanking  must  be  carried  as  far  as 
possible.  5th.  That  in  the  construction  of  field-works,  reference  should 
not  only  be  had  to  the  direct  and  immediate  obstacles  that  the  work 
itself  presents  to  the  enemy,  and  the  positive  effects  of  fire  on  the  ap- 
proaches to  it ;  but  likewise  the  relative  value  of  the  work  must  be 
considered,  as  to  the  support  it  can  give  to,  or  receive  from,  other 
works.  6th.  That  the  outline  of  a  field-work  should  be  proportioned 
to  the  number  of  men  intended  to  defend  it>  7th.  The  ground  over 
which  an  enemy  must  pass  to  the  attack  should,  if  possible,  be  seen 
both  in  front  and  flank.  (Consult  HYDE'S  Fortifications  ;  JEBB'S  Attack 
and  Defence  ;  Traite  Theorique  et  Pratique  de  Fortification  Passagere, 
<&c.,  par  M.  ERNEST  DE  NEUCHEZE,  Capitaine,  &c.  ;  MAHAN'S  Field  For- 
tifications ;  Aid  Memoir  to  the  Military  Sciences,  Edited  by  a  Committee 
of  the  Corps  of  Royal  Engineers.) 

FILE — generally  means  two  soldiers,  a  front  and  rear  rank  man. 
Each  man  occupies  in  line  about  21  inches  ;  10  files  require  a  space  of 
7  paces  ;  100  files,  70  paces.  The  French  designate  men  ranged  in  four 
ranks,  as  follows  :  the  front  rank  men  as  chefs  defile  ;  the  second  rank, 
serres  demi  files  ;  the  third  chefs  demi  file  ;  and  the  rear  rank  serres 
files. 


300 


MILITARY  DICTIONARY. 


[FiN. 


FINDING.  Before  a  court-martial  deliberates  upon  the  judgment, 
the  judge-advocate  reads  over  the  whole  proceedings  of  the  court ;  he 
then  collects  the  votes  of  each  member,  beginning  with  the  youngest. 
The  best  mode  of  doing  so  is  by  slips  of  paper.  The  Articles  of  War 
require  a  majority  in  all  cases,  and  in  case  of  sentence  of  death,  two- 
thirds^.  It  is  not  necessary  to  find  a  general  verdict  of  guilt  or  acquittal 
upon  the  whole  of  every  charge.  The  court  may  find  a  prisoner  guilty 
of  part  of  a  charge,  and  acquit  him  of  the  remainder,  and  render  sen- 
tence according  to  their  finding.  This  is  a  special  verdict ;  ( HOUGH'S 
Military  Laiu  Authorities.) 

FIRE,  (VARIETIES  OF.)  Direct  fire  is  when  the  battery  of  guns  is 
ranged  parallel  to  the  face  of  the  work,  or  the  line  of  troops  to  be  fired 
at,  so  that  the  shot  strike  it  perpendicularly. 


FIG.  129. 


A  B  represents  a  line  of  parapet,  or  of  troops. 

C  is  the  position  of  a  battery,  or  line  of  infantry  for  direct  fire  on  A  B. 

D          for  enfilade. 

E          for  slant 

F         ...          ...          ...          ...          ...         for  reverse. 

ENFILADE. — Enfilade  fire  is  when  the  battery  is  ranged  perpendicu- 
larly to  the  prolongation  of  the  crest  of  a  parapet,  or  to  a  line  of  troops, 
so  that  the  shot  flies  in  the  same  direction,  or  parallel  to  the  line  or 
parapet,  sweeping  along  from  one  end  to  the  other. 

OBLIQUE. — Oblique  fire  is  when  the  battery  of  guns  is  ranged  so  as 
to  form  an  angle  with  the  front  of  the  object  to  be  struck. 

PLUNGING. — Plunging  fire  is  when  the  shot  is  fired  from  a  position 
considerably  higher  than  the  object  fired  at. 


FIR.] 


MILITARY  DICTIONARY. 


301 


RICOCHET. — Ricochet  fire  is  firing  with  a  slight  elevation,  and  with 
small  charges,  in  a  direction  enfilading  the  face  of  the  work,  so  that  the 
shot  are  pitched  over  the  parapet,  and  bound  along  the  rampart  from 
end  to  end,  with  destructive  effect  on  the  guns  and  gunners. 

REVERSE. — Reverse  fire  is  when  the  shot  strikes  the  interior  slope 
of  the  parapet  at  an  angle  greater  than  30°. 

SLANT. — Slant  fire  is  when  the  shot  strikes  the  interior  slope  of  the 
parapet,  forming  with  it  a  horizontal  angle,  not  greater  than  30°. 

VERTICAL. — Vertical  fire  is  that  in  which  the  shot  or  shell  describes  a 
lofty  curve  through  the  air  before  it  falls ;  such  is  the  fire  from  mortars. 

FIRE  BALL.  Made  like  a  light-ball,  except  that,  being  intended 
to  light  the  works  of  an  enemy,  it  is  also  loaded  with  a  shell. 

FIRING-.  In  the  discharge  of  fire-arms,  it  is  necessary  to  know 
the  position  and  relations  existing  between  the  three  following  lines 
(Fig.  130) :  1st,  the  line  of  sight,  which  is  the  prolongation  of  the  visual 

FIG.  130. 


ray  passing  through  the  highest  points  of  the  breech  and  the  muzzle ; 
2d,  the  line  of  jire,  which  is  the  prolonged  axis  of  the  piece ;  and  3d, 
the  trajectory  described  by  the  projectile. 

The  point-blank  range  is  the  second  intersection  of  the  trajectory 
with  the  line  of  sight. 

The  causes  of  deviation  in  firms  are  : 


(1.)  From  the  construc- 
tion of  the  arm. 


(2.)  From    the 
powder. 


charge 


Causes  which  can 
be  corrected. 


"Which  cannot 
corrected. 


be 


"Wrong  position  of  the  sight. 
Calibre  not  exact. 
Barrel  imperfect. 
Too  hard  on  the  trigger. 
.  Windage. 

{The  recoil. 
Vibrations     of    the    barrel, 
(spring  of  barrel.) 
Not  exact  measure. 

Form  of  grain  and  variable  quality  of  powder. 
Its  deterioration  from  dampness  in  transportation, 

&c. 

More  or  less  ramming. 
Sticking  along  the  bore,  from  becoming  foul  and 

damp. 
.  Getting  foul  or  dirty. 


302  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [FIR. 

C  Not  being  of  the  exact  weight  and  calibre, 
j  More  or  less  deformed  in  loading,  or  on  leaving  the 
(3.)  From  the  ball.         I       barrel. 

iNot  having  the  centre  of  gravity  in  the  centre  of 
the  figure,  (spherical  ball.) 


The  effect  of  wind. 

The  temperature ;  moisture  in,  and  density  of  the 
air. 


(4.)  From  the   atmos- 

The  position  of  the  sun. 

Difference  of  level  between  the  target  and  gun. 

For  the  same  kind  of  arm,  the  dimensions,  charges,  weights,  projectile, 
&c.,  being  constant,  the  point-blank  may  be  considered  as  constant,  and 
serves  as  a  point  of  reference  in  firing  at  different  distances. 

With  a  piece  having  a  point-blank,  that  is,  any  piece  having  an  angle 
in  front,  made  by  the  line  of  sight  and  the  line  of  fire,  it  is  necessary, 
in  firing  at  a  point-blank  object,  to  aim  directly  at  the  object.  If  the 
object  be  situated  within  the  point-blank  range,  it  will  be  necessary  to 
aim  below.  If  the  object  be  situated  beyond  the  point-blank,  we  must 
aim  above  the  object. 

As  the  end  of  the  gun  obstructs  the  view  of  the  object,  in  aiming  above 
the  point  to  be  reached,  and,  moreover,  as  it  is  difficult  to  determine  at  a 
certain  distance  the  elevation  that  ought  to  be  given  to  the  line  of  sight, 
a  hausse  or  tangent  scale  is  placed  upon  the  breech  of  the  cannon,  which, 
by  enlarging  its  diameter,  increases  the  angle  of  sight  and  consequently 
the  point-blank  range.  The  tangent  scale  is  now  generally  used  with 
guns  and  howitzers,  and  the  hausse,  or  rear  sight,  has  also  been  attached 
to  small  arms  of  1855.  In  addition  to  the  tangent  or  hausse  some  sim- 
ple instrument  may  be  used  for  determining  distances.  (See  STADIA.) 

Fired  under  angles  of  4°  15',  4°  30',  and  4°  50',  the  new  rifle  mus- 
ket, altered  rifle,  and  altered  rnusket  have,  respectively,  a  range  of  1,000 
yards.  (See  HAUSSE.)  The  elongated  musket  balls  do  not  cease  to 
ricochet  on  level  ground  at  a  distance  of  1,000  yards.  A  strong  wind, 
blowing  perpendicularly  to  the  direction  of  the  rifle-musket  ball,  will 
deflect  it  from  its  course  12  feet  in  1,000  yards ;  about  3  feet  in  500 
yards,  and  1^  feet  in  200  yards.  The  effect  of  wind  on  the  pistol-car- 
bine balls  is  somewhat  greater  for  the  same  distance. 

When  two  oblong  balls  are  fired  from  the  new  rifle  musket  or  al- 
tered rifle,  with  the  ordinary  service  charge  of  60  grains,  they  separate 
from  each  other  and  from  the  plane  of  fire  about  4  feet  in  a  distance  of 
200  yards.  If  the  piece  be  held  firmly  against  the  shoulder,  no  serious 
inconvenience  will  be  felt ;  but  for  the  two  balls  it  is  necessary,  in  aim- 


FLA.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  303 

ing,  to  give  the  barrel  greater  elevation  in  the  proportion  of  6  feet  for 
200  yards.  In  cases  of  emergency,  two  balls  might  be  employed 
against  masses  of  infantry  or  cavalry,  at  distances  not  exceeding  300 
yards.  The  angle  of  maximum  range  for  the  mortar  is  nearly  42°. 
The  angle  of  fall  is  the  angle  made  by  the  last  element  of  the  trajectory 
with  the  ground,  and  when  this  angle  is  small,  the  projectile  rebounds 
upon  the  earth  and  performs  a  series  of  ricochets,  increasing  in  number 
as  the  angle  of  incidence  diminishes,  or  as  the  ground  is  firm  and  elastic. 

The  point-blank  ranges  of  siege  and  garrison  guns,  with  ordinary 
charges,  are  respectively  eight  hundred  yards  for  the  24-pounder,  seven 
hundred  and  seventy-five  yards  for  the  18-pounder,  and  seven  hundred 
yards  for  the  12-pounder.  For  field-artillery,  the  point-blank  ranges 
are  seven  hundred  and  fifty  yards  for  the  12-pounder,  and  six  hundred 
and  seventy-five  yards  for  the  6-pounder. 

The  point-blank  is  increased  or  diminished  by  the  hausse  or  tangent 
.scale,  ancl  is  then  called  the  artificial  point-blank.  The  practical  rule 
in  aiming  field-guns  by  means  of  the  tangent  is  :  give  one-twelfth  of  an 
inch  on  the  instrument  for  each  twenty-five  yards  beyond  point-blank. 

The  direct  fire  is  employed  in  breaching  parapets  or  walls,  against 
troops  in  column,  and  in  most  cases  where  the  object  of  attack  is  pos- 
sessed of  considerable  depth  or  thickness. 

The  enfilade  fire,  with  heavy  ordnance,  full  charges  and  solid  shot,  is 
especially  effective  in  those  circumstances  which  admit  of  its  adoption ; 
a  single  shot  having  been  known  to  disable  several  guns,  or  to  strike 
down  a  whole  rank  of  men. 

Enfilade  fire  a  ricochet  is  generally  employed  to  dismount  guns  on 
parapets,  protected  by  traverses,  at  ranges  varying  from  400  to  600 
yards. 

The  ricochet  and  vertical  fires,  being  intended  to  act  upon  a  surface, 
and  not  an  isolated  point,  may  be  executed  during  the  night,  as  well 
as  by  daylight.  (See  TARGET.  Consult  THIROUX  ;  KINGSBURY'S  Ar- 
tillery and  Infantry  ;  Reports  of  Experiments  by  Ordnance  Depart- 
ment, U.  S.  A.,  1856  ;  HYDE'S  Fortification.') 

FLAG-.  The  flag  of  the  United  States  shall  be  thirteen  horizontal 
stripes,  alternate  red  and  white.  The  Union  shall  be  a  number  of  white 
stars  in  a  blue  field,  corresponding  with  the  number  of  States  in  the 
Union.  Upon  the  admission  of  a  State  to  the  Union,  another  star  is 
added  to  the  flag  on  the  4th  of  July  next  succeeding  her  admission ; 
(Act  April  4,  1818.) 

All  flags  captured  from  an  enemy  to  be  displayed  in  such  public 
place  as  the  President  may  deem  proper  ;  (Act  April  8,  1814.) 


304  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [FLA. 

FLAGS  OF  TRUCE — are  frequently  sent  by  an  enemy  with  the 
design  of  gaining  information.  To  prevent  this,  it  is  usual  for  outposts 
to  halt  the  flag  of  truce,  and  if  he  is  merely  the  bearer  of  a  letter,  re- 
ceipt  for  it,  and  order  the  party  to  depart,  preventing  all  conversation 
with  sentries.  It  may  sometimes,  however,  be  necessary  to  send  the 
bearer  of  the  flag  to  head-quarters,  in  this  case,  his  eyes  are  bandaged, 
and  he  is  forwarded  with  an  escort. 

Flags  of  truce  are  used  when  an  enemy  is  in  position,  on  a  march 
or  in  action.  The  flag  ought  always  to  be  preceded  by  a  trumpeter  25 
paces  in  advance,  and  when  within  range  of  the  guns  of  the  sentinels  or 
videttes,  he  halts,  returns  his  sword  to  ils  scabbard,  and  at  the  same 
moment  raises  and  flourishes  a  white  flag  or  handkerchief.  If  he  is  not 
signalled  to  retire,  he  continues  to  advance  step  by  step  until  ordered 
to  halt.  If  he  remarks  that  it  is  sought  to  draw  him  into  a  snare,  he 
retires  at  a  gallop  with  his  trumpet  as  soon  as  he  is  certain  of  the  bad 
intention.  When  consent  is  given  to  receive  him,  he  submits  to  all 
measures  that  may  be  exacted  of  him  for  the  fulfilment  of  his  mission. 

If  it  is  during  an  action  that  a  flag  proceeds  from  the  ranks  of  the 
enemy,  the  ranks  that  he  leaves  halt  and  cease  their  fire.  He  proceeds 
towards  the  chief  of  the  adverse  force,  and  at  a  suitable  distance  returns 
his  sabre  to  its  scabbard,  and  raises  his  flag.  If  he  is  not  signalled  to 
retire,  and  if  the  fire  ceases  in  his  front,  he  continues  to  advance  and 
executes  his  orders.  Some  serious  motive  is  indispensable  for  sending 
a  flag  during  an  action,  for  the  enemy  is  apt  to  believe  that  it  is  a  strat- 
agem, and  therefore  fires  upon  the  flag,  and  follows  up  his  aim  more 
vigorously,  while  the  opposite  party  have  lost  time. 

FLANK.  The  right  or  left  side  of  a  body  of  men,  or  place.  Flank 
presupposes  a  formation  more  or  less  deep.  A  flank  march  is  upon 
the  prolongation  of  the  line  to  which  a  body  faces.  Thus,  when  we  say 
the  enemy,  by  a  flank  march,  outflanked  our  right  wing,  it  is  understood 
that  the  enemy,  by  marching  parallel  to  our  line  of  battle,  put  himself 
in  position  upon  our  extreme  right. 

To  disturb  the  flanks  of  a  column  or  army  is  to  throw  an  opposing 
force  upon  either  side  of  the  route  that  it  follows.  By  this  manoeuvre 
the  march  of  the  column  is  retarded,  or  it  is  forced  to  halt ;  its  baggage 
is  sometimes  seized,  and  terror  and  disorder  fall  upon  the  masses. 

Flank  (To) — is  to  cover  and  defend  the  flanks.  We  flank  a  camp 
by  posts  placed  on  the  right  and  left ;  a  corps  d'armee  is  flanked  by  de- 
tachments which  take  roads  parallel  to  the  routes  followed  by  the  larger 
body ;  smaller  columns  are  flanked  by  flankers  on  the  right  and  left, 
who  keep  in  view  the  columns,  warn  them  of  the  approach  of  an  enemy, 


FOR.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  305 

discover  ambuscades,  skirmish  with  them,  and  fall  back  when  needed 
upon  the  mass  of  the  troops. 

FLANK  OF  A  BASTION— is  that  side  which  connects  the  face 
and  curtain.  It  is  one  of  the  principal  defences  of  the  place,  as  it  pro- 
tects the  curtain,  the  face,  and  flank  of  the  opposite  bastion,  and  the  pas- 
sage of  the  ditch, 

FL&CHE — is  a  simple  species  of  field-work.  It  consists  of  two 
faces  forming  a  salient  angle.  One  simple  rule  for  their  construction  is 
to  select  a  spot  for  the  salient  and  throw  up  a  breastwork  on  either 
side,  forming  an  angle  of  not  less  than  60°,  and  allowing  one  yard  for 
each  file. 

FOOT — in  a  military  sense,  implies  infantry  soldiers. 

FORAGE.  The  hay,  corn,  fodder,  and  oats  required  for  the  sub- 
sistence  of  the  horses  of  an  army.  Generals,  field-officers,  cavalry- 
officers,  and  staff-officers  receive  a  commutation  in  lieu  of  forage  for 
each  horse  allowed  by  law,  owned,  and  kept  in  service.  (See  PAY.)  The 
maximum  ration  of  forage  is  fourteen  pounds  of  hay  or  fodder  and 
twelve  pounds  of  oats,  corn,  or  barley.  The  established  forage  ration 
is  furnished  by  the  quartermaster's  department.  The  food  of  horses 
however,  like  that  of  men,  must  be  modified  according  to  circum- 
stances, by  changing  established  proportions  or  by  substituting  one 
article  of  food  for  another.  A  knowledge  of  the  different  descriptions  of 
food  capable  of  maintaining  a  horse  in  working  condition  is  essential. 
Forage  in  garrison  or  established  quarters  is  ordinarily  obtained  under 
contract ;  but  in  the  field  the  resources  of  the  country  occupied  must  be 
made  immediately  available.  War  deranges  the  proportions  commonly 
maintained  between  demand  and  supply,  and  cripples  agricultural  indus- 
try. It  is  for  the  military  administrator  to  counteract  as  far  as  possible 
this  tendency,  and  not  alone  to  seize  upon  all  the  resources  of  supply, 
but  to  render  them  continuously  productive.  Under  the  very  best 
arrangements,  however,  few  countries  when  they  become  the  theatre  of 
contending  armies  can  long  support  the  drain  upon  them,  and  afford 
sufficient  sustenance  for  the  immense  number  of  animals  which  accom- 
pany an  army,  and  a  partial  supply  must  under  the  most  favorable 
circumstances  be  drawn  from  without.  While  the  army  is  acting  in 
the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  sea-board  there  is  little  difficulty  in  main- 
taining this  supply,  but  when  it  advances  inland,  and  the  means  of  water 
transport  fail,  it  becomes  a  matter  of  extreme  difficulty  to  provide  the 
requisite  transport  for  so  bulky  an  article  as  forage.  The  artillery  can 
render  some  assistance  in  this  respect,  and  should  be  required  to  carry 
in  their  wagons  at  least  three  days'  supply,  but  the  cavalry  soldier 
20 


306  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [FOR. 

cannot  always  encumber  himself  with  his  forage  ration,  and  at  best  can 
only  be  expected  to  carry  three  days'  allowance  of  oats  or  barley, 
relying  upon  the  supply  department  for  his  hay.  Although  hay  has 
been  packed  by  hydraulic  pressure,  the  necessity  of  a  further  reduction 
of  bulk,  both  as  a  question  of  economy  and  of  convenience,  has  always 
been  apparent.  This  consideration,  and  representations  of  the  waste  in- 
curred at  the  seat  of  war  in  the  unloading  of  grain,  and  its  transport  to 
the  front,  led  Mr.  Julyan,  asst.-com.-gen.,  B.A.,  to  apply  his  inventive 
mind  to  the  manufacture  of  what  is  now  known  as  the  "  Amalgamated 
Field-forage."  This  consisted  of  a  preparation  of  chopped  hay,  bruised 
oats,  bran,  &c.,  in  the  proportions  usually  issued  to  cavalry  horses, 
thoroughly  mixed  together,  subjected  to  a  chemical  process  for  the  ex- 
pulsion of  fixed  air,  and  compressed  by  hydraulic  power  into  thick  cakes 
of  great  solidity.  It  was  cut  up  into  rations  of  22  Ibs.  each,  and  four 
of  such  pieces  were  packed  in  one  canvas  cover,  which  was  convertible 
into  a  nose-bag.  From  these  bags  the  horses  wrere  to  have  been  fed,  the 
forage  being  restored  to  its  original  bulk  and  condition  by  moderate 
friction  and  a  few  minutes'  exposure  to  the  air.  This  preparation  thus 
combined  the  advantages  of  extreme  portability,  full  nutritious  proper- 
ty, cheapness,  and  (from  its  being  almost  impervious  to  air  and  fire,  as 
well  as  from  its  peculiar  form)  exemption  from  the  accidents,  deteri- 
oration, and  losses  to  which  forage  in  its  ordinary  state  is  subject. 

FORAGE  MASTER.     (See  WAGON  MASTER.) 

FORAGING — is  properly  the  collection  of  forage  or  other  sup- 
plies systematically  in  towns  or  villages,  or  going  with  an  escort  to  cut 
nourishment  for  horses  in  the  fields.  Such  operations  frequently  lead 
to  engagements  with  the  enemy.  Foraging  parties  are  furnished  with 
reaping  hooks  and  cords.  The  men  promptly  dismount,  make  bundles 
with  which  they  load  their  horses,  and  are  prepared  for  any  thing  that 
may  follow.  The  word  foraging  is  sometimes  inaccurately  used  for 
marauding.  When  foraging  is  effected  in  villages,  it  is  best  not  to  take 
the  party  into  the  village,  but  to  send  for  the  chief  persons  and  stipu- 
late with  them  that  the  inhabitants  shall  bring  the  required  forage  and 
other  stores  out  to  the  troops.  If  the  inhabitants  do  not  promptly  corn- 
ply  with  this  moderate  command,  it  is  necessary  to  take  the  troops 
into  the  village.  In  this  event,  all  possible  means  must  be  taken  to 
prevent  disorder,  as  for  instance : 

1.  A  certain  number  of  houses  are  assigned  to  each  company,  so 
that  the  commander  of  the  detachment  may  hold  each  company  respon- 
sible for  the  disorders  committed  within  its  limits. 


FOR.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  307 

2.  Guards  are  posted  and  patrols  sent  out,  who  arrest  any  foragers 
guilty  of  disorder. 

3.  If  the  form  of  the  village  permits,  a  part  of  the  detachment  re- 
mains at  the  centre  to  pack  the  horses  and  load  the  wagons  as  fast  as 
the  other  men  bring  the  forage  from  the  houses. 

In  places  where  an  attack  may  be  expected,  the  foraging  is  conduct- 
ed as  follows  :  Either  fatigue  parties  are  sent  with  wagons,  or  parties 
of  cavalry  with  their  own  horses  ;  in  both  cases  a  special  escort  is  added 
for  the  protection  of  the  foragers.  In  all  cases,  the  strength  of  the 
escort  depends  upon  the  degree  of  danger,  the  space  over  which  the 
foraging  is  to  extend,  and  the  distance  from  the  enemy.  During  the 
march  of  foragers  to  and  from  the  foraging  ground,  if  they  consist  of  a 
fatigue  party  with  wagons,  an  escort  is  added,  which  acts  in  conformity 
with  the  rules  for  escorting  convoys.  If  the  foragers  consist  only  of 
cavalry  with  their  own  horses,  then  on  the  outward  march  they  move 
in  one  body,  observing  the  precautions  prescribed  for  movements  near 
the  enemy  ;  on  the  return  march,  if  the  horses  of  the  foragers  are 
packed  and  led,  the  detachment  acting  as  escort  should  not  pack  more 
than  40  pounds  on  their  horses,  so  that  the  load  may  not  prevent  them 
from  acting  against  the  enemy.  One  hundred  and  twelve  pounds  may 
be  packed  on  a  horse,  and  the  horse  must  be  led  ;  56  pounds  are  packed 
in  two  trusses.  Sometimes  the  escort,  or  a  part  of  it,  may  be  sent  out 
early  to  the  foraging  ground,  to  take  measures  for  the  security  of  the 
foragers  before  they  arrive.  For  the  safety  of  the  foragers  when  at 
their  work,  the  escort  is  divided  into  two  or  three  parts,  according  to 
circumstances;  one  part  places  a  chain  of  outposts  and  sends  out 
patrols,  to  guard  the  whole  ground  ;  another  furnishes  the  supports  of 
the  outposts,  and  if  there  are  infantry  or  mounted  rifles  with  it  they 
occupy  the  points  which  cover  the  approaches  ;  the  third  part  is  placed 
in  reserve  near  the  centre  of  the  ground,  that  it  may  easily  reach  any 
point  attacked.  If  the  enemy  attacks  while  the  foraging  is  going  on, 
the  escort  should  go  to  meet  him  or  defend  itself  in  position,  endeavor- 
ing to  stop  him  until  the  foragers  have  finished  their  work,  and  are 
drawn  out  on  the  road  for  their  return  march ;  then  the  escort  com- 
mences its  retreat,  acting  as  a  rear  guard,  and  endeavoring  to  keep  the 
enemy  as  far  from  the  foragers  as  possible.  If  it  is  impossible  to  hold 
the  enemy  in  check  long  enough  to  finish  the  work,  they  should  at  least 
send  forward  and  protect  all  the  foragers  who  have  packed  their  horses 
or  loaded  their  wagons ;  the  rest  join  the  escort.  If  there  is  a  prob- 
ability of  driving  off  the  enemy  by  uniting  all  the  foragers  to  the  escort, 
it  is  best  to  abandon  the  forage  already  packed,  and  to  begin  foraging 


308  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [Fern. 

anew  after  having  repulsed  the  enemy.  It  is  permitted  to  abandon  the 
forage  entirely  only  in  extreme  urgency,  when  there  is  absolutely  no 
other  way  of  saving  the  foragers.  If  the  enemy  is  repulsed,  we  must 
not  be  induced  to  pursue  him  except  far  enough  to  prevent  a  re- 
newal of  the  attack,  but  must  endeavor  to  complete  the  foraging. 
The  foraging  must  not  be  extended  over  any  ground  not  guarded  by  the 
escort.  If  the  escort  is  too  weak  to  cover  the  whole  space  designated 
for  foraging,  the  ground  is  divided  into  parts,  and  the  foraging  effected 
in  the  different  portions  successively.  If  the  foraging  ground  is  at  a 
considerable  distance  from  the  camp,  it  will  be  a  proper  precaution 
to  post  a  special  detachment  in  support  half  way.  Foraging  in 
places  occupied  by  the  enemy  is  undertaken  only  upon  the  entire 
exhaustion  of  the  ground  occupied  by  our  own  troops.  Such  for- 
aging is  covered  by  offensive  operations,  so  that,  having  driven  in 
the  enemy's  advanced  troops  or  other  parties,  we  may  rapidly  seize 
all  the  supplies  to  be  found  in  the  vicinity.  This  is  called  forced 
foraging.  The  strength  and  composition  of  a  detachment  for  forced 
foraging  must  be  such  that  it  can  overwhelm  the  enemy's  troops,  and 
remain  long  enough  in  position  to  enable  the  accompanying  detach- 
ment of  foragers  to  complete  their  work  and  retreat  out  of  danger. 
The  main  conditions  of  success  in  such  an  enterprise  are  suddenness, 
rapidity,  and  determination  in  the  attack,  promptness  in  the  work  of 
the  foragers,  and  tenacity  in  holding  the  position  taken  from  the  enemy  as 
long  as  necessary.  Success  will  be  greatly  facilitated  by  partial  attacks 
made  upon  different  points  of  the  enemy's  position  while  the  foraging 
is  going  on.  Attacks  upon  foragers  should  be  sudden  and  rapid,  in 
order,  by  not  giving  the  escort  time  to  defend  the  points  attacked,  to 
produce  confusion  among  the  foragers  and  thus  prevent  them  from 
working.  The  approach  of  the  attacking  party  should  be  concealed, 
rapid,  and  compact ;  that  is,  it  should  not  send  out  parties  to  any  great 
distance  in  front  or  on  the  flanks,  and,  as  a  general  rule,  should  not 
divide  its  force  prematurely,  but  only  the  moment  before  the  attack. 
The  force  of  a  detachment  sent  to  attack  foragers  depends  chiefly  upon 
the  object  of  the  attack — that  is,  whether  it  is  designed  to  capture  the 
foragers,  or  only  to  prevent  them  from  foraging  by  alarming  them,  or 
to  prevent  them  from  carrying  off  forage  already  packed.  It  is  in  all 
cases  advantageous  to  begin  with  several  simultaneous  false  attacks  by 
small  parties,  to  perplex  the  enemy  and  oblige  him  to  divide  the  escort ; 
then  to  direct  the  main  party  of  the  detachment  upon  the  principal  point 
of  the  enemy's  arrangements,  overthrow  his  weakened  escort,  and  pene- 
trate to  the  road  of  retreat,  so  as  either  to  cut  off  and  destroy  a  part  of 


FOR.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  309 

the  escort  and  foragers,  or  to  force  them  to  abandon  their  work  and  fly, 
by  threatening  to  cut  them  off.  If  from  the  disproportion  of  force  it  is 
impossible  to  prevent  the  foraging  entirely,  the  attacking  party  confines 
itself  to  delaying  the  work ;  its  operations,  therefore,  should  consist  in 
partial  attacks  upon  several  points,  in  order  to  alarm  and  disperse  the 
foragers  by  breaking  through  the  outposts  at  several  points.  Upon 
meeting  a  considerable  force  of  the  enemy  these  attacking  parties  should 
at  once  retreat,  and  renew  the  attack  in  a  different  place.  In  such 
operations  a  portion  of  the  attacking  detachment  should  be  kept  together 
and  held  in  reserve,  as  a  support  and  rallying  point  for  the  small  par- 
ties. If  they  do  not  succeed  in  preventing  the  foraging,  they  may  try 
to  attack  the  foragers  on  the  return  march  ;  observing  in  this  case  the 
rules  laid  down  for  attacks  upon  convoys  ;  (McCiELLAN's  Military  Com- 
mission to  Europe?) 

FORCE.     Any  body  of  troops. 

FORDS.  In  examining  and  reporting  upon  a  fords  the  main  points 
to  be  considered  are :  the  firmness  and  regularity  of  the  bottom,  its 
length,  width,  and  direction ;  the  depth,  (and  its  increase  by  tides  or 
floods,)  the  rapidity  of  the  current,  the  facilities  of  access,  security  from 
attack,  and  the  means  of  rendering  it  impassable :  a  ford  should  always 
be  tried  personally  before  making  a  report  on  its  capabilities.  The 
depth  of  fords  for  cavalry  should  not  be  more  than  4  feet  4  inches,  and 
for  infantry  3  feet  3  inches  ;  but  if  the  stream  is  not  very  rapid,  and  the 
direction  of  the  crossing  is  down-stream,  the  latter  may  pass  by  holding 
on  to  the  horses,  even  if  the  depth  is  four  feet.  Should  the  stream  be 
very  rapid,  however,  depths  much  less  than  these  could  not  be  con- 
sidered fordable,  particularly  if  the  bottom  is  uneven.  Carriages  with 
wheels  5  feet  in  diameter  may  cross  a  ford  4  feet  deep ;  but  if  it  is 
necessary  to  keep  their  contents  dry,  the  depth  should  not  be  more 
than  2,  or  at  most  2£  feet.  Fords  are  generally  to  be  found  above  or 
below  a  bend,  and  often  lie  in  lines  diagonally  across  the  river ;  small 
gravel  forms  the  best  bottom ;  and  rock,  on  the  contrary,  the  most 
dangerous,  unless  perfectly  regular  and  not  slippery.  They  may  be 
sounded  by  means  of  a  boat  having  a  pole  attached.  B;it  cavalry  or 
good  swimmers  may  effect  it  with  lances  or  poles,  carefully  feeling  their 
way  before  advancing.  Parts  which  may  be  too  deep,  or  even  the 
whole  width,  if  the  river  is  narrow,  may  be  rendered  fordable  by 
throwing  in  fascines  parallel  to  the  direction  of  the  current,  and  loading 
them  with  stones,  which  must  afterwards  be  covered  with  smaller  material 
to  render  the  surface  level.  The  approaches  should  also  be  levelled,  and 
where  the  soil  is  soft,  rendered  firm  by  covering  them  with  fascines,  &c., 


310  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [FOB. 

so  that  the  troops  may  advance  with  a  broad  front,  and  rapidly  mount 
the  further  bank.  The  extent  and  direction  of  the  ford  should  be  clearly- 
marked  out  by  means  of  poles  firmly  fixed,  and  these  may  be  notched, 
so  that  a  dangerous  rise  in  the  river  may  be  observed.  If  the  current 
is  rapid,  a  number  of  these  placed  along  the  upper  edge  of  the  ford,  and 
connected  by  ropes,  will  also  be  useful  to  prevent  men  on  foot  being 
swept  away ;  and  boats  and  horsemen  should  also  be  in  readiness  to 
rescue  them.  The  force  of  the  current  may  be  broken  by  the  cavalry 
crossing  a  little  above  them  ;  but  if  the  bottom  is  sandy,  the  cavalry 
should  cross  after  the  infantry  and  artillery,  as  the  passage  of  the  former 
deepens  a  ford  sometimes  very  materially.  The  opening  and  shutting 
of  the  mill-sluices  will  sometimes  alter  the  depth  of  fords,  and  floods 
may  even  entirely  destroy  them  ;  they  can  be  rendered  impracticable 
by  means  of  large  stones,  harrows,  planks  with  spikes,  sharp  stakes 
driven  in  so  as  to  be  concealed  by  the  water,  abatis,  &c.,  or  by  cutting 
trenches  across  ;  (Aide  Memoir e.) 

FORGE.  One  travelling  forge  and  one  battery  wagon  accompany 
each  field-battery.  They  are  furnished  with  the  tools  and  materials  re- 
quired for  shoeing  horses  and  for  the  ordinary  repair  and  preservation 
of  carriages  and  harness.  The  total  weight  of  the  forge  when  loaded  is 
3,383  Ibs.,  that  of  the  battery  wagon  loaded  is  3,574  Ibs. 

FORLORN  HOPE.  Officers  and  soldiers  who  generally  volun- 
teer for  enterprises  of  great  danger,  such  as  leading  the  attack  when 
storming  a  fortress. 

FORT — is  an  inclosed  work  of  the  higher  class  of  field-works.  The 
word,  however,  is  loosely  applied  to  other  military  works. 

FORTIFICATION.  A  fortification  in  its  most  simple  form  con- 
sists of  a  mound  of  earth,  termed  the  rampart,  which  encloses  the  space 
fortified ;  a  parapet,  surmounting  the  rampart  and  covering  the  men 
and  guns  from  the  enemy's  projectiles ;  a  scarp  wall,  which  sustains  the 
pressure  of  the  earth  of  the  rampart  and  parapet,  and  presents  an  ob- 
stacle to  an  assault  by  storm  ;  a  wide  and  deep  ditch,  which  prevents 
the  enemy  from  approaching  near  the  body  of  the  place ;  a  counterscarp 
wall,  which  sustains  the  earth  on  the  exterior  of  the  ditch  ;  a  covered  way, 
which  occupies  the  space  between  the  counterscarp  and  a  mound  of 
earth,  called  a  glacis,  thrown  up  a  few  yards  in  front  of  the  ditch  for 
the  purpose  of  covering  the  scarp  of  the  main  work.  The  work  by 
which  the  space  fortified  is  immediately  enveloped  is  called  the  enceinte, 
or  body  of  the  place.  Other  works  are  usually  added  to  the  enceinte 
to  strengthen  the  weak  points  of  the  fortification,  or  to  lengthen  the 
siege  by  forcing  the  enemy  to  gain  possession  of  them  before  he  can 


FOR.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  311 

breach  the  body  of  the  place.  These  are  termed  outworks,  when  en- 
veloped  by  the  covered  way,  and  advanced  works,  when  placed  exterior 
to  the  covered  way,  but  in  some  manner  connected  with  the  main  work ; 
but  if  entirely  beyond  the  glacis  and  not  within  supporting  distance  of 
the  fortress,  they  are  called  detached  works.  In  a  bastioned  front  the 
principal  outwork  is  the  demi-lune,  which  is  placed  in  front  of  the  cur- 
tain ;  it  serves  to  cover  the  main  entrance  to  the  work,  and  to  place  the 
adjacent  bastions  in  strong  re-enterings.  The  tenaille  is  a  small  low 
work  placed  in  the  ditch,  to  cover  the  scarp  wall  of  the  curtain  and 
flanks  from  the  fire  of  the  besiegers'  batteries  erected  along  the  crest  of 
the  glacis. 

The  places  of  arms  are  points  where  troops  are  assembled  in  order 
to  act  on  the  exterior  of  the  work.  The  re-entering  places  of  arms,  are 
small  redans  arranged  at  the  points  of  juncture  of  the  covered  ways  of 
the  bastion  and  demi-lune.  The  salient  places  of  arms,  are  the  parts  of 
the  covered  way  in  front  of  the  salients  of  the  bastion  and  demi-lune. 
Small  permanent  works,  termed  redoubts,  are  placed  within  the  demi- 
lune and  re-entering  places  of  arms  for  strengthening  those  works. 
Works  of  this  character  constructed  within  the  bastion,  are  termed  in- 
terior retrenchments  ;  when  sufficiently  elevated  to  command  the  ex- 
terior ground,  they  are  called  cavaliers. 

Caponnieres  are  works  constructed  to  cover  the  passage  of  the  ditch 
from  the  tenaille  to  the  gorge  of  the  demi-lune,  and  also  from  the  demi- 
lune to  the  covered  way,  by  which  communication  may  be  maintained 
between  the  enceinte  and  outworks.  Posterns  are  underground  com- 
munications made  through  the  body  of  the  place  or  some  of  the  out- 
works. Sortie  passages  are  narrow  openings  made  through  the  crest 
of  the  glacis,  which  usually  rise  in  the' form  of  a  ramp  from  the  covered 
way,  by  means  of  which  communication  may  be  kept  up  with  the  ex- 
terior. These  passages  are  so  arranged  that  they  cannot  be  swept  by 
the  fire  of  the  enemy.  The  other  communications  above  ground  are 
called  ramps,  stairs,  &c.  Traverses  are  small  works  erected  on  the 
covered  way  to  intercept  the  fire  of  the  besiegers'  batteries.  Scarp  and 
counterscarp  galleries  are  sometimes  constructed  for  the  defence  of  the 
ditch.  They  are  arranged  with  loopholes,  through  which  the  troops  of 
the  garrison  fire  on  the  besiegers  when  they  have  entered  the  ditch, 
without  being  themselves  exposed  to  the  batteries  of  the  enemy. 

In  seacoast  defences,  and  sometimes  in  a  land  front  for  the  defence 
of  the  ditch,  embrasures  are  made  in  the  scarp  wall  for  the  fire  of  ar- 
tillery ;  the  whole  being  protected  from  shells  by  a  bomb-proof  cov- 
ering overhead ;  this  arrangement  is  termed  a  casemate.  Sometimes 


312  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [FOR. 

double  ramparts  and  parapets  are  formed,  so  that  the  interior  one  shall 
fire  over  the  more  advanced  :  the  latter  in  this  case  is  called  a  fausse 
Iraie.  If  the  inner  work  be  separated  from  the  other,  it  is  called  a 
retrenchment ;  and  if  it  has  a  commanding  fire,  a  cavalier.  The  capital 
of  a  bastion  is  a  line  bisecting  its  salient  angle.  All  works  compre- 
hended between  t  he  capitals  of  two  adjacent  bastions,  are  called  a 
front. 

In  the  Prussian  system  of  fortification,  the  defence  of  the  ditch  being 
provided  for  by  casemated  caponnieres,  the  necessity  for  breaking  up 
the  outline  of  the  enceinte  into  a  succession  of  salient  and  re-entering 
angles,  as  in  the  bastion  tracings,  is  altogether  removed.  The  enceinte 
may,  therefore,  have  that  outline  which  in  the  particular  case  is  most 
advantageous  for  defence,  and  best  adapted  to  the  natural  features  of  the 
position.  This  will  generally  be  a  polygon,  more  or  less  regular,  ac- 
cording to  the  regularity  or  irregularity  of  the  site.  The  caponnieres 
for  the  defence  of  the  main  ditch  may  either  be  on  the  centre  of  the  front, 
or  at  the  alternate  salient  angles ;  the  latter,  as  being  more  secure  from 
an  enemy's  distant  fire,  appears  the  better  position.  The  length  of  the 
exterior  side  may  be  of  almost  any  magnitude,  though  GOO  yards  are, 
perhaps,  as  great  as  under  any  ordinary  circumstances  would  be  re- 
quisite. The  enceinte  is  a  massive  rampart  and  parapet,  fronted  by  a 
revetment,  from  24  to  30  feet  in  height,  which  is  sometimes  wholly  or 
partially  loopholed  for  musketry.  The  centre  of  the  ditch  is  occupied 
by  the  casemated  caponniere,  a  massive  work  of  masonry,  capable  of 
containing  two  stages  of  five  guns  each,  one  on  either  face ;  so  that  the 
ditch  on  either  side  of  the  caponniere  is  swept  by  the  fire  of  ten  guns. 

The  advocates  for  the  Prussian  system  claim  for  it  the  following  ad- 
vantages :  1st.  When  the  range  of  musketry  is  given  up  as  the  standard 
length  of  a  line  of  defence,  and  that  of  artillery  substituted  for  it,  the 
exterior  sides  of  the  polygons  of  fortification  may  evidently  be  much 
extended.  2d.  The  Prussian  engineers  prefer  the  construction  of  case- 
mated  flanks  for  the  defence  of  ditches,  as  being  more  secure  than  the 
ordinary  flanks  of  the  bastion  system ;  that  is,  the  guns  are  protected 
from  enfilade  and  vertical  fire  from  a  distance,  and  cannot  be  counter- 
battered  by  direct  fire,  until  the  assailant  crowns  the  glacis.  They  use  ca- 
ponnieres for  the  defence  of  the  main  ditch,  and  for  the  ditches  of  the 
ravelin.  3d.  The  ravelins  can  be  made  as  salient  as  the  detached  ravelins 
of  Chasseloup  and  Bousmard ;  while  the  caponnieres  or  casemated  pro- 
jections by  which  their  ditches  are  defended,  protect  the  body  of  the  place 
from  the  breaching  batteries  of  the  enemy  on  the  counterscarp,  at  the  sa- 
lient angles  of  the  ravelins.  These  ravelins  are  more  under  the  fire  of  the 


FOR.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  313 

enceinte,  than  detached  ravelins  ;  they  contain  a  greater  interior  space ; 
there  is  a  saving  of  masonry  at  the  gorge :  and  fewer  troops  secure 
the  work  from  assault.  4th.  In  the  attack  of  these  fronts,  the  ap- 
proaches are  opposed  on  the  capital  of  the  ravelin,  by  three  mortars  in 
casemates  under  the  parapet,  cutting  off  the  salient  of  the  ravelin,  and 
by  guns  on  the  terre-plein  above.  The  glacis  is  protected  on  each  side, 
by  the  fire  of  90  yards  of  the  enceinte,  and  from  80  yards  of  the  faces 
of  the  ravelin,  which  (being  covered  by  the  advanced  portions  of  greater 
elevation)  is  very  difficult  to  enfilade.  5th.  The  establishment  of  bat- 
teries on  the  counterscarp  of  the  salient  angle  of  the  ravelin,  is  rendered 
very  difficult  by  countermines,  and  by  a  double  tier  of  fire  along  the 
whole  width  of  the  ditch,  viz.,  from  the  caponniere  and  from  the  en- 
ceinte behind  it ;  even  supposing  this  caponniere  to  be  silenced,  its 
massive  ruins  would  prevent  a  serious  breach  being  made  in  the  en- 
ceinte. 6th.  The  attempts  of  an  enemy  to  lodge  himself  on  the  ad- 
vanced part  of  the  ravelin  'are  opposed  by  countermines,  prepared 
in  the  work  during  its  construction,  and  by  the  retrenchment  behind  : 
moreover,  any  endeavor  to  establish  a  battery  in  the  narrow  part  of  the 
angle,  would  be  opposed  by  the  fire  of  the  whole  enceinte  behind  the 
ravelin  ; — by  that  of  the  casemated  keep  ; — and  by  sorties  having  their 
flanks  fully  protected.  7th.  The  permanent  possession  of  the  ravelin 
can  only  be  obtained  after  the  destruction  of  the  keep,  (which  com- 
mands every  part  of  the  interior,  and  is  not  seen  from  the  exterior ;) 
and  until  this  is  accomplished  the  enemy  cannot  make  his  approaches 
on  the  glacis,  for  the  purpose  of  constructing  his  breaching  batteries 
against  the  enceinte  ;  or  he  would  be  taken  "both  in  flank  and  in  reverse. 
8th.  The  great  caponniere  flanking  the  ditch  of  the  enceinte  is  indepen- 
dent of  the  keep  of  the  ravelin,  (which,  after  being  taken,  would  be  open 
to  the  fire  of  the  enceinte  and  its  detached  escarp ;)  \vhile  its  double 
tier  of  guns,  sweeping  the  whole  width  of  the  ditch,  can  only  be  opposed 
by  batteries  directly  in  front.  The  establishment  of  these  batteries,  and 
of  others  for  breaching  the  escarp  at  the  salient,  would,  of  course,  require 
the  capture  of  two  ravelins,  between  which  the  approaches  would  be 
sheltered  from  the  collateral  works  ;  but  the  ground  would  be  dimin- 
ished in  extent  on  advancing  near  the  place,  and  consequently  expose 
the  troops  (concentrated  in  larger  numbers)  to  a  more  destructive  fire. 
9th.  From  the  great  projection  of  the  ravelin,  and  the  obtuseness  of  the 
angles  of  the  polygon,  the  effects  of  ricochet  on  the  enceinte  are  pre- 
vented in  an  octagon,  as  the  prolongations  of  the  sides  of  the  polygon, 
or  the  enceinte,  are  intercepted  by  the  ravelins  ;  which  ravelins  might 
(in  cases  where  the  ground  is  favorable)  be  made  to  project  still  further, 


314  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [Fou. 

so  as  to  cover  the  ditch  from  enfilade  by  distant  batteries,  and  thus 
secure  the  great  caponnieres  from  annoyance.  10th.  The  salient  angles 
of  the  enceinte  may  also  be  retrenched  by  a  detached  loopholed  wall, 
which  would  bring  a  great  extent  of  fire  on  the  breach,  llth.  The 
Prussians  consider  that,  by  these  arrangements,  they  obtain  much  su- 
periority over  the  ordinary  bastion  systems,  including  those  of  Bous- 
mard  and  Chasseloup  de  Laubat.  That  greater  means  of  resistance  are 
obtained  at  a  comparatively  small  expense,  which  means  might  be  in- 
creased when  required,  by  cavaliers,  by  interior  retrenchments,  and  by 
a  covered  way,  with  redoubts.  12th.  The  armament  required  would 
be  comparatively  small,  as  in  the  flanks  or  caponnieres,  which  com- 
pletely enfilade  the  main  ditches  at  a  short  range,  a  few  pieces  only 
would  be  necessary  to  prevent  a  coup-de-main,  while  a  full  supply  to 
resist  a  serious  attack  might  be  brought  by  easy  and  secure  communi- 
cations. A  few  guns  placed  on  the  salients  of  the  ravelins  would  be 
sufficient  to  keep  off  an  enemy  until  he  had  broken  ground ;  while  the 
whole  disposable  guns  of  the  place  might  easily  be  brought  upon  the 
enceinte  on  that  side,  and  the  second  part  of  the  collateral  ravelins. 
13th.  The  fatigue  attending  the  usual  arrangements  would  also  be 
greatly  diminished  by  the  easiness  and  security  of  the  communications. 
The  garrison  need  not  be  numerous,  as  they  are  not  required  to  expose 
themselves  in  outworks  beyond  the  main  ditch ;  they  are  protected  by 
casemates  in  the  flank  defences,  which  are  sufficiently  strong  to  allow 
of  their  concentrating  nearly  the  whole  force  on  the  points  of  impor- 
tance, and  which,  being  concealed  from  the  enemy,  do  not  give  known 
points  to  his  vertical  fire. 

Fort  Alexander,  which  crowns  a  height  commanding  the  town  of 
Coblentz,  (Fig.  131,)  is  a  beautiful  specimen  of  the  German  system. 
The  position  around  Coblentz  occupies  the  four  opposite  angles,  made 
by  the  Moselle  and  the  Lahn,  which  rivers  empty  themselves  into  the 
Rhine,  nearly  opposite  to  each  other ;  for  the  Lahn  runs  into  the  Rhine 
about  a  league  above  Coblentz.  The  general  form  of  the  ground  is  very 
favorable  for  the  offensive  or  defensive  operations  of  an  army  in  pos- 
session of  it,  and  its  fortresses ;  and  many  of  the  high  roads  from  the 
most  important  towns  in  Germany  pass  in  this  direction ;  whilst  the 
country  is  so  difficult  of  access,  that  it  is  next  to  impossible  to  avoid 
the  main  road.  Coblentz  is  situated  in  the  angle  formed  by  the  junc- 
tion of  the  Moselle  with  the  Rhine.  It  extends  about  three-fourths 
of  a  mile  in  each  direction.  The  enceinte  of  the  town  is  secure  against 
a  coup-de-main.  Its  rampart  forms  a  succession  of  salient  and  re-enter- 
ing angles,  which  being  obtuse  are  little  liable  to  enfilade ;  while  the 


FOE.] 


MILITARY  DICTIONARY. 


315 


ditches  are  flanked  by  good  casemated  batteries,  having  three  guns  in 
each  flank.     The  gateways  are  strong  casemated  barracks,  containing 


batteries  to  flank  the  ditches  and  approaches.  These  casemates  are 
separated  from  the  ramparts  on  each  side,  and  form  a  kind  of  citadel : 
the  profile  of  the  rampart  is  nearly  similar  to  Carnot's :  the  wall  is 
well  covered.  Should  the  neighboring  works  on  the  heights  be  reduced, 
the  town  would  be  commanded  and  exposed  to  an  enemy's  fire.  It  is, 
however,  no  easy  matter  for  an  enemy  to  get  possession  of  these 
commanding  sites.  The  two  most  important  of  .these  are,  Ehren- 
breitstein  on  the  right  bank,  and  Fort  Alexander  on  the  left  bank,  of 
the  Ehine. 

Ehrenbreitstein  occupies  a  commanding  rocky  site,  400  feet  above 
the  river,  inaccessible  on  three  sides,  and  on  the  approachable  side  from 
the  north,  it  is  defended  by  strong  double  works ;  having  abundant 
casemates  for  its  garrison,  stores,  and  artillery.  It  is  the  key  of  the 
whole  position,  commanding  all  tho  surrounding  works  within  its  range, 
and  having  smaller  works  detached  from  it,  for  looking  into  hollows, 
that  cannot  be  seen  from  the  main  works.  It  has  a  fine  well,  300  feet 
deep.  The  faces  of  the  works  defending  the  only  approachable  side,  can 
mount  forty-three  pieces  of  ordnance  in  casemates ;  the  ditches  are  well 
defended  by  casemated  batteries  ;  and  the  escarps  are  about  35  feet  in 
height.  It  is  altogether  a  most  formidable  work.  The  piers  that  sep- 


316  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [FOR. 

arate  the  casemates  and  support  the  arches  are  made  to  project  right 
through  to  the  front  of  the  revetment,  which  is  10  feet  thick  :  and  the 
courses,  instead  of  being  horizontal,  are  laid  in  successive  arches,  the 
joints  forming  rays  from  a  centre.  The  whole  is  built  of  rough  stone, 
and  grouted  in,  so  as  to  settle  in  time  into  a  solid  mass. 

Fort  Alexander  with  its  dependencies,  commands  all  the  approaches 
to  Coblentz  between  the  rivers.  The  principal  front  of  this  work  has 
its  exterior  side  about  650  yards,  and  its  interior  side  about  500 
yards  in  length.  The  ravelins  and  the  counterguards  have  their  faces 
directed  so,  that  their  prolongations  do  not  fall  upon  the  plateau  in 
front,  but  upon  the  hollows  and  ravines,  &c.,  from  which  they  cannot 
be  enfiladed.  The  flanking  caponniere  is  very  strong,  being  a  case- 
mated  work  for  two  tiers  of  guns  ;  each  flank  has  five  guns  in  the  lower 
tier  for  flanking  the  ditch,  and  five  in  the  upper  tier  for  flanking  the 
terre-pleins  of  the  counterguards.  The  casemates  in  the  faces  or  angu- 
lar parts  are  loopholed  for  musketry.  Each  caponniere  serves  as  a 
good  barrack  for  160  men,  besides  stores.  This  work  is  completely 
covered  in  front  by  the  counterguard  or  ravelin,  which  is  only  two  feet 
lower  than  the  body  of  the  place.  Each  flank  of  the  enceinte  contains 
six  casemates  for  guns  to  flank  the  ditches  before  them.  The  faces  and 
ditches  of  the  ravelins  are  flanked  by  solid  casemated  caponnieres,  which 
cover  the  body  of  the  place  from  any  batteries  that  might  be  established 
at  the  rounding  of  the  counterscarp  of  the  ravelin.  The  ditches  of  the 
counterguards  are  flanked  by  casemated  batteries,  placed  in  the  faces 
of  the  ravelins.  The  body  of  the  work  is  an  oblique  parallelogram, 
about  5°  from  a  right*angle  :  the  side  fronts  are  about  420  yards,  and 
the  rear  front  500  yards  in  length,  in  order  to  suit  the  ground.  There 
is  a  strong  casemated  tower  at  the  gorge  connected  with  a  communica- 
tion from  Fort  Coristantine.  There  is  no  covered  way  ;  the  counter- 
guards  answer  the  purpose.  Good  ramps  and  other  arrangements  are 
made  in  the  countersloping  glacis  and  its  salients,  favorable  for  sorties. 
It  is  calculated  that  5,000  men  would  be  sufficient  to  man  all  these 
works  on  both  sides  of  the  river  ;  while  it  is  evident  that  a  vast  army 
might  be  securely  cantoned  within  the  circuit  of  the  works.  A  great 
number  of  trees  have  been  planted  all  around  Fort  Alexander ;  the 
roots  of  which,  left  in  the  ground,  would  defy  the  ordinary  work  of 
sappers  and  miners ;  and  would  therefore  prove  formidable  obstacles 
in  the  process  of  a  regular  attack,  while  the  timber  would  be  invaluable 
in  a  siege  ;  (HYDE'S  Fortification.) 

FORTIFICATION  (FRONT  OF)— consists  of  all  the  works  con- 
structed upon  any  one  side  of  a  regular  polygon,  whether  placed  within 


Fou.] 


MILITARY  DICTIONARY. 


317 


or  without  the  exterior  side  ;  or,  according  to  St.  Paul,  all  the  works 
contained  between  any  two  of  the  oblique  radii.  Some  authors  give 
a  more  limited  sense  to  the  term  "  front  of  fortification,"  by  confining 
it  to  two  half  bastions  joined  by  a  curtain.  If  the  polygon  be  regular, 
that  is,  if  all  the  sides  be  of  equal  length,  and  the  fronts  of  the  same 
description,  it  is  called  a  regular  work  ;  but  if  they  differ,  it  is  called  an 
irregular  work. 

FORTIFICATION  (IRREGULAR)  —  is  that,  in  which,  from  the 
nature  of  the  ground  or  other  causes,  the  several  works  have  not  their 
due  proportion  according  to  rule  ;  irregularity,  however,  does  not  neces- 
sarily imply  weakness. 

FORTIFICATION  (NATURAL)—  consists  of  such  objects  formed 
by  nature,  as  are  capable  of  impeding  the  advance  of  an  enemy  ;  and 
a  station  is  said  to  be  naturally  fortified,  when  it  is  situated  on  the  top 
of  a  steep  hill,  or  surrounded  by  impassable  rivers,  marshes,  &c. 

FORTIFICATION  (REGULAR)  —  is  that  in  which  the  works  are 
constructed  on  a  regular  polygon,  and  which  has  its  corresponding  parts 
equal  to  each  other. 

FORTRESS.  A  fortress  is  a  fortified  city  or  town,  or  any  piece 
of  ground  so  strongly  fortified  as  to  be  capable  of  resisting  an  attack 
carried  on  against  it,  according  to  rule. 

FOUGASS.  Charges  of  gunpowder  are  frequently  placed  at  the 
bottom  of  a  pit  or  shaft  dug  in  the  ground  over  which  an  enemy  must 
pass  to  the  attack.  In  these  cases  they  take  the  name  of  fougasses. 
The  chief  difficulty  attending  the  use  of  fougasses  is  to  explode  them  at 
the  instant  when  the  enemy  is  passing  over,  as  any  variation  in  the  time 
of  explosion  from  this  instant  renders  them  altogether  useless.  It  is, 
therefore,  recommended  to  place 
an  obstacle  over  them,  as  an 
abatis  or  chevaux-de-frize,  so 
that  the  fougasses  may  be  ex- 
ploded while  the  enemy  is  occu- 
pied in  forcing  his  way  over. 
Sometimes  a  fougass  is  made 
of  several  loaded  shells  placed 
in  a  box,  with  a  charge  of  pow- 
der under.  The  box  should  be 
pitched,  to  keep  the  charge  dry. 
(Fig.  132.) 

A  stone  fougass  (Fig.  133) 
is  made  by  excavating  a  shaft  6  feet  deep,  inclined  to  the  horizon  at 


Fio  132 


Fio.  123 


318 


MILITARY  DICTIONARY. 


FIG.  134. 


an  angle  of  about  45°.  At  the  bottom  place  a  charge  of  55  Ibs.  (a 
cubic  foot)  of  powder,  then  a  strong  shield  of  wood  at  least  6  inches 
thick,  in  front  of  the  charge,  and  over  the  shield  throw  in  three  or 
four  cubic  yards  of  pebbles,  of  not  less  than  half  a  pound  weight 
each.  A  sufficient  body  of  earth  must  be  placed  vertically,  above 
the  charge,  and  retained  over  the  upper  part  of  the  shaft,  near  the 
edge,  by  a  revetment  of  sods,  to  insure  the  effect  taking  place  in  the 
right  direction.  Fougasses  are  usually  fired  by  means  of  an  augot, 
or  casing  tube,  containing  a  hose  or  saucisson,  &c.,  led  up  the  side 
of  the  pit  or  shaft,  and  then  parallel  to  the  surface  of  the  ground, 
at  a  depth  of  two  or  three  feet ;  or  they  may  be  fired,  at  the  proper 
moment,  by  means  of  a  loaded  musket  with  its  muzzle  in  the  powder, 
and  a  wire  or  string  fastened  to  the  trigger. 

Analogous   to  fougasses  were  the  Russian   powder-boxes  used  at 

Sebastopol,  Fig.  134. 
Each  consisted  of  a 
double  deal  box,  of  a 
capacity  sufficient  to 
contain  35  Ibs.  of  pow- 
der, water-tight,  and  ef- 
fectually secured  from 
the  penetration  of 
damp ;  into  the  top 
of  each  box  was  in- 
serted a  vertical  tin 
tube,  connected  with 
a  horizontal  tin  tube 
at  the  surface  of  the 

ground.  Within  the  latter  was  a  glass  tube,  filled  with  sulphuric  acid, 
and  coated  with  a  composition  of  chlorate  of  potassa,  sugar,  sulphur,  and 
gum  water,  which  immediately  takes  fire  on  coming  in  contact  with  the 
acid.  The  space  between  the  interior  of  the  tin  tube  and  the  exterior 
of  the  glass  tube,  as  well  as  the  vertical  tin  tube,  is  filled  with  gun- 
powder. A  little  earth  spread  lightly  over  the  whole  completes  the 
arrangement.  A  person  walking  over  the  ground,  and  treading  on  the 
tin  tube,  crushes  it,  and  the  glass  tube  contained  in  it,  causing  the  escape 
of  the  sulphuric  acid,  and  the  explosion  of  the  gunpowder. 

FRAISES— are  palisades  placed  horizontally  or  obliquely,  at  the 
edge  of  a  ditch  on  either  side,  or  projecting  from  the  exterior  slope  of 
a  parapet.  If  the  slope  be  very  long,  there  are  sometimes  two  rows 
of  fraises  used. 


Fez.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  319 

FRAUD.  Association  of  any  officer  with  another  officer  convicted 
by  a  court-martial  of  fraud  or  cowardice  shall  be  deemed  scandalous  ; 
(ART.  85.)  (See  COWARDICE.) 

Fraud  consists  in  unlawfully,  designedly,  and  knowingly  appro- 
priating the  property  of  another  with  a  criminal  intent.  It  is  any  trick 
or  artifice  employed  by  one  person  to  induce  another  to  fall  into  an 
error  or  detain  him  in.  it,  so  that  he  make  an  agreement  in  contracts 
contrary  to  his  interest.  The  fraud  may  consist  in  the  misrepresen- 
tation or  in  the  concealment  of  a  material  fact ;  (BOUVIER'S  Law  Dic- 
tionary.) 

FRAYS.     (See  QUARRELS.) 

FRICTION  PRIMER  FOR  CANNON— consists  of  a  tube  charged 
with  gunpowder,  to  the  top  of  which  is  fastened  a  cup  containing  fric- 
tion powder,  composed  of  two  parts  of  chlorate  of  potassa,  and  one  of 
sul.  of  antimony,  which  is  exploded  by  means  of  a  slider  pulled  out 
with  a  lanyard.  The  tube,  cup,  and  slider  are  made  of  sheet  brass.  The 
lanyard,  for  pulling  off  the  primer,  is  a  piece  of  strong  cod  line  (about 
.2  in.  thick)  12  feet  long  ;  to  one  end  is  attached  a  small  iron  hook,  with 
an  eye  for  the  line,  and  to  the  other  end  a  wooden  toggel,  .75  in.  diam- 
eter, and  4  in.  long.  If  injured  by  moisture,  the  primers  become  ser- 
viceable again  when  dried,  and  they  have  the  great  advantage  of 
portability  and  certainty  of  fire. 

FRONTIER.     (See  DEFENCE,  NATIONAL.) 

FUMIGATION.  To  correct  and  purify  an  infectious  or  confined 
atmosphere,  such  as  is  often  found  in  transports,  fumigations  are  neces- 
sary. The  materials  recommended  for  the  purpose  are  brimstone  with 
sawdust ;  or  nitre  with  vitriolic  acid  ;  or  common  salt  with  the  same 
acid.  One  fluid  ounce  of  sulphuric  acid  mixed  with  two  fluid  ounces 
of  water,  and  then  poured  over  four  ounces  of  common  salt,  and  one 
ounce  of  oxide  of  manganese  in  powder,  these  latter  ingredients  being 
previously  placed  in  hot  sand,  are  also  recommended.  Burning  char- 
coal is  also  a  good  disinfectant.  (See  SANITARY  PRECAUTIONS.) 

FUNERALS.  Army  Regulations  prescribe  the  honors  to  be  paid 
at  funerals. 

FURLOUGHS.  The  term  is  usually  applied  to  the  absence  with 
leave  of  non-commissioned  officers  and  soldiers.  (See  ABSENCE  WITH 
LEAVE.) 

FUZE — is  the  means  used  to  ignite  the  bursting  charge  of  shells. 
They  are  classified  as  Time,  Concussion,  and  Percussion  Fuzes.  The 
time  fuze  is  composed  of  a  case  of  paper,  wood,  or  metal,  inclosing  a 
burning  composition.  It  is  cut  or  bored  to  a  length  proportioned  to 


320  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [GAB. 

the  intended  range  of  the  shell,  so  that  it  shall  burn  down  and  explode 
the  bursting  charge,  just  as  the  shell  strikes  the  ground,  or  earlier  if 
desirable,  instead  of  driving  the  fuze  composition  into  a  wooden  tube 
as  formerly,  and  requiring  a  saw  to  give  the  fuze  its  proper  length  ac- 
cording to  range,  the  shell  is  now  supplied  with  a  plug  of  hard  wood 
or  metal,  having  a  hole  reaped  out  exactly  the  size  of  a  paper  case  con- 
taining the  composition.  By  varying  this  composition,  the  same  length 
suffices  for  all  the  ranges  or  times  of  burning  required.  And  these 
having  the  different  compositions  in  paper  cases  of  as  many  different 
colors,  the  cannoneer  at  a  field-piece  may,  in  an  instant,  insert  into  the 
plug  the  colored  fuze  required  for  the  desired  range.  Similar  fuzes 
have  been  adopted  for  the  columbiads,  the  plugs  being  of  bronze  instead 
of  wood.  Three  kinds  of  time  fuzes  arc  employed  in  the  United  States 
Service,  viz.,  the  Mortar  Fuze,  the  Borman  Fuze,  and  the  sea-coast 
fuze.  The  best  and  simplest  form  of  the  percussion  fuze  is  the  ordinary 
percussion  cap  placed  on  a  cone  affixed  to  the  point  of  the  projectile. 
The  arrangement  should  be  protected  by  a  safety  cap  to  prevent  the 
percussion  cap  taking  fire  by  the  discharge  of  the  piece. 

"  Bick ford's  fuze"  is  a  small  tube  of  gunpowder,  sewed  round  with 
tarred  twine,  and  then  pitched  over.  It  is  not  injured  by  damp,  and 
when  well  made,  will  burn  under  water,  and  is  used  for  firing  the 
charges  of  mines,  &c.  The  Gomez  Patent  Electric  Safety  train  or  fuze 
is  made  in  the  form  of  a  tape,  inclosing  a  chemical  compound  that  burns 
at  the  rate  of  one  mile  in  four  seconds  ;  it  may  be  used  like  the  Bick- 
ford  fuze.  (See  RIFLED  ORDNANCE.) 

G 

GABIONNADE.     A  work  constructed  with  gabions. 

GABIONS — are  cylindrical  baskets  of  various  dimensions,  open  at 
both  ends,  used  to  revet  the  interior  slopes  of  batteries,  the  cheeks  of 
embrasures,  and  to  form  the  parapet  of  trenches.  (See  REVETMENT  for 
the  construction  of  gabions.) 

GALLERY.  In  permanent  fortification,  a  passage  or  communi- 
cation to  that  part  of  a  mine  where  the  powder  is  lodged.  The  princi- 
pal gallery,  from  which  others  originate,  is  constructed  under  the  ban- 
quette of  the  covered  way,  and  follows  that  portion  of  the  works 
throughout  its  whole  extent.  Another  gallery  is  formed  in  a  direction 
parallel  to  the  first  at  50  or  60  yards'  distance,  and  communicates  with 
the  first  by  means  of  other  galleries  perpendicular  to  it.  Galleries  are 
lined  with  masonry.  When  finished  they  are  about  six  feet  high  and 
four  and  a  half  feet  wide. 


I 

GKO.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  321 

GARRISON — designates  the  troops  employed  in  a  strong  place 
for  its  security,  and  it  is  also  applied  to  the  place  itself  when  occupied 
by  troops.  The  President  may  employ  such  troops  of  the  United 
States  as  he  may  judge  necessary  as  garrisons  of  fortifications ;  (Act 
March  20,  1794.) 

GENERAL.  Rank  above  lieutenant-general.  There  is  no  such 
grade  in  the  United  States  army. 

GENERAL  OFFICERS.  All  officers  above  the  rank  of  colonel. 
Any  sentence  of  a  court-martial  affecting  a  general  officer  must  be  ap- 
proved by  the  President.  (See  COURT-MARTIAL.) 

GENOUILLERE.  From  the  French  genou,  knee.  It  is  that  part 
of  the  parapet  of  a  battery  which  remains  above  the  platform  and  under 
the  gun,  after  the  opening  of  the  embrasure. 

GEOMETRY.  The  science  which  teaches  the  dimensions  of  lines, 
surfaces,  and  solids.  It  is  a  necessary  introduction  to  fortification  and 
mechanics.  It  enables  us  to  ascertain  the  distances  of  inaccessible 
objects,  the  dimensions  of  a  given  surface,  the  contents  of  a  given  solid  ; 
to  compute  the  distances  arid  motions  of  the  planets  ;  to  predict  celes- 
tial phenomena ;  and  to  navigate  a  ship  from  any  given  point  to  another 
on  the  surface  of  the  globe. 

Geometry,  besides  other  divisions,  is  divided  into  ancient  and  mod- 
ern :  ancient  geometry  being  that  form  of  demonstration  and  investi- 
gation which  was  employed  by  the  Greeks,  and  of  which  Euclid's 
Elements  form  a  well-known  example ;  modern  geometry  is  that  in 
which  algebra,  or  the  differential  and  integral  calculus,  is  employed. 
We  also  speak  of  pure  geometry,  practical  geometry,  and  applied  ge- 
ometry. Descriptive  geometry  was  first  employed  by  Monge,  and  sub- 
sequently by  other  French  geometers,  to  express  that  part  of  science 
which  consists  in  the  application  of  geometrical  rules  to  the  representa- 
tion of  the  figures,  and  the  various  relations  of  the  forms  of  bodies,  ac- 
cording to  certain  conventional  methods.  It  differs  from  ordinary  per- 
spective, inasmuch  as  the  design  or  representation  is  made  in  such  a 
manner  that  the  exact  distance  between  the  different  points  of  the  body 
represented  can  always  be  found,  and  consequently  all  the  mathematical 
relations  resulting  from  the  form  and  position  of  the  body  may  be 
deduced  from  the  representation. 

In  descriptive  geometry,  the  situation  of  points  in  space  is  rep- 
resented by  their  projections  on  two  planes,  at  right  .angles  to  each 
other,  called  the  planes  of  projection.  It  is  usual  to  suppose  one  of 
the  planes  of  projection  to  be  horizontal,  in  which  case  the  other  is  ver- 
tical ;  and  the  projections  are  called  horizontal  or  vertical,  according  as 
21 


I 

322  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [GEO. 

they  are  on  the  one  or  the  other'of  these  planes.  According  to  this 
system,  any  point  whatever  in  space  is  represented  by  drawing  a  per- 
pendicular from  it  to  each  of  the  planes  of  projection :  the  point  on 
which  the  perpendicular  falls  is  the  projection  of  the  proposed  point. 
As  contiguous  points  in  space  form  a  line,  so  the  projections  of  those 
points,  which  are  also  contiguous,  form  a  line  in  the  same  manner, 
which  is  the  projection  of  the  given  line.  Hence  as  two  projections 
only  are  required  for  the  determination  of  a  point  in  space,  they  are 
also  sufficient  for  the  determination  of  any  curve  whatever,  whether  of 
single  or  double  curvature. 

The  same  nro'de  of  representation  cannot  be  employed  with  regard 
to  surfaces  ;  for,  as  the  projections  of  the  contiguous  points  of  a  surface 
cover  a  continuous  area  on  both  planes  of  projection,  there  is  nothing 
to  indicate  that  any  particular  point  on  one  of  the  planes  of  projection 
corresponds  to  one  point  more  than  another  on  the  second  plane,  and 
consequently  that  it  belongs  to  one  point  more  than  another  in  space. 
But  if  we  conceive  the  surface  which  is  to  be  represented  to  be  covered 
with  a  system  of  lines  succeeding  one  another  according  to  a  determin- 
ate law,  then,  by  projecting  these  lines  on  each  of  the  two  planes,  and 
marking  the  correspondence  of  the  one  projection  with  the  other,  the 
projections  of  all  the  different  points  of  the  surface  will  have  an  evident 
dependence  on  each  other,  and  the  surface  will  be  rigorously  and  com- 
pletely determined. 

Some  elementary  surfaces  may,  however,  be  represented  in  a  much 
more  simple  way.  The  plane,  for  example,  is  completely  defined  by 
the  straight  lines  in  which  it  intersects  the  two  planes  of  projection. 
These  lines  are  denominated  the  traces  of  the  plane.  A  sphere  is  also 
completely  defined  by  the  two  projections  of  its  centre,  and  the  great 
circle  which  limits  the  projections  of  its  points.  A  cylinder  is  defined 
by  its  intersection  (or  trace)  with  one  of  the  planes  of  projection,  and 
by  the  two  projections  of  one  of  its  ends.  A  cone  is  represented  by 
its  intersection  with  one  of  the  planes  of  projection  and  the  two  pro- 
jections of  its  summit. 

The  most  immediate  application  of  descriptive  geometry  is  the 
representation  of  bodies,  of  which  the  forms  are  susceptible  of  rigorous 
geometrical  definition.  Sculpture,  architecture,  painting,  and  all  the 
mechanical  arts,  the  object  of  which  is  to  give  to  matter  certain  deter- 
minate forms,  borrow  from  descriptive  geometry  their  graphical  pro- 
cedures, by  the  aid  of  which  all  the  parts  of  an  object  are  faithfully  rep- 
resented in  relief  before  the  object  itself  is  executed.  But  it  was  chiefly 
in  consequence  of  its  application  to  civil  and  military  engineering,  and 


GOR.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  323 

to  fortification,  that  this  branch  of  geometry  received  a  distinctive  ap- 
pellation, and  is  considered  of  much  importance  in  the  Polytechnic 
school  of  France,  and  our  own  Military  Academy.  (Consult  DAVIES' 
Descriptive  Geometry.) 

GIN.  The  derrick,  sheers,  and  gin  have  one  common  object,  viz. : 
to  find  a  fulcrum  in  space,  to  which  the  pulley,  in  the  shape  of  block 
and  tackle,  is  to  be  applied.  In  the  derrick  and  sheers  this  is  effected 
on  one  and  two  legs,  and  stability  is  given  by  guys.  The  gin  usually 
consists  of  three  long  legs,  two  of  which  are  joined  together  by 
cross  bars,  and  the  third,  called  the  pry  pole,  elevates  the  gin.  A 
pulley  is  supported  at  the  top,  round  which  a  roftp  is  passed  for 
elevating  the  weight.  Fig.  135  shows  the  manner  of  working 
the  gin.  There  are  three  kinds  of  gins  used  in  service :  the  field  and 
siege,  the  garrison,  and  the  casemate.  The  last 
two  differ  front  each  other  only  in  height ;  the 
first  differs  'from  the  others  in  construction  and 
size.  Either  of  them  may  be  used  as  derrick  or 
sheers.  The  garrison  and  casemate  gins  differ 
from  the  siege  gin  in  having  two  braces  of  iron 
instead  of  three  wooden  cross-bars  or  braces, 
and  in  having  the  pry  pole  inserted  between 
the  legs,  which  are  kept  together  by  the  clevis 
bolt.  The  upper  pulley  (generally  treble)  is 
hooked  to  the  clevis.  (For  description,  setting  up,  and  mechanical 
manoeuvres  with  gins,  consult  Instruction  in  Heavy  Artillery.) 

GIRDER.  In  building,  the  principal  beam  of  a  floor  for  support- 
ing the  binding  or  other  joists,  to  lessen  their  bearing  or  length. 

GLACIS.  The  superior  slope  of  the  parapet  of  the  covered  way, 
extended  in  a  gentle  declivity  to  the  surrounding  country.  It  is  seldom 
used  in  field-works.  (See  FORTIFICATION.) 

GLANDERS.  A  virulent  and  dangerous  disease  among  horses, 
principally  shown  in  a  mucous  discharge  from  the  nostrils.  To  prevent 
this  infectious  disorder  from  spreading,  it  is  necessary  at  once  to  re- 
move the  horse  from  his  stall,  and  thoroughly  wash  with  soap  and 
water  the  rack,  manger,  and  every  part  of  the  stall  from  which  the 
horse  has  been  removed.  When  the  parts  are  thus  made  clean,  they 
must  also  be  covered  with  a  quick-lime  wash  immediately  after  it  is 
mixed,  and  afterwards  three  coats  of  oil  colors  given  to  it.  The  same 
precautions  are  taken  in  FARCY.  (See  VETERINARY.) 

GORGE.  The  gorge  of  a  fortification  or  gorge  of  a  work  is  the 
opening  on  that  side  of  the  work  corresponding  to  the  body  of  the  place, 


324  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [GoR, 

or  the  side  whence  comes  the  defence.  In  isolated  works,  the  gorge 
is  sometimes  intrenched.  The  gorges  of  works  not  attached  to  a  for- 
tress, but  which  are  its  dependencies,  are  in  general  open,  or  without 
parapets,  in  order  that  the  enemy  may  not  cover  himself  from  the  fire 
of  the  place  if  he  should  seize  such  detached  works.  If  the  works  are 
liable  to  surprise,  and  their  gorges  cannot  be  shut,  a  row  of  palisades 
are  planted  there,  and  mines  are  prepared  so  as  to  overthrow  the 
enemy  if  he  should  seize  the  work,  and  attempt  to  construct  a  lodge- 
ment there.  The  gorge  of  a  bastion  is  usually  an  open  space  between 
the  extremities  of  the  flanks  of  the  bastion.  The  larger  this  gorge  is, 
the  better  is  the  ^fence  ;  for  when  the  ruined  bastion  is  about  to  fall  by 
siege  into  the  hands  of  the  enemy,  the  defenders  can  construct  defensive 
works  or  dig  small  ditches  in  the  gorge  of  the  abandoned  bastion.  Such 
resistance  sometimes  drives  the  besiegers  to  the  necessity  of  battering 
in  breach  the  curtain. 

GORGE  OP  MOUNTAINS — is  the  passage,  more  or  less  compressed, 
between  two  mountains  which  are  used  as  a  passage-way  into  valleys. 
Gorges  are  important  military  points.  If  they  lead  to  an  intrenched 
camp,  it  is  necessary  to  fortify  them,  and  post  there  grand  guards ; 
these  positions  are  the  principal  theatres  for  affairs  of  posts.  A  gorge 
should  never  be  entered  without  previous  examination. 

GOVERNMENT.  The  Constitution  of  the  United  States  provides 
that  Congress  shall  make  rules  for  the  government  and  regulation  of 
armies.  By  government  is  understood  not  only  the  body  of  fundamen- 
tal laws  of  a  State,  but  also  the  body  of  persons  charged  with  the  man- 
agement of  the  executive  power  of  a  country,  direction,  power  or  author- 
ity which  rules  a  community,  administration,  rule,  management ; 
(WORCESTER'S  Dictionary.} 

Government  of  the  military  (says  BARDIN,  Dictionnaire  de  VArmee 
de  Terre)  is  that  branch  of  the  code  which  embraces  the  creation  and 
regulation  of  the  military  hierarchy,  or  the  gradual  distribution  of  infe- 
rior authority.  The  power  of  making  rules  of  government  is  that  of 
SUPREME  COMMAND,  and  from  this^Iiving  principle  proceeds  the  localiza- 
tion of  troops,  their  organization  and  distribution  ;  rules  for  rewards 
and  punishments  ;  and  generally  all  rules  of  government  and  regulation 
whatsoever,  which  the  legislature  may  judge  necessary,  to  maintain  an 
efficient  and  well-disciplined  army.  \ 

All  authority  over  the  land  forces  of  the  United  States  must  there- 
fore be  derived  from  Congress.  For,  although  the  President  is  the 
commander-in-chief,  yet  his  functions,  as  such,  must  be  regulated  by 
Congress,  under  the  17th  clause  of  Sec.  8  of  the  Constitution,  as  well 


GRA.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  305 

as  under  the  general  authority  of  Congress  to  make  rules  for  the  gov- 
ernment and  regulation  of  the  land  forces.  The  President  cannot  be 
divested  of  power  which  Congress  may  assign  to  any  inferior  military 
commander,  because  the  authority  of  the  greater  includes  that  of  the 
less.  But  all  authority  over  the  land  and  naval  forces  save  the  appoint- 
ment of  the  commander-in-chief  rests  with  Congress,  and  no  authority 
can  be  exercised  not  delegated  by  Congress,  except  such  as  may  be 
fairly  deduced  from  powers  given  for  the  effective  discharge  of  the 
duties  annexed  to  his  office.  (See  ADMINISTRATION,  and  references 
under  that  head  ;  ADJUTANT  ;  ADJUTANT-GENERAL  ;  AID-DE-CAMP  ;  AP- 
POINTING POWER  ;  ARMY  ;  ARMY,  (Regular  ;)  ARMY  REGULATIONS  ;  AR- 
TICLES OF  WAR,  and  references  under  that  head  ;  ARTILLERY  ;  ASSIGN- 
MENT ;  BOOTY  ;  BOUNTY  ;  BREVET  ;  BRIGADE  ;  BRIGADIER-GENERAL  ; 
BRIGADE-INSPECTOR  ;  CADET  ;  CAPTAIN  ;  CAVALRY  ;  COLONEL  ;  COM- 
MAND ;  COMMANDER  OF  THE  ARMY  ;  COMMANDER-IN-CHIEF  ;  COMMISSARY 
OF  SUBSISTENCE  ;  COMMISSION  ;  CONGRESS  ;  CONSTITUTION  ;  CORPORAL  ; 
CORPS  ;  COURT-MARTIAL  and  references  under  that  head  ;  COURT  OF  IN- 
QUIRY ;  DEFENCE,  (National;)  DEPARTMENT;  DETACHMENT;  DISCI- 
PLINE ;  DIVISION  ;  ENGINEERS  CORPS  ;  ENGINEERS,  ( Topographical ;) 
ESPRIT* DU  CORPS  ;  FIELD  OFFICERS  ;  FLAGS  ;  FORAGE  MASTER  ;  GARRI- 
SON ;  GENERAL  OFFICERS  ;  GRATUITY  ;  GRENADIERS  ;  HIERARCHY  ;  IN- 
DEMNIFICATION ;  INDIAN  ;  INFANTRY  ;  JUDGE-ADVOCATE  ;  LAW,  and  ref- 
erences under  that  head  ;  LAW,  (Martial ;)  LIEUTENANT  ;  LIEUTENANT- 
COLONEL  ;  LIEUTENANT-GENERAL  ;  LINE  ;  LOSSES  ;  MAJOR  ;  MAJOR-GEN- 
ERAL ;  MARINE  CORPS  ;  MEDICAL  DEPARTMENT  ;  MILITIA  ;  NON-COM- 
MISSIONED OFFICERS  ;  OATH  ;  OBEDIENCE  ;  OFFICERS  ;  ORDERS  ;  ORD- 
NANCE DEPARTMENT  ;  ORDNANCE  SERGEANTS  ;  ORGANIZING  ;  PARDON  ; 
PAY  ;  PAY  DEPARTMENT  ;  PAYMASTER-GENERAL  ;  PENSION  ;  PLATOON  ; 
POST  ;  PRESIDENT  ;  PROMOTION  ;  PUNISHMENT  ;  QUARTERMASTER'S  DE- 
PARTMENT ;  QUARTERMASTER-GENERAL  ;  RAISE,  and  its  references  ; 
RANK  ;  REGIMENT  ;  REGULATION,  and  its  refereifces ;  REMEDY  ;  RE- 
PRIEVE ;  RETAINERS  ;  RIFLEMEN  ;  SAPPERS  ;  SECRETARY  OF  WAR  ;  SE- 
NIOR ;  SERGEANT  ;  SERVICE,  and  its  references  ;  SOLDIER  ;  STAFF  ;  STATE 
TROOPS  ;  STANDARDS  ;  STORE-KEEPERS  ;  SUBSISTENCE  DEPARTMENT  ; 
SUPERIOR  ;  SUPERINTENDENT  ;  SUPERNUMERARY  ;  SURGEON  ;  SURGERY, 
(Military ;)  SUTLERS  ;  TRADE  ;  TRAIN  ;  TRANSFERS  ;  TRAVELLING  AL- 
LOWANCES ;  TREATY  ;  UNIFORM  ;  VETERAN  ;  VICE-PRESIDENT  ;  VOLUN- 
TEERS ;  WAR  ;  WARRANT.) 

GRAND  DIVISION.  A  division  composed  of  two  companies 
in  battalion  manoeuvres. 

GRAPE-SHOT.    A  certain  number  of  cast-iron  balls  put  together 


326  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [GBA. 

by  means  of  two  cast-iron  plates,  two  rings,  and  one  pin  and  nut.    Canis- 
ter has  superseded  the  use  of  grape  in  field-guns.     Grape-shot  are  used 
with  the  8-in.  howitzers  and  the  columbiad  of  that 
calibre,  by  adopting   the  sabot  of   the  sea-coast 
x^^^^sX  howitzer,  which  serves  for  both  pieces.    The  grape 

{f*       r°-i        \\          for  these  8-in.  pieces  is  made  of  6-pd.  shot. 

GRAPPLING-IRONS— consist  of  from  four 
to  six  branches  bent  and  pointed,  with  a  ring  at 
the  root.  A  rope  being  fastened  through  this  ring, 
any  object  at  which  the  grappling-irons  are  thrown, 
may  be  dragged  nearer. 

GRATUITY.  In  the  French  service  whenever 
a  non-commissioned  officer  is  promoted,  he  is 
given  a  gratuity,  called  Gratification  de  Premiere 
Mise  cCOfficier,  in  order  to  provide  his  equipment 

as  officer.  In  the  same  manner,  at  the  beginning  of  a  campaign,  a  sum 
of  money  is  given  to  all  officers  of  the  French  army,  according  to  grade, 
as  an  equipment  fund  ;  it  is  called  Gratification  d>  entree  en  Campagne, 
ou  Indemnite  d1  entree  en  Campagne. 

GRAVITY,  GRAVITATION.  These  terms  are  used  to  express 
the  mutual  tendency  which  all  bodies  have  to  approach  each  other  if 
not  opposed  by  other  resistance. 

Force  of  Gravity — Motion  of  falling  bodies  :  Let  t  be  the  time  of 
descent  in  seconds,  of  a  body  falling  freely,  in  vacuo ;  h,  the  space  de- 
scribed in  the  time  t ;  v,  the  velocity  acquired  at  the  end  of  that  time, 
and  g  the  velocity  acquired  at  the  end  of  one  second  of  time  ;  then  : 

h  =  $  g  ** ;  v  =  g  t  = -\/2  g  h 

The  velocity  #,  which  is  the  measure  of  the  force  of  gravity,  varies 
with  the  latitude  of  the  place,  and  with  its  altitude  above  the  level  of 
the  sea.  The  force*of  gravity  at  the  latitude  of  45°  =  32.1803  feet ; 
at  any  other  latitude  L  ;  g  —  32.1803  feet  —  0.0821  cos.  2  L.  If  g' 
represents  the  force  of  gravity  at  the  height  h  above  the  sea,  and  r  the 
radius  of  the  earth,  the  force  of  gravity  at  the  level  of  the  sea  will  be 
5  A. 

—), 

In  the  latitude  of  London,  at  the  level  of  the  sea,  g  =  32.191  feet, 
do.          Washington,          do.          do.     g  =  32.155  feet. 

GRENADE.  A  shell  thrown  by  hand  or  in  baskets  from  stone 
mortars.  A  hand-grenade  is  a  small  shell  about  2£  inches  in  diameter, 
which,  being  set  on  fire  by  means  of  a  short  fuze  and  cast  among  the 


GUN.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  337 

enemy's  troops,  causes  great  damage  by  its  explosion.  They  may  be 
thrown  26  yards.  Rampart-grenades  are  larger,  and  are  used  to  roll 
down  ramparts,  &c. 

GRENADIERS.     The  right  flank  company  of  a  regiment. 

GRIEVANCES.     (See  WRONGS.) 

GROOVES.  Spiral  grooves  or  "rifles"  cut  into  the  surface  of 
the  bore  of  fire-arms,  have  the  effect  of  communicating  a  rotary  motion 
to  a  projectile  around  an  axis  coincident  with  its  flight.  This  motion 
increases  the  range  of  the  projectile,  and  also  corrects  one  of  the  causes 
of  deviation  by  distributing  it  uniformly  around  the  line  of  flight. 
For  expanding  projectiles,  experiment  shows  that  broad  and  shallow 
grooves  with  a  moderate  twist  give  range,  endurance,  accuracy  of  fire, 
and  facility  in  loading  and  cleaning  the  bores.  The  United  States  have 
therefore  adopted  for  arms  three  grooves,  each  in  width  equal  to  the 
lands,  or  J-  of  the  circumference  of  the  bore ;  and  uniformly  decreasing 
in  depth  from  the  breech  where  it  is  .015  in.,  to  the  muzzle,  where  it 
is  .005  inch  ;  with  a  uniform  twist,  one  turn  in  six  feet  for  long  barrels 
or  the  musket,  and  one  turn  in  four  feet  for  short  barrels  or  the  car- 
bine. The  proper  twist  to  be  given  to  the  grooves,  depends  on  the 
length,  diameter  and  initial  velocity  of  the  projectile  used  ;  but  the  most 
suitable  twist  can  only  be  determined  by  experiment. 

GUARDS — are  used  for  security  and  police  by  troops  in  the  field, 
in  camps,  garrisons,  and  quarters.  Guards  are  designated  as  advance 
or  van,  and  rear  guards ;  outposts  and  picket  guards ;  quarter,  camp, 
and  garrison  guards  ;  and  general  officers'  guards.  The  tour  of  service 
of  guards  is  usually  twenty-four  hours.  Sometimes  a  guard  is  detached 
from  a  single  corps,  and  sometimes  from  several  corps.  In  either  case 
during  the  tour  of  service,  the  guard  receives  orders  from  the  command- 
ing officer  and  officers  of  the  guard.  It  is  for  the  time  detached  from 
its  corps.  (The  description  and  duties  of  guards  are  given  in  Army 
Regulations.) 

GUERILLA.     (See  PARTISAN.) 

GUIDES.  Men  employed  to  give  intelligence  respecting  a  country 
and  the  various  roads  intersecting  it.  All  armies  employed  in  an 
enemy's  country  find  it  to  their  advantage  to  use  guides. 

GUIDES,  (TACTICAL.)  The  duties  of  guides  are  given  in  the 
Tactics. 

GUIDONS.  Each  company  of  cavalry  has  a  silken  guidon  pre- 
scribed in  Army  Regulations. 

GUN-COTTON — is  common  cotton,  steeped  in  a  mixture  of  sul- 
phuric acid  and  nitric  acid,  and  when  properly  soaked,  is  well  washed 


328  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [GUN. 

ir.  running  water,  and  then  dried.  The  explosive  force  of  three  parts 
of  gun-cotton  equals  that  of  eight  parts  of  gunpowder.  Major  Mor- 
decai's  experiments  at  Washington  in  the  years  1845, 1847,  and  1848,  to 
determine  the  fitness  of  gun-cotton  as  a  substitute  for  gunpowder  in  the 
military  service,  show :  1.  Explosive  cotton  burns  at  380°  Fahr.,  there- 
fore it  will  not  set  fire  to  gunpowder  when  burnt  in  a  loose  state  over 
it.  2.  The  projectile  force  of  explosive  cotton,  with  moderate  charges, 
in  a  musket  or  cannon,  is  equal  to  that  of  about  twice  its  weight  of  the 
best  gunpowder.  3.  When  compressed  by  hard  ramming,  as  in  filling 
a  fuze,  it  burns  slowly.  4.  By  the  absorption  of  moisture  its  force  is 
rapidly  diminished,  but  the  force  is  restored  by  drying.  5.  Its  burst- 
ing effect  is  much  greater  than  that  of  gunpowder,  on  which  account  it 
is  well  adapted  for  mining  operations.  6.  The  principal  residua  of  its 
combustion  are  water  and  nitrous  acid ;  therefore  the  barrel  of  a  gun 
would  be  soon  corroded  if  not  cleaned  after  firing.  7.  In  consequence 
of  the  quickness  and  intensity  of  its  action  when  ignited,  it  cannot  be 
used  with  safety  in  the  present  fire-arms.  8.  An  accident  on  service, 
such  as  the  insertion  of  two  charges  before  firing,  would  cause  the 
bursting  of  the  barrel ;  and  it  is  probable  that  the  like  effect  would 
take  place  with  the  regular  service-charges  if  several  times  repeated. 

GUNNERS.  For  the  service  of  field  and  heavy  ordnance,  there 
is  with  each  piece  one  man  called  a  gunner,  who  gives  all  the  executive 
commands  in  action.  lie  is  answerable  that  the  men  at  the  piece  per- 
form their  duties  correctly.  (Consult  Instruction  for  Field  and  Heavy 
Artillery.) 

GUNNER'S  CALIPERS.  Made  of  sheet  brass,  with  steel  points. 
The  graduations  show  diameters  of  guns,  shot,  &c. 

GUNNER'S  PERPENDICULAR.  This  is  made  of  sheet  brass  ; 
the  lower  part  is  cut  in  the  form  of  a  crescent,  the  points  of  which  are 
made  of  steel ;  a  small  spirit  level  is  fastened  to  one  side  of  the  plate, 
parallel  to  the  line  joining  the  points  of  the  crescent,  and  a  slide  is 
fastened  to  the  same  side  of  the  plate,  perpendicular  to  the  axis  of  the 
level.  The  instrument  is  useful  in  marking  the  points  of  sight  on  siege 
guns  and  mortars,  when  the  platform  is  not  level. 

GUNNER'S  PINCERS.  Iron  with  steel  jaws,  which  have  on  the 
end  of  one  a  claw  for  drawing  nails,  &c. 

GUNNER'S  QUADRANT,  (wood.)  A  graduated  quadrant  of 
six  inches  radius,  attached  to  a  rule  23.5  inches  long,  (Fig.  137.)  It 
has  a  plumb-line  and  bob,  which  are  carried,  when  not  in  use,  in  a  hole 
in  the  end  of  the  rule  covered  by  a  brass  plate.  The  quadrant  is  ap- 
plied either  by  its  longer  branch  to  the  face  of  the  piece,  or  this  branch 


GUN.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  329 

is  run  into  the  bore  parallel  with  the  axis,  and  the  elevating  scre\V 
turned  or  the  quoin  adjusted  until  the  required  degree          Fio  137 
is  indicated. 

GUNNERY.  Laws  regulating  the  resistance  of 
the  air  are  Complicated  and  undetermined.  The  at- 
tempts also  made  to  determine  the  volume  and  tension 
of  the  gases  produced  by  the  combustion  of  powder 
have  given  variable  and  unsatisfactory  results.  It  ac- 
cordingly follows,  and  it  is  now  admitted,  that  it  is  impossible  to  solve 
the  problem  of  the  trajectory  described  by  projectiles  by  purely  theo- 
retical means.  Multiplied  experiments  are  therefore  resorted  to,  in 
order  to  form  tables  of  fire,  and  such  tables  are  the  true  guides  in  prac- 
tical gunnery. 

The  maximum  range  of  the  largest  cannon  fired  under  an  angle  of 
45°  does  not  exceed  8,000  yards :  siege  guns  fired  under  smaller  an- 
gles give  ranges  varying  from  3,000  to  4,500  yards.  The  range  of  field- 
pieces  in  their  ordinary  fire  is  from  1,790  to  2,200  yards.  Tables  of 
ranges  are  given  in  Ordnance  and  Artillery  Manuals,  for  the  moun- 
tain howitzers,  field-guns  and  howitzers,  heavy  ordnance,  and  Hale's 
war  rockets.  These  tables  give  ranges  at  different  elevations,  the 
charges  of  powder,  the  weight  of  the  shot,  spherical  case  shot  or  shell 
in  each  case.  They  show  the  time  of  flight  of  the  shell,  and  consequently 
the  length  of  fuze  required  ;  and  also  at  what  angles  of  elevation,  in  the 
8  or  10-in.  columbiads,  shot  cease  to  ricochet  upon  the  water.  (See, 
for  such  tables,  articles :  ARTILLERY  ;  BALLISTICS  ;  FIRING  ;  INITIAL  VE- 
LOCITY ;  ORDNANCE  ;  RIFLED  ORDNANCE  ;  ROCKETS.) 

GUNPOWDER.  In  the  United  States,  the  proportion  of  ingre- 
dients for  the  military  service  are :  76  or  75  of  saltpetre,  14  or  15 
charcoal,  and  10  of  sulphur ;  for  sporting,  78  or  77  saltpetre,  12  or 
13  charcoal,  and  10  sulphur.  The  powder  is  coarse  or  fine  grained. 
In  the  United  States,  to  every  10  grains  troy  weight  of  powder,  there 
are  150  grains  of  cannon  powder,  1,100  musket  powder,  6,000  rifle, 
and  73,000  sporting.  The  size  of  the  grain  is  tested  by  sieves.  Mus- 
ket power  is  now  recommended  for  all  small  arms. 

A  new  powder,  invented  by  Capt.  Rodman,  Ordnance  Dept., 
shows  great  ingenuity,  and  has  given  most  important  results.  An 
ordinary  grain  of  powder  burns  from  the  surface  to  the  centre,  and  the 
largest  portion  of  the  gas  is  evolved  in  the  T|7  part  of  a  second. 
The  force  of  the  charge  is  therefore  expended  upon  the  projectile  before 
it  is  sensibly  moved,  and  there  is  a  corresponding  strain  upon  the  gun. 
Capt.  Rodman  thought,  if  powder  could  be  made  to  burn  on  an  increas- 


330  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [GUN. 

ing  instead  of  a  decreasing  surface,  so  that  the  gas  should  be  evolved 
completely  but  not  so  rapidly  before  the  projectile  left  the  piece,  the 
same  velocity  would  be  communicated,  and  the  strain  would  be  dis- 
tributed uniformly  over  the  whole  piece.  To  accomplish  this,  he 
formed  the  "  dust "  into  a  cake,  and  inserted  into  it  numerous  small 
wires,  which,  being  pulled  out,  left  corresponding  avenues  for  the  pas- 
sage of  flame  and  ignition  of  the  mass  ;  thus  making  the  interior  sur- 
face of  combustion  increasing  instead  of  decreasing.  The  enormous 
pressures  from  large  charges  of  powder  have  thus  been  entirely  obvi- 
ated by  the  introduction  into  service  of  Rodman's  hollow  caked  powder, 
or  its  substitute,  the  large-grained  powder,  each  grain  being  six-tenths 
of  an  inch.  This  discovery,  with  the  idea  of  Capt.  Rodman  of  cooling 
cast-iron  cannon  from  the  interior  by  means  of  a  current  of  cold  water 
flowing  through  a  hollow  core,  has  enabled  him  to  cast  a  15-in.  colum- 
biad  which,  after  three  hundred  rounds,  with  a  charge  of  40  Ibs.  of  pow- 
der, showed  no  appreciable  enlargement  of  either  bore  or  vent,  and 
causes  Capt.  Rodman  to  believe  that  the  piece  will  bear  1,000  rounds 
without  material  injury ;  (BENTON  ;  Experiments  on  Gunpowder  by 
MAJ.  MORDECAI,  Ordnance  Dept.) 

GUNS — are  long  cannon  without  chambers,  having  their  calibres 
determined  by  the  weight  of  their  balls.  (See  CALIBRE  ;  ORDNANCE.) 

GUNTER'S  CHAIN — is  the  chain  commonly  used  for  measuring 
land.  It  is  66  feet  or  4  poles  in  length,  and  is  divided  into  100  links, 
each  of  which  is  joined  to  the  adjacent  one  by  three  rings ;  and  the 
length  of  each  link,  including  the  connecting  rings,  is  7.02  inches.  The 
advantage  of  this  measure  consists  in  the  facility  which  it  affords  for 
numerical  calculations.  The  English  acre  contains  4,840  square  yards  ; 
and  Gunter's  chain  being  22  yards  in  length,  the  square  of  which  is 
484,  it  follows  that  a  square  chain  is  exactly  the  tenth  part  of  an  acre. 
A  square  chain,  again,  contains  10,000  square  links,  so  that  100,000 
square  links  are  equal  to  an  acre;  consequently,  the  contents  of  a  field 
being  cast  up  in  square  links,  it  is  only  necessary  to  divide  by  100,000, 
or  to  cut  off  the  last  five  figures,  to  obtain  the  contents  expressed,  in 
acres ;  (BRANDE'S  Encyclopedia.) 

GUY.  A  rope  used  to  swing  any  weight,  or  to  keep  steady  any 
heavy  body,  and  prevent  it  from  swinging  while  being  hoisted  or 
lowered. 

H 

^ 

HAIL.  A  sentinel  hails  any  one  approaching  his  post,  with  "  Who 
goes  there  ?  " 


HAU.]  .  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  331 

HALT.  A  rest  during  a  march,  and  a  word  of  command  in  tac- 
tical manoeuvres. 

HAND.  A  measure  four  inches  in  length.  The  height  of  a  horse 
is  computed  by  so  many  hands  and  inches. 

HANDSPIKES.  The  trail  handspike  for  field  carriages  is  53 
inches  in  length ;  the  manoeuvring  handspike  for  garrison  and  sea-coast 
carriages  and  for  gins  is  66  inches ;  for  siege  and  other  heavy  work  it 
is  made  84  inches  long  and  12  Ibs.  weight ;  the  shod  handspike  is  par- 
ticularly  useful  in  the  service  of  mortars  and  of  casemate  and  barbette 
carriages  ;  the  truck  handspike  for  casemate  carriages,  (wrought  iron ;) 
the  roller  handspike,  for  casemate  carriages.  It  is  made  of  iron,  1  inch 
round,  the  point  conical,  whole  length  34  inches. 

HAKBORING  AN  ENEMY.  Punishable  with  death  or  other- 
wise, according  to  sentence  of  a  court-martial ;  (ART.  56.) 

HAUSSE  OR  BREECH  SIGHT— is  a  graduated  piece  attached  to 
the  barrel  near  the  breech,  which  has  a  sliding  piece  retained  in  its  place 
by  a  thumb  screw,  or  by  the  spring  of  the  slider  itself.  This  slider 
should  have  an  opening  through  which  the  gun  can  be  conveniently 
aimed  ;  and  is  raised  to  such  a  height  as  we  think  will  give  the  neces- 
sary elevation  for  the  distance.  The  term  coarse  sight  means  a  large 
portion  of  the  front  sight,  as  seen  above  the  bottom  of  the  rear-sight 
notch ;  and  a  fine  sight  is  when  but  a  small  portion  is  seen.  The  effect 
of  a  coarse  sight  is  to  increase  the  range  of  the  projectile. 

Graduation  of  rear-sights. — If  the  form  of  the  trajectory  be  known, 
the  rear-sight  of  a  fire-arm  can  be  graduated  by  calculation  ;  the  more 
accurate  and  reliable  method,  however,  is  by  trial.  Suppose  it  be  re- 
quired to  mark  the  graduation  for  100  yards  :  the  slider  is  placed  as 
near  the  position  of  the  required  mark  as  the  judgment  of  the  experi- 
menter may  indicate ;  and,  with  this  elevation,  the  piece  is  carefully 
aimed,  and  fired,  say  ten  times,  at  a  target  placed  on  level  ground  at  a 
distance  of  100  yards.  If  the  assumed  position  of  the  slider  be  correct, 
the  centre  of  impact  of  the  ten  shot-holes  will  coincide  with  the  point 
aimed  at ;  if  it  be  incorrect,  or  the  centre  of  impact  be  found  below  the 

FIG.  133. 


point  aimed  at,  then  the  position  of  the  slider  is  too  low  on  the  scale. 
Let  P  be  the  point  aimed  at,  and  P1  the  centre  of  impact  of  the  cluster 


332 


MILITARY  DICTIONARY. 


[HAV. 


of  shot-holes,  we  have,  from  close  similarity  of  the  triangles,  A'F ':  FP :: 
A' A"  :  PP' ;  from  which  we  can  determine  A' A"  the  quantity  that  must 
be  added  to  A  A',  to  give  the  correct  position  of  the  graduation  mark 
for  100  yards.  If  the  centre  of  impact  had  been  above  P,  the  trial 
mark  would  have  been  too  high.  Lay  off  the  distance  A  A"  above  A", 
on  the  scale,  and  we  obtain  an  approximate  graduation  for  200  yards, 
which  should  be  corrected  in  the  same  way  as  the  preceding,  and  so 
on.  The  distance  P  P'  is  found  by  taking  the  algebraic  sum  of  the 
distances  of  all  the  shots  from  the  point  P,  and  dividing  it  by  the  num- 
ber of  shots.  It  will  be  readily  seen  that  an  approximate  form  of  the 
trajectory  may  be  obtained  by  drawing  a  series  of  lines  through  the 
different  graduation  marks  of  the  rear-sight,  and  the  top  of  the  front- 
sight,  and  laying  off  from  the  front-sight,  on  each  line,  the  correspond- 
ing range ;  (BENTON.) 

HAVERSACK.     Bag  issued  to  soldiers  for  carrying  rations. 
HAY.     The  forage  ration  is  fourteen  pounds  of  hay,  and  twelve 
pounds  of  oats,  corn,  or  barley.     Cattle  will  eat  many  sorts  of  herbage 
when  cut  small,  but  refuse  it  if  uncut.     They  will  eat  reeds,  seaweed, 
leaves,  &c. 

FIG.  139.  To  cut  Chaff,  (Fig.  139.) 

— Tie  a  sickle  against  a  tree, 
with  its  blade  projecting ; 
then,  standing  in  front  of 
the  blade,  hold  a  handful  of 
reeds  across  it  with  both 
hands,  one  hand  on  either 
side  of  the  blade ;  pull  it 
towards  you,  and  the  reeds 
will  be  cut  through ;  drop 
the  cut  end,  seize  the  bundle 
afresh,  and  repeat  the  pro- 
cess. In  this  way,  after  a 
little  practice,  chaff  is  cut 
with  great  ease  and  quick- 
ness. A  broken  sickle  does 
as  well  as  a  whole  one,  and 
a  knife  may  be  used,  but  the 
curve  of  its  edge  is  ill  adapted 
for  the  work.  (See  FORAGE.) 
HEIGHT.  Elevation, 

as  to  occupy  or  to  crown  a  height ;  the  height  of  a  soldier,  &c.  (See 
DISTANCES  ;  SURVEYING.) 


HON.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  333 

HELMET.  Defensive  armor  or  covering  for  the  head  used  by 
heavy  cavalry. 

HIERARCHY,  (MILITARY.)  The  essential  element  for  the  gov- 
ernment and  service  of  an  army  is  a  military  hierarchy,  or  the  creation 
of  different  grades  of  rank,  to  which  different  functions  and  powers  are 
assigned,  the  lower  in  regular  subordination  to  the  next  higher  in  the 
ascending  scale.  It  should  be  founded  on  the  principle  that  every  one 
acts  in  an  army  under  the  orders  of  a  superior,  who  exercises  his  au- 
thority only  within  limits  established  by  law.  This  authority  of  the 
superior  should  be  greater  or  less  according  to  rank  and  position,  and 
be  proportioned  to  his  responsibilities.  Orders  should  be  executed  with- 
out hesitation ;  but  responsibilities  should  be  confined  to  him  who  gives 
orders  in  virtue  of  the  superior  authority  with  which  he  is  invested ; 
to  him  who  takes  the  initiative  in  an  order ;  to  him  who  does  not  exe- 
cute an  order  that  he  has  received ;  and  to  him  who  usurps  a  command 
or  continues  illegally  to  exercise  its  functions. 

The  grades  of  the  military  hierarchy  are :  1.  The  President  of  the 
United  States ;  2.  The  Lieut.-general ;  3.  Major-generals ;  4.  Brig- 
adier-generals ;  5.  Colonels ;  6.  Lieutenant-colonels ;  7.  Majors ;  8 
Captains;  9.  Lieutenants;  10.  Cadets;  11.  Sergeants;  12.  Corpo- 
rals; 13.  Privates.  The  military  hierarchy  is  determined  and  con- 
secrated within  its  sphere  of  action  by  :  1.  Grades  of  rank  created 
by  military  laws ;  2.  By  other  laws  regulating  the  exercise  of  rank ; 
3.  By  military  insignia ;  4.  By  military  honors  ;  and  5.  By  the  mil- 
itary oath.  (See  PRESIDENT  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES,  AND  OTHER  GRADES 
OF  THE  HIERARCHY  ;  BREVET  ;  COMMISSION  ;  COMMAND  ;  GOVERNMENT  ; 
LINE  ;  OATH  ;  OBEDIENCE  ;  OFFICER  ;  ORDERS  ;  RANK  ;  REGULATION.) 

HIRING  OF  DUTY.  Punishable  at  the  discretion  of  a  regi- 
mental court-martial  ;  (ART.  47.) 

HOLSTERS.  Cases  attached  to  the  pommel  of  the  saddle,  to  hold 
a  horseman's  pistols. 

HONORS,  (MILITARY) — have  been  prescribed  by  the  orders  of 
the  President,  and  are  paid  by  troops  to  the  President  and  other  public 
functionaries,  to  military  officers  according  to  grade,  to  the  colors  of  a 
regiment  and  when  two  regiments  meet.  (Consult  Army  Regulations.) 

HONORS  OF  WAR.  This  expression  is  used  in  capitulations ; 
and  the  chief  of  a  post,  when  compelled  to  surrender,  always  demands 
the  honors  of  war  in  testimony  of  the  vigor  of  his  defence.  As  these 
terms  depend  on  the  disposition  of  the  victorious  general,  their  limits 
vary ;  but  in  some  instances  garrisons  have  been  allowed  to  march  out, 
with  colors  flying,  drums  beating,  some  field-pieces,  caissons  loaded, 


* 
334  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [IIoo. 

and  baggage.  In  other  cases  the  garrison  marches  out  to  a  certain  dis* 
tance,  and  piles  its  arms,  and  is  either  released  as  prisoners  upon  pa- 
role, or  then  becomes  prisoners  in  fact. 

HOOF.     (See  HORSE.) 

HORN  WORK — is  a  work  composed  of  two  half  bastions  and  a 
curtain  or  a  front  of  fortification,  with  two  long  sides  called  branches  or 
wings,  directed  upon  the  faces  of  the  bastions  or  ravelins,  so  as  to  be 
defended  by  them.  This  work  is  placed  before  a  bastion  or  ravelin, 
and  serves  to  inclose  any  space  of  ground  or  building,  which  could  not 
be  brought  within  the  enceinte. 

HORSE.  In  selecting  a  horse  choose  one  from  5  to  7  years  old, 
(the  latter  age  preferable,)  and  from  15  to  1G  hands  high. 

The  saddle  horse  should  be  free  in  his  movements ;  have  good 
sight ;  a  full,  firm  chest ;  be  surefooted  ;  have  a  good  disposition,  with 
boldness  and  courage;  more  bottom  than  spirit,  and  not  be  too  showy. 

The  draft  horse  should  stand  erect  on  his  legs,  be  strongly  built,  but 
free  in  his  movements ;  his  shoulders  should  be  large  enough  to  give 
support  to  the  collar,  but  not  too  heavy  ;  his  body  full,  bu-t  not  too 
long ;  the  sides  well  rounded ;  the  limbs  solid,  with  rather  strong 
shanks,  and  feet  in  good  condition. 

To  these  qualities  he  should  unite,  as  much  as  possible,  the  qualities 
of  the  saddle  horse ;  should  trot  and  gallop  easily  ;  have  even  gaits, 
and  not  be  skittish.  The  most  suitable  horse  for  the  pack-saddle  is  the 
one  most  nearly  approaching  the  mule  in  his  formation.  He  should  be 
very  strong-backed,  and  from  14  to  15  hands  high. 

Horses  with  very  long  legs,  or  long  pasterns,  should  be  rejected,  as 
well  as  those  which  are  poor,  lank,  stubborn,  or  vicious. 

The  mule  is  preferable  to  the  horse  in  a  very  rough  country,  where 
its  surefootedness  is  an  important  quality.  There  are  two  kinds  :  the 
mule  proper,  or  product  of  the  jackass  and  mare,  which  is  preferable  to 
the  product  of  the  horse  and  ass.  The  former  brays;  the  latter  neighs. 

The  mule  may  be  usefully  employed  from  its  fourth  year  to  beyond 
its-  twenty-fifth.  It  is  usually  from  131  to  15  hands  high  ;  is  hardy, 
seldom  sick,  fears  heat  but  little ;  is  easy  to  keep  ;  is  very  surefooted, 
and  especially  adapted  for  draught  or  packing. 

Before  choosing  horses,  their  attitudes  and  habits  should  be  ex- 
amined in  the  stable.  Leaving  the  stable,  they  should  be  stopped  at 
the  door  in  order  to  examine  their  eyes,  the  pupils  of  which  should 
contract  when  struck  by  the  light.  Out  of  the  stable,  they  should 
neither  be  allowed  to  remain  quiet,  nor  to  be  worried.  Care  should  be 
taken  against  being  deceived  by  the  effects  of  the  whip,  cries,  &c.  The 


HOR.]J  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  335 

positions  of  a  horse,  his  limbs,  age,  and  height,  should  bo  examined  at 
different  times.  He  should  be  walked  about  with  a  long  rein,  observ- 
ing the  action  of  his  rear  extremities  when  he  moves  off,  of  his  fore 
ones  when  approaching,  and  of  both  when  moving  with  his  flank  towards 
you.  The  examination  should  be  repeated  at  a  trot,  observing  in  what 
manner  the  horse  gathers  himself;  whether  he  interferes,  rocks  in  his 
motions,  or  traverses  his  shoulders  or  haunches.  Rein  him  backwards, 
make  one  of  the  men  get  on  him,  and  see  if  he  is  difficult  to  mount,  and 
whether  or  not  he  bears  too  hard  on  the  bit.  Make  him  gallop  a  little, 
to  judge  of  his  wind,  and  see  whether  his  flanks  heave.  Have  his  feet 
washed  and  examined  carefully.  Strike  upon  the  shoe  to  determine 
whether  he  is  easily  shod  or  not. 

AGE. — The  age  of  a  horse  is  determined  by  the  appearance  of  his 
teeth.  When  he  is  5  years  old,  his  mouth  is  nearly  perfect  with  a  full 
set  (40)  of  teeth,  20  in  each  jaw ;  six  of  these  are  in  front,  and  called 
nippers,  or  cutting  teeth  ;  a  tush  on  each  side  of  these,  and  on  each  side 
of  the  back  part  of  the  jaws  six  molars,  or  grinding  teeth. 

At  the  birth  of  the  colt,  the  1st  and  2d  grinders  have  appeared,  and 
in  the  course  of  seven  or  eight  days  after,  the  two  central  nippers  force 
their  way  through  the  gums.  In  the  course  of  the  first  month,  the  3d 
grinder  appears  above  and  below,  and  shortly  after  another  of  the  inci- 
sors on  each  side  of  the  first  two. 

At  the  end  of  two  months,  the  central  nippers  reach  their  full 
height,  and  before  another  month  the  secoffd  pair  will  overtake  them. 
They  then  begin  to  wear  away  a  little,  and  the  outer  edge,  which  was 
at  first  somewhat  raised  and  sharp,  is  brought  to  a  level  with  the  inner 
one.  So  the  mouth  continues  until  some  time  between  the  6th  and  9th 
month,  when  two  other  nippers  begin  to  appear,  making  12  in  all,  and 
completing  the  colt's  mouth.  After  this,  the  only  observable  difference, 
until  between  the  2d  and  3d  year,  is  the  wear  of  these  teeth. 

These  teeth  are  covered  with  a  polished  and  very  hard  enamel,  which 
spreads  over  that  portion  above  the  gum.  From  the  constant  habit  of 
nipping  grass,  and  gathering  up  the  animal's  food,  a  portion  of  the 
enamel  is  worn  away,  while  in  the  centre  of  the  upper  surface  of  the 
teeth,  it  sinks  into  the  body  of  the  tooth,  forming  a  little  pit.  The  in- 
side and  bottom  of  this  pit,  being  blackened  by  the  food,  constitute  the 
mark  of  the  teeth,  by  the  gradual  disappearance  of  which,  from  the 
wearing  down  of  the  edge,  we  are  enabled,  for  several  years,  to  judge 
of  the  age  of  the  animal. 

The  teeth,  at  first  presenting  a  cutting  surface,  with  the  outer  edge 
rising  in  a  slanting  direction  above  the  inner,  soon  begin  to  wear  down, 


336  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [Hon. 

» 

until  both  surfaces  are  level ;  and  the  mark,  originally  long  and  narrow, 
becomes  shorter,  wider,  and  fainter.  Fig.  140  represents  the  appearance 
of  the  animal's  mouth  at  12  months.  The  four  middle  teeth  are  almost 
level,  and  the  corner  ones  becoming  so.  The  mark  in  the  two  middle 
teeth  is  wide  and  faint ;  in  the  two  next,  darker,  longer,  and  narrower ; 
and  ift  the  extreme  ones  it  is  darkest,  longest,  and  narrowest.'  This  ap- 
pearance of  the  nippers,  together  with  the  coming  of  four  new  grinders, 
enables  the  age  of  the  colt  to  be  pretty  nearly  calculated. 

Six  months  after,  the  mark  in  the  central  nippers  will  be  much 
shorter  and  fainter ;  that  in  the  two  other  pairs  will  have  undergone  an 
evident  change,  and  all  the  nippers  will  be  flat. 

At  two  years  old,  this  change  will  be  still  more  manifest,  and  the 
lower  jaw  of  the  colt  will  present  the  appearance  represented  in  Fig. 
141.  About  this  period,  too,  a  new  grinder  appears,  making  20  in  all, 

FIG.  140.  FIG.  141. 


and  a  still  more  important  change  takes  place.  This  consists  in  the 
formation  of  the  permanent  teeth  which  gradually  come  up  from  be- 
neath, absorb,  and  take  the  place  of  the  temporary,  or  milk  teeth,  as 
they  we  called,  and  finally  push  the  top  parts  of  these  latter  out  of 
their  places.  These  permanent  teeth  are  much  larger  and  stronger  than 
the  first  ones. 

The  teeth  are  replaced  in  the  same  order  that  they  originally  ap- 
peared, and  consequently,  at  the  end  of  the  second  year,  the  first  grind- 
ers are  replaced  by  permanent  and  larger  ones  ;  then  the  central  nip- 
pers, and  so  on.  At  the  end  of  the  third  year,  the  colt's  mouth  will 
present  the  appearance  shown  in  Fig.  142.  The  central  teeth  are  larger 
than  the  others,  with  two  grooves  in  the  outer  convex  surface,  and  the 
mark  is  long,  narrow,  deep,  and  black.  Not  having  yet  attained  their 
full  growth,  they  are  rather  lower  than  the  others.  The  mark  in  the 
two  next  nippers  is  nearly  worn  out,  and  it  is  wearing  away  in  the  ex- 
treme ones. 


Hon.] 


MILITARY  DICTIONARY. 


337 


A  horse  at  three  years  old  ought  to  have  the  central  permanent  nip- 
pers growing ;  the  other  two  pairs  wasting ;  six  grinders  in  each  jaw, 
above  and  below — the  first  and  fifth  level  with  the  other,  and  the  sixth 
protruding.  The  sharp  edge  of  the  new  incisors  will  be  very  evident 
when  compared  with  the  neighboring  teeth. 

As  the  permanent  nippers  wear,  and  continue  to  grow,  a  narrower 
portion  of  the  cone-shaped  tooth  is  exposed  to  attrition,  and  they  look 
as  if  they  had  been  compressed.  The  mark,  of  course,  gradually  disap- 
pears as  the  pit  is  worn  away.  » 

At  three  years  and  a  half,  or  between  that  and  four,  the  next  pair 
of  nippers  will  be  changed.  The  central  nippers  will  have  attained 
nearly  their  full  growth.  A  vacuity  will  be  left  where  the  second 
stood,  or  they  will  begin  to  peep  above  the  gum,  and  the  corner  ones 
will  be  diminished  in  breadth,  worn  down,  and  the  mark  becoming 
small  and  faint.  At  this  period,  too,  the  second  pair  of  grinders  will 
be  shed. 

At  four  years,  the  central  nippers  will  be  fully  developed ;  the 


FIG.  142. 


FIG.  14  S 


sharp  edge  somewhat  worn  off,  and  the  mark  shorter,  wider,  and  fainter. 
The  next  pair  will  be  up,  but  they  will  be  small,  with  the  mark  deep, 
and  extending  quite  across  them.  The  corner  nippers  will  be  larger 
than  the  inside  ones,  yet  smaller  than  they  were,  flat,  and  the  mark 
nearly  effaced.  The  sixth  grinder  will  have  risen  to  a  level  with  the 
others,  and  the  tushes  will  begin  to  appear.  See  Fig.  143.  The  small 
size  of  the  corner  nippers,  the  want  of  wear  in  the  others,  the  little 
growth  of  the  tush,  the  smallness  of  the  second  grinder,  the  low  fore- 
hand, the  legginess  of  the  colt,  and  the  thickness  and  little  depth  of  the 
mouth,  will  prevent  the  horse  from  being  passed  off  as  over  four  years  old. 
The  tushes  are  much  nearer  the  nippers  than  the  grinders,  but  this 
distance  increases  with  the  age  of  the  animal.  The  time  of  their  ap- 
22 


338 


MILITARY  DICTIONARY. 


[HOE. 


pearance  is  uncertain,  and  it  may  vary  from  the  fourth  year  to  foul 
years  and  six  months. 

At  four  years  and  a  half  the  last  important  change  takes  place  in 
the  mouth.  The  corner  nippers  are  shed,  and  the  permanent  ones  be- 
giikto  appear.  The  central  nippers  are  considerably  worn,  and  the 
next  pair  are  commencing  to  show  signs  of  usage.  The  tush  has  now 
protruded,  and  is  generally  a  full  half-inch  in  height.  After  the  rising 
of  the  corner  nippers  the  animal  changes  its  name — the  colt  becomes  a 
horse,  and  the  filly  a  mare. 

At  five  years  the  corner  nippers  are  quite  up,  with  the  long  deep 
mark  irregular  on  the  inside,  and  the  other  nippers  bearing  evidence  of 
increased  wear.  The  tush  is  much  grown,  the  grooves  have  nearly  dis- 
appeared, and  the  outer  surface  is  regularly  convex,  though  the  inner  is 
still  concave,  with  the  edge  nearly  as  sharp  as  it  was  six  months  before. 
The  sixth  molar  is  quite  up,  and  the  third  wanting,  which  last  circum- 
stance will  be  of  great  assistance  in  preventing  deception.  The  three 
last  grinders  and  the  tushes  are  never  shed.  Fig.  144  represents  the 
mouth  of  a  5-year  old  horse. 

At  six  years  the  mark  on  the  central  nippers  is  worn  out,  though  a 
difference  of  color  still  remains  in  the  centre  of  the  tooth,  and  although 
a  slight  depression  may  exist,  the  deep  hole  with  the  blackened  surface 
jmd  elevated  edge  of  enamel  will  have  disappeared.  In  the  next  incisors 
the  mark  is  shorter,  broader,  and  fainter ;  and  in  the  corner  teeth  the 
edges  of  the  enamel  are  more  regular,  and  the  surface  is  evidently 
worn.  The  tush  has  attained  its  full  growth  of  nearly  an  inch  in  length ; 
convex  outwards,  concave  within,  tending  to  a  point,  and  the  extremity 
somewhat  curved.  The  third  grinder  is  fairly  up,  and  all  the  grinders 
are  level. 

At  seven  years,  the  mark  is  worn  out  in  the  four  central  nippers, 


Fro.  144. 


FIG.  145. 


HOR.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY. 

and  fast  wearing  away  in  the  corner  ones.  The  tush  is-  becoming 
rounded  at  the  point  and  edges ;  still  round  outside,  and  beginning  to  get 
so  inside.  (Fig.  145.)  « 

At  eight  years  old,  the  tush  is  rounded  in  every  way ;  the  mark  is 
gone  from  all  the  bottom  nippers,  and  nothing  remains  in  them  that 
can  afterwards  clearly  show  the  age  of  the  horse. 

An  operation  is  sometimes  performed  on  the  teeth  of  horses,  to  de- 
ceive purchasers  in  regard  to  age.  This,  called  bishoping,  after  the  in- 
ventor, consists  in  throwing  a  horse,  8  or  9  years  old,  and  with  an  en- 
graver's tool  digging  a  hole  in  the  almost  plane  surface  of  the  corner 
teeth,  of  the  same  shape  and  depth  of  those  seen  in  a  7-year  old  horse. 
The  holes  are  then  burned  with  a  heated  iron,  leaving  a  permanent 
black  stain.  The  next  pair  of  nippers  are  also  sometimes  lightly 
touched.  An  inexperienced  person  might  be  deceived  by  the  process  ; 
but  a  careful  examination  will  disclose  the  irregular  appearance  of  the 
cavity — the  diffusion  of  the  black  stain  around  the  tushes,  the  sharpened 
edges  and  concave  inner  surface  of  which  can  never  be  given  again — and 
the  marks  on  the  upper  nippers.  After  the  horse  is  8  years  old,  horse- 
men are  accustomed  to  judge  of  his  age  from  the  nippers  in  the  upper 
jaw,  where  the  mark  remains  longer  than  in  the  lower  jaw  teeth ;  so 
that  at  9  years  of  age  it  disappears  from  the  central  nippers ;  at  10 
from  the  next  pair,  and  from  all  the  upper  nippers  at  11.  During 
this  time,  too,  the  tushes  are  changing,  becoming  blunter,  shorter,  and 
rounder  ;  but  the  means  for  determining  accurately  the  age  of  a  horse, 
after  he  has  passed  8  years,  are  very  uncertain. 

The  general  indications  of  old  age,  independent  of  the  teeth,  are 
deepening  of  the  hollows  over  the  eyes,  and  about  the  muzzle ;  thinness 
and  hanging  down  of  the  lips  ;  sharpness  of  the  withers  ;  sinking  of  the 
back  ;  lengthening  of  the  quarters  ;  and  the  disappearance  of  windgalls, 
spavins,  and  tumors  of  every  kind. 

The  perpendicularity  with  which  a  horse  habitually  stands,  deter- 
' mines  his  good  qualities  and  endurance.  Viewed  in  profile,  his  front 
legs  should  be  comprised  between  two  verticals  :  the  one,  A,  (Fig.  146.) 
let  fall  from  the  point  of  his  shoulder,  and  terminating  at  his-  toe ; 
the  other,  B,  from  the  top  of  the  withers,  and  passing  through  the  el- 
bow. A  line,  C,  passing  through  the  fetlock -joint,  should  divide  the 
limb  into  two  equal  parts.  The  hind  legs  should  be  comprised  between 
two  verticals,  A'  falling  from  the  hip,  and  B'  falling  from  the  point  of 
the  buttock  ;  the  foot  at  very  nearly  equal  distances  from  these  two 
lines.  A  line,  C',  let  fall  from  the  hip-joint,  should  be  equally  distant 
from  these  two  lines  A',  B'. 


340 


MILITARY  DICTIONARY. 


[Eon. 


Viewed  in  front,  a  vertical  let  fall  from  the  point  of  the  shoulder, 
should  divide  the  leg  along  its  central  line.  In  rear,  a  vertical  from 
the  point  of  the  buttock,  should  <di  vide  the  leg  equally  throughout  its 
entire  length. 


FIG.  146. 


C'      A 


B 


The  height  of  the  horse,  measured  from  the  top  of  the  withers  to  the 
ground,  should  be  equal  to  his  length  from  the  point  of  the  shoulder  to 
the  point  of  the  buttock.  His  chest,  looking  at  him  from  the  front, 
should  be  broad  ;  and  viewed  from  the  rear,  he  should  be  broad,  with 
good  muscle,  and  strongly  built. 

"  The  thoroughbred  horse  enters  into  every  other  breed,  and  adds 
or  often  gives  to  it  its  only  value.  For  a  superior  charger,  hunter,  or 
saddle  horse,  three  parts  or  one-half  should  be  of  pure  blood  ;  but  for 
the  horse  of  all  work,  less  will  answer.  The  road  horse,  according  to 
the  work  required  of  him  should,  like  the  hunter,  possess  different  de- 
grees of  blood.  The  best  kind  of  coach  horse  is  foaled  by  mares  of 
some  blood,  if  the  sire  is  a  three-fourth  or  thoroughbred  stallion  of 
sufficient  size  and  substance.  Even  the  dray  horse,  and  every  other 
class  of  horse,  is  improved  by  a  partial  mixture  of  the  thoroughbred. 

"  The  first  point  of  a  good  hunter  is  that  he  should  be  light  in  hand. 
For  this  purpose,  his  head  must  be  small ;  his  neck  thin,  especially 
beneath  ;  his  crest  firm  and  arched,  and  his  jaws  wide.  The  head  will 
then  be  well  set  on.  It  will  form  a  pleasant  angle  with  the  neck,  which 
gives  a  light  and  pleasant  mouth." 


HOE.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  341 

"  The  road  horse  or  hackney  should  be  a  hunter  in  miniature,  with 
these  exceptions  :  his  height  should  rarely  exceed  fifteen  hands  and  an 
inch.  He  will  be  sufficiently  strong  and  more  pleasant  for  general 
work  below  that  standard.  He  should  be  of  more  compact  form  than 
the  hunter,  of  more  bulk  according  to  his  height.  It  is  of  essential  con- 
sequence that  the  bones  beneath  the  knee  should  be  deep  and  flat,  and 
the  tendon  not  tied  in.  The  pastern  should  be  short,  and  less  oblique 
or  slanting  than  that  of  the  hunter  or  race-horse.  The  foot  should  be 
of  a  size  corresponding  with  the  bulk  of  the  animal,  neither  too  hollow 
nor  too  flat,  and  open  at  the  heels.  The  forelegs  should  be  perfectly 
straight ;  for  a  horse  with  his  knees  bent  will,  from  a  slight  cause  and 
especially  if  overweighted,  come  down.  The  back  should  be  straight 
and  short,  yet  sufficiently  long  to  leave  comfortable  room  for  the  saddle 
between  the  shoulders  and  the  huck,  without  pressing  on  either.  Some 
persons  prefer  a  hollow-backed  horse.  It  is  generally  an  easy  one  to 
go.  It  will  canter  well  with  a  lady ;  but  it  will  not  carry  a  heavy 
weight,  or  stand  much  hard  work.  The  road  horse  should  be  high  in 
the  forehead,  round  in  the  barrel,  and  deep  in  the  chest." 

A  horse  travels  the  distance  of  400  yards  at  a  wTalk,  in  4-J  minutes ; 
at  a  trot,  in  2  minutes  ;  at  a  gallop,  in  1  minute.  He  occupies  in  the 
ranks  a  front  of  40  inches,  a  depth  of  10  feet ;  in  a  stall  from  3-J-  to  4£ 
feet  front ;  at  a  picket,  3  feet  by  9.  Average  weight  of  horses  1,000 
Ibs.  each.  A  horse  carrying  a  soldier  and  his  equipments,  (say  225 
Ibs.,)  travels  25  miles  in  a  day,  (8  hours.)  A.  pack  horse  can  carry  250 
to  300  Ibs.  20  miles  a  day.  A  draught  horse  can  draw  1,600  Ibs.  23 
miles  a  day,  weight  of  carriage  included.  Artillery  horses  should  not 
be  made  to  draw  more  than  700  Ibs.  each,  the  weight  of  the  carriage 
included.  The  ordinary  work  of  a  horse  for  8  hours  a  day  may  be 
stated  at  22,500  Ibs.  raised  one  foot  in  a  minute.  In  a  horse  mill,  the 
horse  moves  at  the  rate  of  31  feet  in  a  second.  The  diameter  of  the 
path  should  not  be  less  than  25  or  30  feet.  Daily  allowance  of  water 
for  a  horse  is  four  gallons.  A  horse-power  in  steam  engines  is  esti- 
mated at  33,000  Ibs.  raised  1  foot  in  a  minute  ;  but  as  a  horse  can  exert 
that  power  but  6  hours  a  day,  one  steam  horse-power  is  equivalent  to 
that  of  four  horses. 

The  actual  mode  of  taking  wild  horses  is  by  throwing  the  lasso, 
whilst  pursuing  them  at  full  speed,  and  dropping  a  noose  over  their 
necks ;  by  which  their  speed  is  soon  checked,  and  they  are  choked 
down.  Mr.  Rarey's  sixpenny  book  tells  all  that  can  be  told  on  the 
subject  of  horse-breaking ;  but  far  more  lies  in  the  skill  and  horse- 
knowledge  of  the  operator,  than  in  the  mere  theory.  His  way  of  mas- 


342  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [Hon. 

tering  a  vicious  horse,  is  by  taking  up  one  fore-foot,  and  bending  his 
knee,  and  slipping  a  loop  over  the  knee  until  it  comes  to  the  pastern- 
joint,  and  then  fixing  it  tight.  The  loop  must  be  caused  to  embrace 
the  part  between  the  hoof  and  the  pastern-joint  firmly,  by  the  help  of 
a  strap  of  some  kind,  lest  it  should  slip.  The  horse  is  now  on  three 
legs,  and  he  feels  conquered.  If  he  gets  very  mad,  wait  leisurely  till 
he  becomes  quiet ;  then  caress  him,  and  let  the  leg  clown,  and  allow  him 
to  rest.  Then  repeat  the  process.  If  the  horse  kicks  in  harness,  drive 
him  slowly  on  three  legs.  In  breaking-in  a  stubborn  beast,  it  is  con- 
venient to  physic  him  until  he  is  sick  and  out  of  spirits,  or  to  starve 
him  into  submission.  Salt  keeps  horses  from  straying,  if  they  are  ac- 
customed to  come  up  to  the  camp  and  get  it.  But  it  is  a  bad  plan, 
as  they  are  apt  to  hang  about,  instead  of  gtfing  off  to  feed.  They  are 
so  fond  of  it,  that  they  have  been  known  to  stray  back  to  a  place  where 
they  had  been  licking  it,  in  front  of  the  doors.  (Consult  GIBBON  ; 
SKINNER'S  Youatt ;  BRANDE'S  Encyclopedia  ;  Memorial  des  Officiers  d?In- 
fanterie  et  de  Cavalerie.  See  PAY  ;  VETERINARY.) 

HORSEMANSHIP — consists  in  perfect  mastery  of  the  horse. 
The  principles  laid  down  by  Eaucher  in  his  method  of  horsemanship, 
published  in  Philadelphia  in  1851,  profess  to  give  any  horse  in  less 
than  three  months : 

1.  General  suppling;  2.  Perfect  lightness;  3.  Graceful  position; 
4.  A  steady  walk ;  5.  Trot,  steady,  measured,  extended ;  6.  Backing 
as  easily  and  as  freely  as  going  forward ;  7.  Gallop  easy  with  either 
foot,  and  change  of  foot  by  the  touch  ;  8.  Easy  and  regular  movement 
of  the  haunches,  comprising  ordinary  and  reversed  pirouettes  ;  9.  Leap- 
ing the  ditch  and  the  bar ;  10.  Making  the  horse  raise  his  legs  diago- 
nally as  in  a  trot,  but  without  advancing  or  receding  ;  11.  Halt  from  the 
gallop  by  the  aid  of,  first,  the  pressure  of  the  legs,  and  then  a  light  sup- 
port of  the  hand.  "  The  education  of  the  men's  horses,  being  less  com- 
plicated than  that  of  those  intended  for  the  officers,  would  be  more  rapid. 
The  principal  things  will  be  the  supplings  and  the  backing,  followed  by 
the  walk,  the  trot,  and  the  gallop,  while  keeping  the  horse  perfectly  in  hand." 

Horsemanship  in  war  consists  in  address  in  the  exercise  of  arms 
while  skilfully  using  the  proper  paces  of  the  horse  in  different  accidents 
of  ground,  with  ability  in  the  rider  to  obtain  immediate  obedience  in  all 
movements  that  may  be  rationally  demanded.  To  accomplish  this,  con- 
stant exercise  is  required  of  both  horse  and  cavalier,  and  the  individual 
instruction  now  prescribed  in  the  French  army  gives  this  skilfulness,  and 
habituates  horses  to  separations  from  each  other,  and  to  instant  yielding 
to  the  will  of  the  rider.  (Consult  BAUCHER  ;  Cavalry  Tactics  ;  Travail 
Individuefy 

I 


Hon.] 


MILITARY  DICTIONARY. 


343 


HORSE  EQUIPMENTS. 

STATEMENT  OF  THE  COST  OF  HOESE  EQUIPMENTS,  PATTEEN  1859, 
FURNISHED  BY  THE  OEDNANCE  DEPAETMENT. 

The  regulations  require  that  requisitions  for  Horse  Equipments  shall  follow  the  form  pre- 
ecribed  for  ordnance  requisitions.  Stirrups,  saddle-bags,  girths,  and  surcingles,  to  be  entered  sep- 
arately instead  of  under  the  head  SADDLE  in  the  following  list.  CURB  BRIDLES  to  embrace  the 
various  kinds  of  curb  bits,  scutcheons,  curb  chains,  and  leather  fittings  complete.  WATERING 
BRIDLES  to  include  every  thing  else  instead  of  using  separate  heads  for  halters,  blankets,  &c.,  &c. 


Price 
per  piece. 

Price 

per  set. 

Amount 

SADDLE. 

Saddle  tree  covered  with  raw  hide  with  metal  mountings  attached. 
Saddle  flaps  with  brass  screws,  each  

$  cts. 
413 
1  10 

$  cts. 
4  13 
2  20 

Back  straps  with  screws  rivets  and  D's  each  ..         

58 

1  16 

50 

50 

"        "      short  

80 

30 

25 

1  50 

Stirrup  leathers,  each  

70 

1  40 

Sweat  leathers,  each             

70 

1  40 

60 

1  20 

Carbine  socket  and  strap  .".... 

72 

72 

Saddle-bags            .                                            .... 

3  75 

3  75 

1  75 

1  75 

Girth  

80 

80 

Surcingle 

1  17 

1  17 

Total  cost  

$21  98 

BRIDLE. 

*Bit,  No  1,  $5                  I  average  per  100  sets.  .  . 

4  20 

4  20 

•'    Nos.  2,  3,  and  4,  $4  j 
Brass  scutcheon,  with  company  letter,  each.  

5 

10 

Eeins  .  .    .   .         

80 

80 

Headpiece 

85 

85 

Front  

10 

10 

Curb  chain  with  hooks        

20 

20 

Curb  chain  safe 

8 

8 

Total  cost 

6  33 

HALTER. 

Headstall  complete 

2  00 

2  00 

Hitching  strap  

50 

50 

Total  cost  

2  50 

•WATERING   BRIDLE. 

Snaffle  bit,  chains  and  toggles  .            

90 

90 

80 

80 

Total  cost  

1  70 

45 

90 

10 

20 

Total  cost 

1  10 

Curry  comb. 

20 

20 

Horse  brush,  wooden  back  

94 

94 

Picket  pin  ,  

20 

20 

Lariat  rope                                               v. 

1  15 

1  15 

Total  cost  

2  49 

Total  cost  of  equipment  

36  10 

Blanket  for  cavalry  service,  dark,  with  orange  border,  8  Ibs.,  at  70 
cefits  per  Ib  

2  10 

2  10 

Blanket  for  artillery,  scarlet,  with  dark  blue  border,  3  Ibs.,  70  cents 
.per  Ib  

2  10 

2  10 

Nose-ba0'        

75 

75 

20 

20 

*  No.  1  is  Spanish;  Nos.  2,  3,  and  4,  are  American. 


344  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [Hos. 

HOSPITALS — are  under  the  immediate  direction  of  their  respec- 
tive surgeons.  The  general  regulations  of  the  army  prescribe  the 
allowance  of  attendants ;  the  issues  to  hospitals,  &c.,  &c.  (See  AM- 
BULANCE ;  SURGEON  ;  SURGERY.) 

HOT  SHOT.  The  charges  for  hot  shot  are  from  £  to  £  the  weight 
of  the  shot.  With  small  velocities,  the  shot  splits  and  splinters  the 
wood,  so  as  to  render  it  favorable  for  burning.  With  great  velocity, 
the  ball  sinks  deep  into  the  wood,  is  deprived  of  air  by  the  closing  of 
the  hole,  and  chars  instead  of  burning  the  surrounding  wood.  It  should 
not  penetrate  deeper  than  10  or  12  inches.  Red-hot  balls  do  not  set 
fire  to  the  wood  until  some  time  after  their  penetration.  They  retain 
sufficient  heat  to  ignite  wood  after  having  made  several  ricochets  upon 
water.  The  wads  are  made  of  clay  or  hay.  Clay  wads  should  consist 
of  pure  clay,  or  fuller's  earth  free  from  sand  or  gravel  well  kneaded 
with  just  enough  moisture  to  work  well.  They  are  cylindrical  and  one 
calibre  in  length.  Hay  wads  should  remain  in  the  tub  to  soak,  at  least 
ten  or  fifteen  minutes.  Before  being  used,  the  water  is  pressed  out  of 
them.  When  hay  wads  are  used,  vapor  may  be  seen  escaping  from 
the  vent  on  the  insertion  of  the  ball ;  but  as  this  is  only  the  effect  of 
the  heat  of  the  ball  on  the  water  contained  in  the  wad,  no  danger  need 
be  apprehended  from  it.  With  proper  precautions  in  loading,  the  ball 
may  be  permitted  t«  cool  in  the  gun  without  igniting  the  charge.  The 
piece,  however,  should  be  fired  with  as  little  delay  as  possible,  as  the 
vapor  would  diminish  the  strength  of  the  powder.  FURNACES  FOR 
HEATING  SHOT  are  erected  at  the  forts  on  the  sea-coast.  These  furnaces 
hold  sixty  or  more  shot.  The  shot  being  placed,  and  the  furnace  cold, 
it  requires  one  hour  and  fifteen  minutes  to  heat  them  to  a  red  heat ; 
but  after  the  furnace  is  once  heated,  a  24-pdr.  shot  is  brought  to  a  red 
heat  in  twenty-five  minutes  ;  the  32-pdr.  and  42-pdr.  shot  require  a  few 
minutes  longer.  Three  men  are  required  to  attend  the  furnace :  one 
takes  out  the  hot  shot,  and  places  them  on  the  stand  to  be  scraped ; 
another  scrapes  them  and  puts  them  in  the  ladle ;  and  the  third  sup- 
plies cold  shot  and  fuel ;  (GIBBON.) 

HOURS  OF  SITTING.     (See  COUNTS-MARTIAL.) 

HOUSINGS.  The  cloth  covering  for  saddles  prescribed  as  part 
of  the  uniform  of  the  army  in  regulations. 

HOWITZER.     A  chambered  cannon.     (See  CALIBRE.) 

HURDLES.  Pickets  three  feet  high  united  by  pliable  twigs,  so 
as  to  make  a  breadth  of  two  feet.  They  are  used  to  render  batteries 
firm  ;  to  pass  over  boggy  ground  or  muddy  ditches.  (See  REVETMENT.) 

HURTER.     The  hurter  is  a  piece  of  timber,  from  six  to  ten  inches 


IND.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  345 

square,  placed  along  the  head  of  a  gun  platform,  at  the  foot  of  the  in- 
terior slope  of  the  parapet,  to  prevent  the  latter  from  being  injured  by 
the  wheels  of  the  gun-carriage.  ^ 

HUSSARS.     Light  cavalry. 

HUTS — are  frequently  constructed  by  troops  on  retiring  to  winter- 
quarters.  The  quarters  occupied  by  United  States  troops  on  our  fron- 
tiers are  generally  huts  made  by  the  troops.  There  have  recently  been 
built  portable  houses,  the  parts  of  which  correspond,  and  which  are 
readily  put  up.  The  experiment  is  not  yet  a  success.  (See  ADOBE  ; 
CAMP  ;  CARPENTRY  ;  SAW-MILL.) 


ICE.  Ice  two  inches  thick  will  bear  infantry ;  four  inches  thick, 
cavalry  or  light  guns ;  six  inches  heavy  field-guns ;  ^  inches  24-pdr. 
guns  on  sledges ;  weight  not  more  than  1,000  Ibs.  to  a  square  foot. 
Water  that  is  slightly  frozen  is  made  to  bear  a  heavy  wagon  by  cutting 
reeds,  strewing  them  thickly  on  the  ice,  and  pouring  water  upon  them. 
When  the  whole  is  frozen  into  a  firm  mass,  the  process  must  be  re- 
peated. 

IMPRISONMENT.  Officers  may  be  sentenced  to  imprisonment 
by  a  general  court-martial  in  any  case  where  the  court  may  have  discre- 
tionary authority.  General,  garrison,  and  regimental  courts-martial 
may  sentence  soldiers  to  imprisonment,  solitary  or  otherwise,  with  or 
without  hard  labor  for  various  offences  enumerated  in  the  Articles  of 
War.  A  garrison  or  regimental  court-martial,  in  awarding  imprison- 
ment, is  limited  to  a  period  not  exceeding  thirty  days.  When  a 
court  awards  solitary  imprisonment  as  a  punishment,  it  is  necessary 
that  the  words  "  Solitary  Confinement "  should  be  expressed  in  the 
sentence. 

INDEMNIFICATION.  In  the  French  and  English  armies,  there 
is  an  indemnification  established  for  losses  in  the  military  service,  and 
other  allowances  are  also  made  in  the  nature  of  indemnifications ;  as  for 
furniture  ;  fuel  and  light ;  forage  ;  expenses  of  divine  worship  ;  com- 
mand money  to  general  and  field  officers ;  quarters  ;  expenses  upon 
routes  ;  provisions  ;  gratuity  at  the  beginning  of  a  campaign  ;  field  al- 
lowances ;  mess  ;  carriage  of  baggage  ;  blood  money  ;  permanent  pen- 
sions;  temporary  pensions,  or  gratuities  in  lieu  thereof;  rewards  for 
meritorious  conduct ;  and  pensions  to  widows  and  children  of  officers. 

In  the  United  States  service,  the  law  provides  that  if  a  horse  be  lost 
in  battle,  an  officer  may  receive  not  exceeding  two  hundred  dollars  for 


346  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [Lm 

his  horse,  and  allowances  are  made  for  quarters,  fuel,  forage,  provision, 
and  transportation  of  baggage,  and  command  money  in  certain  cases. 

INDIANS.  The  red  man  of  America  is  so  called,  and  as  the  troops 
of  the  United  States  have  always  been  the  pioneers  of  civilization,  their 
contact  with  the  Indians  is  always  more  or  less  immediate.  The  prob- 
lem of  the  disappearance  of  the  race  is  fast  being  solved ;  and  every 
humane  mind  must  contemplate  with  sorrow  the  destitution  to  which 
the  Indians  have  been  driven.  Something,  it  is  believed,  may  be  done 
for  them  by  the  system  of  policy  proposed  in  the  article  on  national  de- 
fence, and  that  policy  would  be  greatly  promoted  if  the  United  States 
maintained  on  our  frontier  a  few  Indian  regiments,  officered  by  details 
from  the  army.  The  successful  adoption  of  this  policy  in  India  by  the 
English,  and  in  Algiers  by  the  French,  proves  its  practicability,  and  no 
men  would  make  better  light  cavalry  and  light  infantry  than  the  Indians 
on  our  western  frontier. 

The  President  is  authorized  to  cause  army  rations  to  be  issued  to 
Indians  ;  (Act  June  30,  1834.) 

All  purchases  on  account  of  Indians,  and  all  payments  to  them  of 
money  or  goods,  shall  be  made  by  such  person  as  the  President  shall 
designate  for  that  purpose.  And  the  superintendent,  agent,  or  sub- 
agent,  together  with  such  military  officer  as  the  President  may  direct, 
shall  be  present,  and  certify  to  the  delivery  of  all  goods  and  money  re- 
quired to  be  paid  or  delivered  to  said  Indians.  And  the  duties  required 
by  any  section  of  this  act  of  military  officers,  shall  be  performed  without 
any  other  compensation  than  their  actual  travelling  expenses ;  (Act 
June  30,  1834.) 

Army  surgeons  may  be  employed  by  the  Secretary  of  War  to  vac- 
cinate Indians  ;  (Act  May  5,  1832.) 

A  foreigner  going  into  Indian  territory  without  a  passport  from  the 
War  Department,  superintendent,  agent,  sub-agent,  or  from  the  officer 
commanding  the  nearest  military  post,  or  remaining  intentionally  there- 
in after  the  expiration  of  his  passport,  is  subject  to  forfeit  and  pay  the 
sum  of  one  thousand  dollars  ;  (Act  June  80,  1834.) 

It  shall  be  lawful  for  the  military  force  of  the  United  States  to  be 
employed,  in  such  manner  and  under  such  regulations  as  the  President 
may  direct,  in  the  apprehension  of  every  person  found  in  the  Indian 
territory  in  violation  of  any  of  the  provisions  of  this  act,  and  cause  him 
to  be  conveyed  for  trial  to  the  nearest  civil  authority  ;  and  the  military 
force  may  also  be  employed  in  the  examination  and  seizure  of  stores, 
packages,  and  boats,  with  spirituous  liquor  or  wine,  and  in  preventing 
tho  introduction  of  persons  and  property  into  the  Indian  country  con- 


INF.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  347 

trary  to  law.  Provided  that  no  person  apprehended  by  the  military 
force  as  aforesaid  shall  be  detained  longer  than  five  days  after  arrest, 
and  before  removal  for  surrender  to  the  civil  authority  ;  (Act  June  30, 
1834.) 

When  goods  or  other  property  are  seized  under  this  act,  the  process 
of  prosecutions  shall  be  the  same  as  in  the  case  of  goods,  &c.,  brought 
into  the  United  States  in  violation  of  the  revenue  laws ;  (Act  June  30, 
1834.) 

Persons  attempting  to  settle  in  Indian  territory  may  be  removed 
by  military  force ;  (Act  1832.  See  TREATY.) 

INFANTRY.  Its  depth  of  formation  has  progressively  diminished 
since  the  centre  and  wings  have  been  armed  alike,  and  the  use  of  pikes 
discontinued.  The  formation  in  lines  has  fitted  infantry  for  action  on 
all  kinds  of  ground,  and  the  invention  of  massing,  the  condensation  of 
ranks,  and  formations  by  size,  have  given  it  a  perfect  ensemble.  Its 
march  has  gained  in  rapidity  by  the  simplification  of  evolutions,  the  re- 
sort to  guides,  and  turning  upon  PIVOTS  ;  it  acts  more  skilfully  in 
affairs  of  plains  and  outposts,  by  the  rapidity  of  its  changes  of  direction, 
formations  in  order  of  battle,  and  alternate  ployments  and  deployments. 
The  general  adoption  of  tactical  inversions,  it  is  thought,  would  add  still 
more  to  this  skilfulness. 

The  improved  rifle-musket,  with  thorough  target  practice,  gives  to 
infantry  immense  advantages  over  cavalry  and  artillery.  The  effective 
range  of  the  new  musket  permitting  skirmishers  to  open  fire  at  1,000 
yards,  fields  of  battle  will  cover  more  ground  than  formerly,  and  the 
use  of  smaller  columns  than  battalions  of  eight  and  ten  companies  will 
probably  be  resorted  to.  An  organization  of  battalions  of  six  com- 
panies of  100  men  each,  in  two  ranks,  in  lieu  of  the  former,  would  be 
an  improvement ;  and  in  the  United  States  service  this  might  be  accom- 
plished by  adding  two  companies  with  two  battalion-adjutants  and  ser- 
geant-majors to  each  regiment.  The  front  of  each  battalion  would  not 
be  too  great.  Columns  would  be  formed  by  division  in  mass.  There 
would  be  three  such  divisions,  and  the  square  formed  would  have  £ 
its  rifles  in  the  first  and  fourth  fronts,  and  J-  each  in  the  other  two  fronts. 
Such  well-instructed  men,  in  firing,  would  be  perhaps  able  to  show,  as 
in  the  experiment  at  Hy  the,  that  a  piece  of  artillery  with  its  men  and 
horses  might,  at  810  yards,  be  completely  disabled  by  30  riflemen  in 
three  minutes,  and  also  be  an  overmatch  for  cavalry. 

Infantry  has  always  guarded  the  frontier  in  war ;  it  supports  cavalry 
in  great  reconnoissances  ;  furnishes  swimmers«when  the  cork  jacket  is 
resorted  to  ;  is  employed  both  in  the  attack  and  defence  of  fortresses  ; 


348  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [!NF. 

slings  the  musket  and  throws  grenades  ;  mounts  heights  by  escalade ; 
escorts  and  attacks  convoys ;  supports  foraging  parties ;  defends  aba- 
tis ;  is  at  home  in  all  accidents  of  ground ;  finishes  operations  begun 
by  artillery ;  crowns  heights  which  horses  and  pieces  of  artillery  can- 
not reach ;  decides  the  fate  of  battles,  sometimes  with  the  aid  of  caval- 
ry, and  sometimes  alone.  Costing  little,  active,  occupying  relatively 
little  ground  ;  readily  lodged,  maintained,  and  renewed,  it  is  easily  sub- 
sisted, and  often  finds  in  its  knapsacks,  haversacks,  and  utensils  carried 
by  the  men,  all  its  wants  supplied,  when  separated  from  baggage  trains. 
It  has  been  made  a  question  whether  excellent  cavalry  may  not 
beat  mediocre  infantry,  and  whether  excellent  infantry  would  not  be 
overthrown  by  mediocre  cavalry  ? 

There  is  this  great  difference  between  infantry  and  cavalry  :  infantry 
has  always  changed  its  tactics  at  the  same  time  with  its  arms,  whereas 
cavalry  cannot  change  its  manner  of  fighting,  although  it  has  more  than 
once  attempted  the  forms  of  infantry  tactics. 

Cavalry  cannot  operate  as  a  whole,  except  upon  unbroken  ground ; 
it  is  unsuited  to  firing ;  the  order  of  battle  is  its  great  means  of  action  ; 
the  sabre  or  lance  is  its  only  reliance  ;  the  invention  of  powder  has  not 
improved  the  art  it  exercises.  Squares  of  cavalry  are  useless  ;  the  cir- 
cular formation  which  has  been  conceived  is  a  chimera ;  defence  is  not 
its  strength ;  movement  is  its  life,  an  unbroken  field  its  element,  and 
the  charge  its  principal  means  of  offence.  But  within  range  of  the  rifle, 
at  1,000  yards,  it  must  be  destroyed  before  reaching  its  object. 

The  elementary  tactics  of  infantry  consists  in  securing  its  rear  and 
its  flanks  ;  in  never  being  entirely  disfurnished  of  its  fire  ;  in  attacking 
with  the  bayonet ;  in  defending  itself  by  firing  within  proper  range,  and 
progressively,  rather  than  simultaneously ;  using  the  aid  of  the  grenade 
and  rocket,  and  in  resorting  to  the  bayonet,  as  prescribed  in  the  bayo- 
net exercise.  In  the  offensive  movements  of  a  field  of  battle,  infantry 
ought  never  to  be  disfurnished  of  its  fire,  except  when  the  enemy  falls 
back,  and  it  is  known  that  his  retreat  is  not  a  stratagem  to  draw  the  fire 
of  the  assailants,  in  order  to  push  down  upon  them  masked  cavalry. 

Infantry  being  suited  for  close  or  distant  combat,  the  aim  of  its  tac- 
tics is  to  prescribe  the  best  order  for  the  shock,  and  the  best  orders  for 
firing.  The  chef-d'oeuvre  of  art  consists  in  the  most  rapid  and  success- 
ful transformations  of  these  orders ;  in  the  mechanism  of  changes  of 
front ;  and  in  the  ployments  and  deployments  of  columns  of  attack  and 
the  formation  of  squares  against  cavalry. 

In  campaign,  infantry  preferably  occupies  broken  ground,  woods, 
&c.  A  trench,  abatis,  or  chevaux-de-frise  is  sufficient  to  secure  its 


INI.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  049 

safety.  In  crossing  plains,  its  head  and  flanks  should  be  covered  by 
cavalry ;  in  retreat,  the  infantry  forms  the  rear  guard,  to  protect  the 
column  of  cavalry.  For  this  purpose  it  occupies  hills  or  ravines,  or, 
standing  firm  in  heavy  masses,  the  cavalry  defiles  until  it  has  gained 
ground  suited  to  cavalry  operations.  When  the  cavalry  has  reached 
such  a  position,  it  deploys,  faces  to  the  rear  to  cover  in  its  turn  the  re- 
treat of  the  infantry. 

Didactic  authors,  as  well  as  historians,  recognize  the  superiority  of 
infantry.  VOLTAIRE  calls  it  the  soul  of  armies  ;  MACHIAVEL,  the  sinew  ; 
it  is  the  principal  force  and  lever  of  power  in  time  of  war  ;  it  can  act 
alone ;  other  arms  move  to  second  it :  thus  good  infantry  is  the  true 
strength  of  nations ;  every  one  in  an.  army  feels  its  importance ;  its 
posts  guard  the  army  ;  its  duties  are,  of  all  others,  the  most  constant, 
the  most  simple,  the  most  easily  regulated,  and  the  most  certain  and 
most  important. 

The  duties  of  engineers  and  artillery  require  more  learning ;  those 
of  cavalry,  in  war,  are  sometimes  more  dashing  and  brilliant ;  but  the 
services  of  infantry  are  always  in  demand.  In  attack  and  defence  of  all 
kinds ;  the  descent  into  the  ditch ;  or  the  defence  of  the  breach,  the 
trench,  and  the  rampart ;  the  insult  of  palisades,  or  the  fire  from  the 
parapet ;  in  ambuscades  ;  or  on  any  field  of  battle  whatever,  infantry 
*must  exercise  its  skilfulness  and  attest  its  valor.  Valleys,  fords,  de- 
files, water-courses,  ravines,  abatis,  forests,  heights,  plains,  parallels, 
camps,  outworks,  covered  ways,  advance  guards,  and  rear  guards,  are  all 
in  turn  its  theatre  of  action.  All  kinds  of  troops  mutually  aid  each  other, 
and  it  is  the  skilful  combination  of  their  efforts  which  constitutes,  in  part, 
the  science  of  the  general-in-chief.  To  make  good  infantry,  it  is  essential 
that  it  should  pass  some  months  in  a  camp  of  instruction.  The  soldier 
must  be  taught  to  take  care  of  his  arms  and  accoutrements,  to  march, 
to  fire  well,  to  build  huts,  to  handle  the  axe,  spade,  and  shovel,  to  make 
cartridges,  fascines,  hurdles,  and  gabions,  suited  to  field-works,  to  cook, 
and  to  consider  his  knapsack,  haversack,  &c.,  as  part  of  himself.  (See 
DISCIPLINE  ;  ARTICLES  OF  WAR  ;  TACTICS  ;  MANOEUVRES  IN  COMBAT. 
Consult  BARDIN.) 

INFORMANT.  In  case  a  civil  person  is  the  complainant,  he  be- 
comes the  principal  witness  before  a  court-martial,  and  after  giving  his 
evidence  may  remain  in  court,  in  order  that  the  judge-advocate  may  re- 
fer to  him ;  (HOUGH.) 

INITIAL  VELOCITY.  The  velocity  with  which  a  projectile 
leaves  the  piece,  that  is,  the  space  in  feet  then  passed  in  a  second,  is 
called  its  initial  velocity ;  the  space  passed  over  in  a  second  at  any  sue- 


350 


MILITARY  DICTIONARY. 


[Lxj. 


ceeding  point  of  the  trajectory  its  remaining  velocity,  and  the  terminal 
velocity  is  the  velocity  with  which  it  strikes  the  object.  The  greatest 
initial  velocities  do  not  exceed  four  or  five  hundred  yards,  and  are  given 
by  charges  not  exceeding  one-third  the  weight  of  the  ball ;  the  feeblest 
are  produced  by  charges  of  about  one- twenty -fourth  the  weight  of  the 
ball.  The  musket  pendulum  used  at  Washington  Arsenal  has  shown 
the  initial  velocity  of  the  elongated  ball  for  the  rifle-musket  to  be  9G3 
feet  per  second,  and  that  of  the  pistol-carbine  603.  For  ordinary  prac- 
tice, where  the  weight  of  the  powder  and  the  projectile  alone  vary,  initial 
velocities  may  be  considered  directly  proportional  to  the  square  root  of 
the  weight  of  powder  divided  by  the  square  root  of  the  weight  of  the  pro- 
jectile. 

In  the  experiments  made  at  Washington  by  Major  Mordecai  with 
the  gun  and  ballistic  pendulums  combined  for  the  purpose  of  ascertain- 
ing the  initial  velocities  produced  by  equal  charges  of  powder  in  the 
same  piece  of  ordnance  on  balls  of  different  weights,  it  was  found  that, 
with  a  24-pounder  gun  and  a  charge  of  4  Ibs.  of  powder,  the  windage 
being  .175  inch,  the  initial  velocity  of  a  shell  filled  with  lead  and  weigh- 
ing 27.68  Ibs.,  was  1,325  feet ;  of  a  marble  ball  weighing  9.29  Ibs.,  was 
2,154  feet ;  and  of  a  lignum  vitse  ball  weighing  4.48  Ibs.,  was  2,759  feet. 
The  two  first  of  these  velocities  are  nearly  in  the  inverse  ratio  of  the 
square  roots  of  the  weights  of  the  shot ;  but  the  two  last  are  nearly  as* 
the  cube  roots  of  the  weights  inversely.  (Consult  BENTON.  See  BAL- 
LISTICS.) 

TABLE  OF  INITIAL  VELOCITIES  WITH  SERVICE  CHARGES. 


KIND 

OF  PRO  J  EC 

TILE. 

KIND   OF  CANNON. 

Charge  of 
Powder. 

Shot. 

Shells. 

Spher'l 

EEMAKK8. 

6-pdr.  Field..., 

Ibs. 
1.25 

feet 
1489 

feet 

feet 

1  357 

When  the  initial  ve- 

12-pdr. Field  
12-pdr.  Field  Howitzer  

24-pdr.  Siege  Gun  -j 

2.50 
1.00 
6.00 

1,486 
1,680 

1,054 

1,486 
953 

locities  of  shot,  shell, 
and  spherical  ca.-e  f-liot 
are  given,  the  weight 

8-inch  Sie^e  Howitzer 

8.00 
400 

1,870 

1,670 
907 

of  the  charge  refers  to 
shot 

32-pdr.   Sea-coast  Gun  

8.00 

1640 

1  450 

15-inch  Columbiad  

4000 

1  8°8 

INJURIES,  LIABILITY  FOR  PRIVATE  INJURIES.  In  the  exercise  of 
professional  duty  by  military  officers,  injuries  may  frequently  be  oc- 
casioned to  other  officers,  or  to  private  individuals,  whose  legal  reme- 
dies are  here  considered.  As  between  officers  themselves,  the  language 
of  the  Articles  of  War  is  sufficiently  comprehensive  to  bring  most  of 
such  cases  within  the  cognizance  of  a  court-martial ;  but  a  court-martial 


Ixj.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  351 

has  no  power  to  award  pecuniary  damages  for  injurious  conduct.  Its 
jurisdiction  is  criminal,  and  its  judgments  are  penal.  It  may  happen, 
too,  that  the  common  feeling  of  the  service,  to  which  the  offending  or 
the  complaining  party  belongs,  would  in  many  cases  render  an  applica- 
tion to  such  a  tribunal  utterly  fruitless  ;  as  the  general  sentiment  of  the 
members  of  a  particular  profession  or  class  of  society,  respecting  a  mat- 
ter of  professional  or  corporate  right  or  conduct,  is  often  found  to  be  at 
variance  with  the  public  law  of  the  land.  Civil  actions  are  therefore 
maintainable  against  commissioned  officers,  for  exceeding  their  powers, 
or  for  exercising  them  in  an  oppressive,  injurious,  and  improper  man- 
ner, whether  towards  military  persons  or  others.  Extreme  difficulties, 
however,  lie  in  the  way  of  plaintiffs  in  actions  of  this  nature ;  for  no 
•mch  action  is  maintainable  for  an  injury,  unless  it  be  accompanied  by 
malice  or  injustice  :  and  the  knowledge  of  this,  (says  Mr.  Baron  Eyre,) 
while  it  can  never  check  the  conduct  of  good  men,  may  form  a  check  on 
the  bad.  Where  an  officer  (says  the  same  learned  judge)  makes  a  slip 
in  form,  great  latitude  ought  to  be  allowed ;  but  for  a  corrupt  abuse 
of  authority  none  can  be  made. 

It  will  be  convenient  to  consider  the  law  upon  this  subject :  1st, 
as  it  applies  to  wrongs  committed  by  officers  towards  persons  under 
military  authority ;  and,  2clly,  as  it  applies  to  persons  not  subject  to 
such  authority.  Some  of  the  decisions  that  will  be  quoted  were 
pronounced  in  cases  where  naval  officers  were  concerned ;  but  the 
principle  of  the  decisions  applies  equally  to  both  services.  I.  Wrongs 
towards  Persons  under  Military  Authority. — A  notion  appears  to 
have  at  one  time  extensively  prevailed  that  an  officer  could  have 
no  remedy  against  ill  treatment  received  from  his  superiors  in  the 
course  of  professional  duty,  except  by  bringing  the  offending  party 
to  a  court-martial,  and  subjecting  hirn  to  the  penalties  of  the  Arti- 
cles of  War.  This  opinion,  however,  was  quite  unfounded  in  point 
of  law ;  and  such  a  state  of  things  might  often  be  productive  of  the 
worst  consequences.  The  question  was  distinctly  raised  in  Grant  v. 
Shand,  where  an  action  was  brought  by  an  officer  in  the  army  against 
his  superior  officer  for  oppressive,  insulting,  and  violent  conduct.  The 
plaintiff  was  directed  to  give  a  military  order  :  and  it  appeared  that  he 
sent  two  persons,  who  failed.  The  defendant  thereupon  said  to  the 
plaintiff,  "  What  a  stupid  person  you  are,"  and  twice  struck  him ;  and 
although  the  circumstances  occurred  at  Gibraltar,  and  in  the  actual 
execution  of  military  service,  it  was  held  by  the  learned  judge  at  the 
trial  that  the  action  was  maintainable ;  and  a  verdict  was  found  for  the 
plaintiff.  An  application  was  afterwards  made  to  the  Court  of  King's 


352  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [!NJ. 

Bench  to  set  aside  the  verdict;  and  Lord  Mansfield,  the  chief-justice, 
was  very  desirous  to  grant  a  new  trial ;  but  the  court,  after  argument, 
refused  to  disturb  the  verdict.  So  also  an  action  will  lie  for  unjust 
treatment  under  the  form  of  discipline,  as  in  Swinton  v.  Molloy,  where 
the  defendant,  who  was  captain  of  the  Trident  man-of-war,  put  the 
purser  into  confinement,  kept  him  imprisoned  for  three  days  without 
inquiring  into  the  case,  and  then  released  him  on  hearing  his  defence. 
The  purser  brought  his  action  against  Captain  Molloy,  for  this  unlawful 
detention  in  custody  ;  and,  upon  the  evidence,  Lord  Mansfield  said,  that 
such  conduct  on  the  part  of  the  captain  did  not  appear  to  have  been  a 
proper  discharge  of  his  duty,  and  therefore  that  his  justification  under 
the  discipline  of  the  navy  had  failed  him.  The  jury  gave  £1,000  dam- 
ages. In  the  foregoing  case  no  want  of  uprightness  was  attributed  to 
Captain  Molloy  ;  and  the  decision  rested  wholly  on  the  circumstance 
of  his  having  committed  an  injustice,  although  without  a  corrupt  inten- 
tion. Cruelty  or  unnecessary  severity,  when  wilfully  committed  in  the 
exercise  of  superior  authority,  are  also  good  causes  of  action.  Thus  in 
Wall  v.  Macnamara,  the  action  was  brought  by  the  plaintiff,  as  captain 
in  the  African  corps,  against  the  defendant,  Lieutenant-governor  and 
Military  Commandant  of  Senegambia,  for  imprisoning  the  plaintiff  for 
the  space  of  nine  months  at  Gambia,  in  Africa.  The  defence  was  a  jus- 
tification of  the  imprisonment  under  the  Mutiny  Act,  for  the  disobedience 
of  orders.  At  the  trial  it  appeared  that  the  imprisonment  of  Captain 
Wall,  which  was  at  first  legal,  namely,  for  leaving  his  post  without 
leave  from  his  superior  officer,  though  in  a  bad  state  of  health,  was  ag- 
gravated with  many  circumstances  of  cruelty,  which  were  adverted  to 
by  Lord  Mansfield,  in  the  following  extract  from  his  charge  to  the  jury  : 
"  It  is  admitted  that  the  plaintiff  was  to  blame  in  leaving  his  post.  But 
there  was  no  enemy,  no  mutiny,  no  danger.  His  health  was  declining, 
and  he  trusted  to  the  benevolence  of  the  defendant  to  consider  the  cir- 
cumstances under  which  he  acted.  But  supposing  it  to  have  been  the 
defendant's  duty  to  call  the  plaintiff  to  a  military  account  for  his  miscon- 
duct, what  apology  is  there  for  denying  him  the  use  of  the  common  air 
in  a  sultry  climate,  and  shutting  him  up  in  a  gloomy  prison,  when  there 
was  no  possibility  of  bringing  him  to  a  trial  for  several  months,  there 
not  being  a  sufficient  number  of  officers  to  form  a  court-martial  ? 
These  circumstances,  independent  of  the  direct  evidence  of  malice,  as 
sworn  to  by  one  of  the  witnesses,  are  sufficient  for  you  to  presume  a 
bad,  malignant  motive  in  the  defendant,  which  would  destroy  his  justifi- 
cation, had  it  even  been  within  the  powers  delegated  to  the  defendant 
by  his  commission."  The  jury  thereupon  found  a  verdict,  for  Captain 


LNJ.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  353 

Wall,  with  £1,000  damages.  An  undue  assumption  of  authority  in 
matters  not  within  the  range  of  military  discipline,  is  also  a  .good  ground 
of  action  against  a  superior  officer.  This  appears  from  the  case  of 
Warden  v.  Bailey,  where  the  plaintiff  was  a  permanent  sergeant  in  the 
Bedford  regiment  of  local  militia,  of  which  the  defendant  was  the  adju- 
tant. In  November,  1809,  the  lieutenant-colonel  issued  a  regimental 
order  for  establishing  an  evening  school  at  Bedford.  Pie  appointed  the 
sergeant-major  the  master,  and  ordered  all  sergeants  and  corporals,  in- 
cluding the  plaintiffj  to  attend  and  pay  eight-pence  a  week  towards  the 
expenses  of  the  school.  The  plaintiff  and  some  other  of  the  scholars 
having  afterwards  omitted  to  attend,  several  were  tried  by  court-martial 
and  punished.  The  plaintiff,  however,  was  only  reprimanded,  and  he 
promised  regular  attendance  in  future.  Shortly  aftersvards  he  was 
ordered  to  attend  a  drill  on  parade,  when  the  defendant,  who  appears 
to  have  been  a  shopkeeper,  shook  his  fist  at  the  plaintiff,  called  him  a 
rascal,  and  told  him  he  deserved  to  be  shot.  The  defendant  then  direct* 
ed  a  sergeant  to  draw  his  sword  and  hold  it  over  the  plaintiff's  head, 
and  if  he  should  stir  to  run  him  through ;  and,  by  the  defendant's  direcs 
tion,  a  corporal  took  off  the  plaintiff's  sash  and  sword.  The  plaintiff 
was  then  conducted,  by  the  defendant's  order,  to  Bedford  gaol,  with 
directions  that  he  should  be  locked  up  in  solitary  confinement,  and  kept 
on  bread  and  water.  He  was  thus  imprisoned  for  three  days.  He  was 
then  brought  up  before  the  colonel  and  the  defendant,  and  other  officers 
of  the  regiment,  and  again  remanded  to  the  gaol.  The  plaintiff's  health 
having  been  impaired  by  the  continuance  of  this  treatment  for  several 
weeks,  he  was  afterwards  conducted  to  his  own  house,  and  there  kept  a 
close  prisoner  until  January,  1810,  when  he  was  escorted  by  a  file  of 
corporals  from  Bedford  to  Stilton,  to  be  tried  by  court-martial  for 
mutinous  words  spoken  on  parade  at  the  time  of  his  arrest,  and  for 
thereby  exciting  others  to  disobedience.  He  was  tried  accordingly,  but 
liberated  in  March,  1810.  Upon  this  he  brought  his  action  against  the 
adjutant  for  the  wrongful  imprisonment,  when  an  objection  was  taken 
that  the  question  of  the  propriety  of  the  arrest  was  not  within  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  civil  courts  The  Court  of  Common  Pleas,  however? 
overruled  this  objection.  Sir  James  Mansfield,  C.  J. :  "  It  might  be 
very  convenient  that  a  military  officer  might  be  enabled  to  make  the 
men  under  his  command  learn  to  read  and  write, — it  might  be  very 
useful,  but  is  not  a  part  of  military  discipline.  Then,  further,  there  is 
a  tax  of  Sd.  a  week  for  learning  to  read  and  write.  ...*...  The 
subject  cannot  be  taxed,  even  in  the  most  indirect  way,  unless  it  origi- 
nates in  the  Lower  House  of  Parliament."  Mr.  Justice  Lawrence : 
23 


354  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [!NJ. 

u  It  is  no  part  of  military  duty  to  attend  a  school,  and  learn  to  write 
and  read.  If  writing  is  necessary  to  corporals  and  sergeants,  the  supe- 
rior officers  must  select  men  who  can  write  and  read ;  and  if  they  do 
not  continue  to  do  it  well,  they  may  be  reduced  to  the  ranks.  Nor  is 
it  any  part  of  military  duty  to  pay  for  keeping  a  school  light  and 
warm  :  this  very  far  exceeds  the  power  of  any  colonel  to  order."  In  a 
subsequent  stage  of  the  same  case,  when  it  was  attempted  to  justify  or 
defend  the  mutinous  expressions  used  by  Warden  on  parade  as  above 
stated,  on  the  ground  of  the  illegality  of  the  order  which  gave  rise  to 
them,  the  court  held,  that  although  "Warden  had  been  unlawfully  ar- 
rested for  disobedience  to  that  order,  such  a  circumstance  afforded  no 
warrant  for  insubordinate  language  on  Warden's  part,  and  therefore  no 
exemption  from  military  arrest  and  punishment  for  the  same.  "  Nor 
will  he  (said  Lord  Ellenborough,  C.  J.)  be  less  an  object  of  military 
punishment,  because  the  order  of  the  lieut.-colonel,  to  which  this  lan- 
guage referred,  might  not  be  a  valid  one,  and  such  as  he  was  strictly 

competent  to  make There  may  be  disorderly  conduct  to  the 

prejudice  of  good  order  and  military  discipline,  in  the  manner  and  terms 
used  and  adopted  by  one  soldier  in  dissuading  another  soldier  not  to 
obey  an  order  not  strictly  legal.  If  every  erroneous  order  on  the  part 
of  a  commanding  officer  would  not  only  justify  the  individual  disobe- 
dience of  it  by  the  soldier,  but  would  even  justify  him  in  making  in- 
flammatory and  reproachful  public  comments  upon  it  to  his  fellow-sol- 
diers,  equally  the  objects  of  such  order  with  himself,  is  it  possible  that 
military  order  and  discipline  could  be  maintained  1 "  The  common  de- 
fence of  officers,  against  whom  actions  of  this  nature  are  brought,  is  a 
justification  of  their  conduct  as  agreeable  to  the  discipline  of  the  ser- 
vice, and  contributory  to  the  maintenance  of  that  discipline.  And  there 
can  be  no  doubt,  that  where  the  conduct  brought  into  question  is  not  an 
oppressive,  malicious,  or  unreasonable  exercise  of  power,  and  does  not 
amount  to  an  excess  or  abuse  of  authority,  an  action  is  wholly  unsus- 
tainable. The  principles  upon  which  the  Courts  of  Law  proceed  in 
actions  arising  out  of  the  abuse  of  military  power,  will  receive  further 
illustration  from  the  language  of  Lord  Mansfield,  in  summing  up  the 
evidence  to  the  jury  in  Wall  v.  Macnamara.  His  lordship  thus  ex- 
pressed himself:  "  In  trying  the  legality  of  acts  done  by  military  officers 
in  the  exercise  of  their  duty,  particularly  beyond  the  seas,  where  cases 
may  occur  without  the  possibility  of  application  for  proper  advice,  great 
latitude  onght  to  be  allowed ;  and  they  ought  not  to  suffer  for  a  slip  of 
form,  if  their  intention  appears  by  the  evidence  to  have  been  upright. 
It  is  the  same  as  when  complaints  are  brought  against  inferior  civil 


INJ.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  355 

magistrates,  such  as  justices  of  the  peace,  for  acts  done  by  them  in  the 
exercise  of  their  civil  duty.     There  the  principal  inquiry  to  be  made  by 
a  court  of  justice  is,  how  the  heart  stood?    and   if  there  appear  to  be 
nothing  wrong  there,  great  latitude  will  be  allowed  for  misapprehension 
or  mistake.     But,  on  the  other  hand,  if  the  heart  is  wrong, — if  cruelty, 
malice,  and  oppression  appear  to  have  occasioned  or  aggravated  the 
imprisonment,  or  other  injury  complained  of,  they  shall  not  cover  them- 
selves with  the  thin  veil  of  legal  forms,  nor  escape  under  the  cover  of  a 
justification  the  most  technically  regular,  from  that  punishment,  which 
it  is  your  province  and  your  duty  to  inflict  on  so  scandalous  an  abuse 
of  public  trust."     It  is  no  legal  objection  to  an  action  for  the  abuse  of 
military  authority,  that  the  defendant  has  not  been  tried  and  convicted 
by  a  court-martial,  for  that  argument  holds  in  no  case  short  of  felony. 
The  infliction  of  an  unjust  or  illegal  sentence,  pronounced  by  a  court- 
martial,  is  a  good  cause  of  action  by  the  prisoner,  against  all  or  any  of 
the  members  of  the  court,  and  all  persons  concerned  in  the  execution  of 
the  sentence  ;  such  a  sentence,  if  it  exceeds  the  authorized  measure  of 
punishment,  being  not  merely  invalid  for  the  excess,  but  absolutely 
void  altogether.     The  most  remarkable  case  on  record  of  this  kind  is 
that  of  Lieutenant  Frye,  of  the   Marines,  who,  after  an  unnecessary 
previous  imprisonment  for  fourteen  months,  was  brought  to  trial  before 
a  naval  court-martial  at  Port  Royal  in  the  West  Indies,  and  sentenced  to 
be  imprisoned  for  fifteen  years,  for  disobedience  of  orders,  in  refusing  to 
assist  in  the  imprisonment  of  another  officer,  without  an  order  in  writ- 
ing from  the  captain  of  Her  Majesty's  ship  Oxford,  on  board  of  which 
Lieutenant  Frye  was  serving.     At  the  trial  the  written  depositions  of 
several  illiterate  Blacks  were  improperly  received  in  evidence  against 
him,  in  lieu  of  their  oral  testimony,  which  might  have  been  obtained 
and   sifted   by  cross-examination  ;    and  the  sentence  pronounced  was 
itself  illegal  for  its  excessiveness,  the  Act  22  George  II.,  which  contains 
the  naval  Articles  of  War,  not  allowing  any  imprisonment  beyond  the 
term  of  two  years.     On  the  return  to  England  of  Admiral  Sir  Chaloner 
Ogle,  the  president  of  the  court-martial,  Lieutenant  Frye  brought  an 
action  against  him  in  the  Court  of  Common  Pleas  for  his  illegal  conduct 
at  the  trial,  when  the  jury,  under  the  direction  of  the  Lord  Chief-Justice 
Willes,  gave   a  verdict  for  the  plaintiff,  with  £1,000  damages.     The 
Chief-Justice  at  the  same  time  informed  Lieutenant  Frye  that  he  might 
have  an  action  against  all  or  any  of  the  other  members  of  his  court- 
martial  ;    and  Lieutenant  Frye  accordingly  issued  writs  against  Rear 
Admiral  Mayne  and  Captain  Renton,  upon  whom  the  same  were  served 
as  they  were  coming  ashore  at  the  conclusion  of  the  proceedings  of  the 


356  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [!NJ. 

day  at  another  court-martial,  of  which  they  were  acting  members,  for 
the  trial  of  Vice-admiral  Lestock,  for  his  conduct  in  a  naval  engagement 
with  the  French  fleet  off  Toulon,  in  the  early  part  of  the  same  year. 
This  was  deemed  a  great  insult  by  the  members  of  the  sitting  court 
martial,  who  accordingly  passed  some  resolutions  or  remonstrances  in 
strong  language,  highly  derogatory  to  the  chief-justice,  which  they  for- 
warded to  the  Lords  of  the  Admiralty,  by  whom  the  affair  was  reported 
to  the  king.  His  Majesty,  through  the  Duke  of  Newcastle,  signified  to 
the  Admiralty  *'  his  great  displeasure  at  the  insult  offered  to  the  court- 
martial,  by  which  the  military  discipline  of  the  navy  is  so  much  affected ; 
and  the  king  highly  disapproved  of  the  behavior  of  Lieutenant  Frye  on 
the  occasion."  The  Lord  Chief-Justice,  as  soon  as  he  heard  of  the  reso- 
lutions of  the  court-martial,  ordered  every  member  of  it  to  be  taken 
into  custody,  and  was  proceeding  to  uphold  the  dignity  of  his  court,  in  a 
very  decided  manner,  when  the  whole  affair  was  terminated  in  Nov., 
1746,  by  the  members  of  the  court-martial  signing  and  sending  to  his 
lordship  a  very  ample  written  apology  for  their  conduct.  On  the  re- 
ception of  this  paper  in  the  Court  of  Common  Pleas,  it  was  read  aloud, 
and  ordered  to  be  registered  among  the  records  as  a  "  memorial,"  said 
the  Lord  Chief-Justice,  "  to  the  present  and  future  ages,  that  whoever 
set  themselves  up  in  opposition  to  the  laws,  or  think  themselves  above 
the  law,  will  in  the  end  find  themselves  mistaken."  The  proceedings 
and  the  apology  were  also  published  in  the  London  Gazette  of  15th 
Nov.,  1746.  At  a  naval  court-martial  for  the  trial  of  Mr.  Crawford,  a 
midshipman  of  Her  Majesty's  ship  Emerald,  for  contempt  and  disobe- 
dience to  the  orders  of  his  superior  officer,  Captain  Knell,  the  court  in- 
advertently found  Mr.  Crawford  guilty  only  of  having  been  disorderly 
when  a  prisoner  at  large,  which  formed  no  part  of  the  offence  of  which 
he  was  accused ;  and  he  was  reprimanded  accordingly.  Mr.  Crawford 
thereupon  brought  an  action  against  the  captain  for  damages  ;  and  the 
learned  judge  who  presided  at  the  trial,  having  made  some  severe 
animadversions  on  the  illegality  of  the  proceedings,  the  jury  awarded 
heavy  damages.  A  similar  action  was  brought  against  Colonel  Bailey, 
colonel  of  the  Middlesex  militia,  for  improperly  flogging  a  private  in 
the  militia,  and  the  jury  gave  £600  damages.  In  Moore  v.  Bastard  also, 
an  action  was  brought  against  the  president  of  a  court-martial  for  im- 
prisoning the  plaintiff  upon  an  alleged  charge  of  subornation  of  per- 
jury. The  jury  gave  £300  damages.  An  action  was  tried  in  1793  be- 
fore Mr.  Barron  Perrot,  at  the  spring  assizes  for  the  county  of  Devon, 
against  the  officers  of  the  Devon  militia,  for  inflicting  1,000  lashes  on 
the  plaintiff,  in  pursuance  of  their  sentence  pronounced  against  him  at  a 


INJ.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  357 

court-martial,  held  to  try  him  upon  a  charge  of  mutiny  ;  the  only  acto 
proved  being  that  the  plaintiff  had  written  a  letter  to  the  colonel  of  the 
regiment,  which  was  not  communicated  to  any  one  else,  telling  him  that 
the  men  of  the  regiment  were  discontented.  The  jury  gave  £500  dam- 
ages ;  and  the  case  is  quoted  with  approbation  by  Mr.  Justice  Heath, 
who  also  intimated,  that  if  the  plaintiff  had  died  under  the  punishment, 
all  the  members  of  the  court-martial  would  have  been  liable  to  be  hanged 
for  murder.  There  was  also  another  case  of  an  action  against  Captain 
Touyn,  a  naval  officer,  in  which  the  plaintiff  recovered  damages  for  the 
infliction  of  several  dozen  lashes  without  a  court-martial,  for  a  single 
offence,  thereby  exceeding  the  custom  which  had  prevailed  in  the  navy, 
that  commanding  officers  might  inflict  one  dozen  lashes  (called  a  start- 
ing) without  a  court-martial.  No  action,  however,  will  lie  for  merely 
bringing  a  man  to  a  court-martial,  nor  for  the  previous  arrest  or  sus- 
pension ;  such  acts  being  clearly  within  the  limits  of  military  author- 
ity, and  exercisable,  like  all  other  such  powers,  in  a  discretionary  man- 
ner, under  the  safeguards  and  at  the  risks  provided  by  the  Articles  of 
War.  A  commanding  officer  has,  of  necessity,  a  discretionary  power  to 
arrest,  suspend,  and  bring  to  trial  by  court-martial,  any  person  under 
his  orders.  But  though  this  power  is  indispensable,  and  its  limits  can- 
not, like  those  of  the  power  of  punishment,  be  exceeded  in  point  of 
extent,  it  may,  nevertheless,  be  oppressively,  or  improperly  used ;  and 
therefore,  by  the  Articles  of  War,  such  conduct  is  of  itself  a  distinct 
military  offence,  triable  by  a  military-  jurisdiction.  This  was  the  opin- 
ion of  the  Judges  of  the  Exchequer  Chamber,  in  the  case  of  Sutton  v. 
Johnstone,  and  it  seems  also  to  be  a  just  inference  from  the  judgment  in 
the  same  case,  that  when  an  officer  is  expressly  charged  and  found  guilty 
before  a  court-martial,  of  having  improperly  brought  another  to  trial 
before  a  similar  tribunal,  an  action  is  sustainable  for  the  special  damage 
resulting  from  the  offence  ;  but  that,  until  the  officer  procuring  the  first 
trial  has  been  found  guilty  of  improper  conduct  by  a  court-martial,  a 
court  of  law  cannot  interfere  ;  no  civil  tribunal  being  capable  of  appre- 
ciating, with  sufficient  delicacy,  the  circumstances  which  attend  the  ex- 
ercise of  military  power,  or  of  accurately  discriminating  the  grounds  of 
its  application.  Want  of  probable  cause  for  the  accusation  is  the  only 
basis  on  which  an  action  for  a  malicious  prosecution  before  a  court- 
martial  can  rest ;  and  when  that  is  shown,  malice  will  be  inferred  by 
the  law.  An  acquittal,  however,  by  the  court-martial,  of  the  party  who 
brings  the  action,  is  not  conclusive  as  to  the  want  of  probable  cause. 
At  the  same  time,  such  an  acquittal  is  an  essential  preliminary  to  the 
action,  for  though  the  accuser  may  have  been  actuated  by  the  most  clear 


358  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [!NJ. 

0and  undisguised  malice,  yet  if  he  substantiates  his  original  charge  to  the 
satisfaction  of  a  court-martial,  the  accused  has  no  locus  standi  in  a  civil 
court,  even  upon  the  fullest  evidence  of  his  prosecutor's  malice,  it  being 
impossible  to  say  that  there  was  a  want  of  probable  cause,  after  a 
court-martial  has  adjudged  that  there  was  a  positive  cause.  Innocence 
and  uprightness  of  intention  will  therefore,  on  the  one  hand,  be  no  de- 
fence to  an  action  of  this  nature,  when  there  appears  to  have  been  a 
want  of  probable  cause  for  the  prosecution  before  the  court-martial ; 
while,  on  the  other  hand,  the  most  malicious,  or  even  corrupt  intention, 
will  not  subject  the  accuser  to  a  civil  action,  where  he  succeeds  in  estab- 
lishing the  criminal  charge  before  the  military  tribunal.  A  wrongful 
imprisonment  being,  in  the  language  of  the  law,  a  tort,  savoring  of  crime, 
it  is  held  that  if  two  commit  a  tort,  and  the  plaintiff  recovers  against 
one,  he  cannot  recover  against  the  other  for  the  same  tort.  This  rule 
was  applied  in  the  above-mentioned  case  of  Warden  v.  Daily,  where  an- 
other action  was  brought  against  the  colonel  of  the  Bedford  militia  for 
the  same  transaction,  and  the  court  held  that  the  imprisonment  inflicted 
by  the  defendant,  the  adjutant,  terminated  on  the  plaintiff  being  brought 
up  before  the  colonel  on  the  third  day,  and  being  then  remanded  by 
him,  so  that  the  adjutant  was  held  not  liable  for  more  than  the  first 
three  days'  imprisonment,  and  the  colonel  not  liable,  except  from  the 
time  of  the  commencement  of  the  remand  ordered  by  himself.  It  should 
be  observed,  however,  that  no  civil  action  will  lie,  in  the  first  instance, 
against  a  commissioned  officer  for  a  discretionary  exercise  of  military 
authority  while  in  the  performance  of  actual  duty  in  the  field  in  time  of 
war.  Where  a  discretionary  power  is  clearly  vested  by  military  usage 
in  the  officer  whose  conduct  is  impeached,  questions  as  to  the  exercise 
of  such  authority  are  so  essentially  military,  that  the  civil  tribunals  de- 
cline to  consider  them  without  the  previous  judgment  of  a  court-mar- 
tial. This  was  settled  in  the  case  of  Barwis  v.  Kcppel,  in  which  the 
plaintiff  was  a  sergeant  in  the  second  battalion  of  the  first  regiment  of 
foot  guards.  The  defendant,  Colonel  Keppel,  was  the  second  major  of 
that  battalion ;  and  in  the  absence  of  his  superior  officers  he  had  the 
command  of  it.  In  1760,  the  battalion  was  ordered  to  Germany,  under 
the  command  of  the  defendant,  to  form  part  of  the  king's  forces  serving 
under  Prince  Ferdinand.  In  September,  17G1,  the  prince,  being  in 
hourly  expectation  of  a  battle,  issued  an  order  that  all  deserters  from 
the  enemy  should  be  immediately  sent  to  head-quarters  without  a 
moment's  delay.  The  plaintiff  had  full  notice  of  this  order  ;  and  three 
French  deserters  having  surrendered  to  him,  he  detained  them  six  hours 
without  bringing  them  to  head-quarters  or  reporting  their  arrival.  For 


INJ.J  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  35;) 

this  neglect  of  orders  the  plaintiff  was  tried  by  court-martial,  and  sen- 
tenced to  be  suspended  from  his  rank  of  sergeant  for  a  month,  and  to  do 
the  duty  and  receive  the  pay  of  a  private  soldier  during  the  same  time. 
On  the  sentence  being  reported  to  Colonel  Keppel,  he  did  not  confirm 
it,  but  made  an  order  at  the  foot  of  the  sentence  in  the  following  terms : — 
"  But,  as  Sergeant  Bar w is  could  not  be  ignorant  of  the  duke's  order 
concerning  deserters,  and  Colonel  Keppel  thinking  his  neglect  might 
have  been  attended  with  the  utmost  bad  consequences,  orders  that  he  be 
broke,  and  that  Corporal  Billow  be  appointed  sergeant  in  his  room." 
This  order  was  carried  into  execution,  and  the  plaintiff  served  accord- 
ingly as  a  private  until  his  battalion  returned  to  England.  Colonel 
Keppel  was  appointed,  in  1762,  to  command  an  expedition  against  the 
Ilavannah ;  and,  on  his  return  to  England,  Barwis  brought  an  action 
against  him  for  maliciously  and  improperly  reducing  him  (Barwis)  to 
the  ranks.  A  verdict  was  found  for  the  plaintiff,  with  £70  damages, 
subject  to  the  opinion  of  the  Court  of  Common  Pleas,  upon  the  question, 
whether  the  action  was  maintainable.  The  court  held,  that  as  Jhe  whole 
matter  took  place  abroad,  and  in  the  field,  in  open  war,  the  conduct  of 
the  defendant,  Colonel  Keppel,  could  not  be  tried  in  a  civil  court.  Per 
curiam :  "  By  the  Act  of  Parliament  to  punish  mutiny  and  desertion, 
the  king's  power  to  make  articles  of  war  is  confined  to  his  own  domin- 
ions. When  his  army  is  out  of  his  dominions,  he  acts  by  virtue  of  his 
prerogative,  and  without  the  Statute  or  Articles  of  War,  and,  therefore, 
you  cannot  argue  upon  either  of  them,  for  they  are  both  to  be  laid  out 
of  this  case  ;  and,  flagrante  bello,  the  common  law  has  never  interfered 
with  the  army  ;  silent  leges  inter  arma.  We  think  (as  at  present  ad- 
vised) that  we  have  no  jurisdiction  at  all  in  this  case  ;  but  if  the  plain- 
tiff's counsel  think  proper  to  speak  more  fully  to  this  matter,  we  are 
willing  to  hear  him."  The  report  contains  the  following  memoran- 
dum : — "But  plaintiff,  seeing  the  opinion  of  the  court  against  him, 
acquiesced,  and  the  judgment  was  for  the  defendant,  ut  audivi." 

It  was  intimated,  however,  by  the  two  Chief-Justices,  Ltffd  Mans- 
field and  Lord  Loughborough,  on  a  subsequent  occasion,  that  if  the  con- 
duct of  Colonel  Keppel  had  been  previously  condemned  by  a  court- 
martial,  an  action  at  law  would  have  been  maintainable  against  him, 
although  the  transaction  in  question  took  place  in  the  field,  and  in  open 
war. 

Again,  with  respect  to  the  exercise  of  military  power  by  command- 
ing officers  in  the  execution  of  actual  service,  and  the  right  of  action 
against  them  on  such  grounds,  the  following  observations  fell  from  the 
court  in  Sutton  v.  Johnstone  :  "  Commanders,  in  a  day  of  battle,  must 


860  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [!NJ. 

act  upon  delicate  suspicions  ;  upon  the  evidence  of  their  own  eye  ;  they 
must  give  desperate  commands ;  they  must  require  instantaneous 
obedience.  In  case  of  a  general  misbehavior,  they  may  be  forced  to 
suspend  several  officers,  and  put  others  in  their  places.  A 'military 
tribunal  is  capable  of  feeling  all  these  circumstances,  and  understand- 
ing that  the  first,  second,  and  third  part  of  a  soldier's  duty  is  obedience. 
But  what  condition  will  a  commander  be  in,  if  upon  the  exercising  of 
his  authority  he  is  liable  to  be  tried  by  a  common-law  judicature?  .  . 
Not  knowing  the  law,  or  the  rules  of  evidence,  no  command- 
ing or  superior  officer  will  dare  to  act ;  their  inferiors  will  insult  and 

threaten  them Upon  an  unsuccessful  battle,  there  are  mutual 

recriminations,  mutual  charges,  and  mutual  trials Party  pre- 
judices mix.  If  every  trial  is  to  be  followed  by  an  action,  it  is  easy 
to  see  how  endless  the  confusion,  how  infinite  the  mischief  must  be. 
The  person  unj  ustly  accused  is  not  without  his  remedy.  He  has  the 
properest  among  military  men.  Reparation  is  done  to  him  by  an  ac- 
quittal;  and  he  who  accused  him  unjustly  is  blasted  forever,  and  dis- 
missed the  service.  These  considerations  induce  us  to  turn  against 
introducing  this  action." 

It  may  be  gathered,  also,  from  the  case  of  Sutton  v.  Johnstone, 
which  was  an  action  between  naval  officers,  that,  unless  a  court-martial 
shall  first  expressly  decide  that  it  was  physically  impossible  for  an 
officer  to  execute  the  orders  delivered  to  him  in  the  field  or  on  actual 
duty,  he  has  no  right  of  action  against  his  commanding  officer  for  bring- 
ing him  to  a  court-martial  on  a  charge  of  disobedience  to  those  orders, 
even  though  the  court-martial  may  have  acquitted  him  of  misconduct. 

Delay  in  bringing  an  officer  to  a  court-martial,  after  he  has  been 
put  under  arrest,  is  also  no  ground  of  action  agai/ist  the  officer  or- 
dering the  arrest ;  this  being  a  point  of  purely  military  conduct  and 
authority,  of  which  a  court-martial  alone  can  properly  judge.  But  if 
a  court-martial  should  condemn  the  commanding  officer's  conduct  on 
such  an  Occasion,  an  action  against  him  would  probably  lie.  Captain 
Sutton,  of  II.  M.  S.  IsiSj  brought  an  action  against  Commodore  John- 
stone,  for  maliciously  bringing  him  to  a  court-martial  on  charges  of 
disobedience  to  orders  during  an  engagement  with  a  French  force  in 
1781.  It  appeared  that  Captain  Sutton,  after  his  arrest  at  the  close  of 
the  engagement,  was  carried  with  the  squadron  to  India,  where  he  was 
detained  in  arrest  for  two  years,  during  a  lengthened  cruise  and  various 
naval  operations,  before  he  was  eventually  sent  to  England  by  Ad- 
miral Sir  Richard  Hughes,  to  be  tried.  His  trial  was  thus  delayed  for 
two  years  and  a  half;  and  great  stress  was  laid  on  these  circumstances, 


INJ.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  3G1 

as  an  unnecessary  aggravation  of  his  arrest.  But  the  court  said  :  "  The 
delay  is  charged  to  be  contrary  to  the  defendant's  duty  as  commander- 
in-chief.  There  is  no  rule  of  the  common  or  statute  law  applicable  to 
this  case.  It  is  a  mere  military  offence.  It  is  the  abuse  of  a  mili- 
tary discretionary  power ;  and  the  defendant  has  not  been  tried  for  it 
by  court-martial.  A  court  of  common  law  cannot  in  such  a  case  assume 
an  original  jurisdiction.  It  is  like  the  case  of  Barwis  v.  Keppel ;  this 
objection  we  think  fatal." 

But,  although  questions  regarding  the  use  or  abuse  of  military  dis- 
cipline can  thus  in  some  instances  be  discussed  in  the  civil  courts,  the 
learned  judges  of  those  tribunals  have  deprecated  the  resort  to  such 
proceedings  in  ordinary  circumstances  ;  and  in  Warden  v.  Bailey, 
where  the  court  entertained  the  case,  and  ordered  a  new  trial,  the  Chief- 
Justice,  Sir  James  Mansfield,  said,  "  I  must  express  the  strongest  wish 
that  the  cause  will  not  be  again  tried,  for  all  disputes  respecting,  the 
extent  of  military  discipline  are  greatly  to  be  deprecated,  especially 
in  time  of  war ;  they  are  of  the  worst  consequence,  and  such  as  no 
good  subject  will  wish  to  see  discussed  in  a  civil  action ;  they  ought 
only  to  be  the  subject  of  arrangement  among  military  men."  In  the 
case  which  gave  rise  to  the  foregoing  observations,  the  learned  judges 
allowed  that  a  considerable  amount  of  unnecessary  violence  and  indig- 
nity had  taken  place. 

A  recent  case  of  Walton  v.  Major  Gavin  of  the  IGth  Lancers,  for 
alleged  false  imprisonment,  gave  rise  to  a  very  important  question  with 
reference  to  the  Article  of  War  which  directs  that  no  officer  command- 
ing a  guard,  or  provost-marshal,  shall  refuse  to  receive  or  keep  any 
prisoner  committed  to  his  charge  by  any  officer  or  non-commissioned 
officer  belonging  to  the  queen's  forces,  which  officer  or  non-commis- 
sioned officer  shall,  at  the  same  time,  deliver  an  account  in  writing 
signed  by  himself,  of  the  crime  with  which  the  prisoner  is  charged. 
And,  after  very  elaborate  argument,  it  was  held  by  Lord  Campbell, 
C.  J.,  and  Mr.  Justice  Coleridge  and  Mr.  Justice  Wightman,  (Erie,  J. 
dissenting,)  that  a  commanding  officer,  receiving  into  his  custody  a  per- 
son subject  to  military  law  and  accused  of  desertion  by  a  non-commis- 
sioned officer  who  signed  the  charge,  was  justified  in  detaining  the  prisoner, 
notwithstanding  any  irregularity  in  the  proceedings  antecedent  to  his 
own  reception  of  the  prisoner,  and  was  not  bound  to  inquire  into  the 
legality  of  such  proceedings.  Judgment  was  therefore  given  for  the 
defendant.  The  principle  appears  to  be  the  same  which  is  applied  to 
the  governor  or  keeper  of  any  ordinary  prison,  who  on  receiving  a 
prisoner  with  a  warrant,  regular  in  point  of  form,  for  his  detention,  is 


362  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [Iw. 

justified  in  receiving  him  without  inquiring  whether  the  magistrate 
who  signs  the  warrant  is  duly  qualified  to  act  as  a  justice,  or  whether 
in  a  poaching  case  the  bird  mentioned  in  the  warrant,  as  the  corpus  de- 
licti, was  properly  designated  a  partridge. 

Negligence  in  the  use  of  military  arms  or  weapons  is  also  a  good 
cause  of  action.  In  Weaver  v.  Ward,  the  case  wras,  that  the  plaintiff 
and  defendant  were  Iboth  soldiers  of  the  trained  bands  of  London. 
While  Ward's  band  was  skirmishing,  byway  of  military  exercise,  with 
their  muskets  charged  with  powder,  against  another  train-band  to  which 
Weaver  belonged,  Ward's  musket  was  discharged  in  such  a  manner  as 
to  wound  the  plaintiff,  who  thereupon  brought  an  action  of  trespass 
against  Ward.  The  defence  made  by  Ward  was,  that  ho  was  in 
training  by  order  of  the  Lords  of  the  Council,  and  skirmishing  in. 
obedience  to  military  command,  and  that  the  injury  happened  casually, 
by  misfortune,  and  against  his  will.  But  this  was  decided  not  to  be 
enough.  Per  curiam  :  "  No  man  shall  be  excused  of  a  trespass  except 
it  may  be  judged  utterly  without  his  fault.  As  if  a  man  by  force  take 
my  hand  and  strike  you,  or  if  here  the  defendant  had  said  that  the 
plaintiff  ran  across  his  piece  when  it  was  discharging,  or  had  set  forth 
the  case  with  the  circumstances,  so  as  that  it  had  appeared  to  the  court 
that  it  had  been  inevitable,  and  that  the  defendant  had  committed  no 
negligence  to  give  occasion  to  the  hurt." 

As  a  general  rule,  all  language  traducing  or  defaming  a  man  in  the 
way  of  his  profession  or  calling  is  actionable,  as  it  tends  to  his  pecu- 
niary damage  or  loss. 

The  communication  to  the  Judge-advocate  General,  by  the  pres- 
ident of  a  court-martial,  of  their  opinion,  in  the  form  of  a  censure,  re- 
specting the  prosecutor's  charges,  and  his  conduct  in  preferring  them, 
is  not  a  libel,  and  cannot  be  made  the  subject  of  an  action  at  law.  This 
point  was  decided  in  1806,  in  the  case  of  Jekyll  v.  Moore.  Captain 
Jekyll,  of  the  43d  regiment,  had  preferred  certain  charges  against  Col- 
onel Stewart  of  the  same  regiment,  who  was  accordingly  tried  by  a 
general  court-martial,  of  which  Sir  John  Moore  was  president.  The 
judgment  of  the  court  was,  that  "  the  court  do  most  fully  and  most 
honorably  acquit  him  :  "  but  to  this  sentence  the  following  remarks 
were  subjoined  :  "  The  court  cannot  pass  without  observation  the  mali- 
cious and  groundless  accusations  that  have  been  produced  by  Captain 
Jekyll  against  an  officer  whose  character  has,  during  a  long  period  of " 
service,  been  so  irreproachable  as  Colonel  Stewart's ;  and  the  court  do 
unanimously  declare  that  the  conduct  of  Captain  Jekyll,  in  endeavoring 
falsely  to  calumniate  the  character  of  his  commanding  officer,  is  most 


INJ.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  333 

highly  injurious  to  the  good  of  the  service."  Captain  Jekyll  contended 
that  the  foregoing  passage  formed  no  part  of  the  matter  submitted  to 
the  judgment  of  the  court,  and  was,  therefore,  a  libel  on  him.  He  ac- 
cordingly brought  his  action  for  it  in  the  Court  of  Common  Pleas, 
against  Sir  John  Moore,  but  the  whole  court  was  of  opinion  that  no 
such  action  could  be  maintained.  Sir  James  Mansfield,  chief-justice : 
"  In  order  to  enable  the  court-martial  to  decide  upon  the  charges  sub- 
mitted by  the  king,  they  must  hear  all  the  evidence,  as  well  on  the  part 
of  the  prosecution  as  of  the  defence  ;  and  after  hearing  both  sides,  are 
to  declare  their  opinion  whether  there  be  any  ground  for  the  charges. 
If  it  appear  that  the  charges  are  absolutely  without  foundation,  is  the 
president  of  the  court-martial  to  remain  perfectly  silent  on  the  conduct 
of  the  prosecutor,  or  can  it  be  any  offence  for  him  to  state  that  the 
charge  is  groundless  and  malicious  1  It  seems  to  me  that  the  words 
complained  of  in  this  case  form  part  of  the  judgment  of  acquittal,  and 
consequently  no  action  can  be  maintained  upon  it." 

It  may  perhaps  be  fairly  inferred  from  the  foregoing  decision,  that 
if  a  court-martial  pass  a  censure  upon  the  prosecutor,  with  reference  to 
a  matter  which  is  not  expressly  connected  with  the  charge  under  trial 
before  such  court-martial,  or  with  the  proceedings  of  the  court,  the  case 
would  stand  upon  a  different  footing,  and  would  probably  be  held  ac- 
tionable on  the  principle  of  Mr.  Crawford's  case  already  noticed. 

Confidential  communications  from  the  members  of  a  military  court 
of  inquiry  to  the  superior  military  authorities  are  likewise  privileged, 
and  furnish  no  ground  of  action  to  the  officer  whose  conduct  is  impli- 
cated in  the  documents. 

Neither  is  the  promulgation  of  a  sentence  in  the  gazette  by  a  com- 
petent official  person  to  be  deemed  a  libel  on  the  officer  named  in  the 
paper.  In  1807  Lord  Win.  Bentinck,  governor  of  Madras,  issued  the 
following  public  order  :  "  The  Honorable  the  Court  of  Directors  having 
resolved  to  dismiss  Colonel  Oliver  of  this  establishment  from  the  ser- 
vice of  the  Honorable  Company,  for  gross  violation  of  the  trust  reposed 
in  him  as  Commanding  Officer  of  the  Molucca  Islands,  the  Right  Hon- 
orable the  Governor  in  Council  directs  that  the  name  of  Colonel  Oliver 
be  erased  from  the  Army  List  of  this  Presidency,  from  the  20th  June 
last."  In  1811,  Colonel  Oliver  brought  an  action  at  Westminster 
against  Lord  William  Bentinck  for  the  publication  of  this  order,  on  the 
ground  of  its  containing  libellous  matter  injurious  to  the  plaintiff.  But 
the  Court  of  Common  Pleas  decided  it  to  be  no  libel.  Sir  James 
Mansfield,  chief-justice. :  "  How  should  an  officer  in  India  know  why 
he  was  dismissed,  if  the  reason  assigned  is  not  to  be  made  known  ?  If 


364  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [!NJ. 

the  Court  of  Directors  were  peremptorily  to  dismiss  him,  without 
assigning  a  reason,  that  would  be  a  greater  hardship  on  the  defendant. 
.  .  .  One  should  be  very  sorry  to  have  any  thing  like  a  judgment  in 
favor  of  a  plaintiff  in  such  an  action  as  this,  than  which  a  more  foolish 
or  a  more  mischievous  one  cannot  easily  be  imagined  ;  it  is  much  better 
for  the  Company,  for  the  country,  and  for  the  plaintiff  himself,  that  the 
cause  of  his  dismissal  should  be  stated,  than  that  it  should  be  supposed 
that  the  East  India  Company  did  it  suo  arbitrio" 

"  On  the  same  principle,  (says  Mr.  Justice  Heath,  in  the  same  case,) 
when  a  delinquent,  guilty  of  some  enormity,  has  been  brought  to  a 
court-martial,  the  commander-in-chief  is  not  chargeable  with  libel  for 
directing  the  sentence  to  be  read  at  the  head  of  every  regiment." 

It  is  decided  also,  that  any  communications  made  by  private  indi- 
viduals to  superior  officers,  for  the,  bona  fide  purpose  of  obtaining  re- 
dress of  grievances,  or  otherwise  invoking  the  exercise  of  authority  over 
other  officers,  will  be  deemed  privileged  communications,  and  no  libels. 

The  principle  of  the  law  on  this  subject,  was  declared  by  the  cflurt, 
in  Cutler  v.  Dixon,  to  be  this,  that,  "  if  actions  should  be  permitted  in 
such  cases,  those  who  have  just  cause  of  complaint,  would  not  dare  to 
complain  for  fear  of  infinite  vexation." 

But  w,here  the  author  of  a  written  communication  traducing  another 
person  in  his  professional  character  has  himself  no  interest  in  the  mat- 
ter, the  bona  fides  of  the  proceeding  will  be  no  defence  against  an  action. 
In  Harwood  v.  Green,  the  plaintiff  was  master  of  the  Jupiter  transport ; 
and  the  defendant,  a  lieutenant  in  the  navy  acting  as  government  agent 
on  board,  wrote  a  letter  to  the  secretary  at  Lloyd's,  imputing  to  Har- 
wood misconduct  and  incapacity  in  the  management  of  the  vessel.  In 
consequence  of  this  letter,  Harwood  brought  an  action  against  Lieuten- 
ant Green  for  a  libel.  Lieutenant  Green  defended  himself  on  the  ground 
that  his  letter  was  a  privileged  communication.  But  the  Lord  Chief- 
Justice  Best  declared  his  opinion  to  the  jury,  that  an  officer  in  the  navy 
had  not,  as  such,  the  right  to  make  any  communication  to  Lloyd's,  but 
only  to  the  government,  by  whom,  if  the  matter  were  important,  it 
might  be  again  communicated  to  Lloyd's  ;  and  the  jury  gave  Ilarwood 
a  verdict  with  £50  damages. 

It  may  be  useful  to  mention  here,  as  a  legal  point  giving  rights  of 
redress  between  military  men,  that  a  superior  officer  cannot  safely  deal 
for  his  own  advantage,  in  money  matters,  with  a  junior  officer  under 
his  command.  The  influence  which  a  senior  officer  can  exercise  over 
his  junior  is  such  as  to  destroy,  or  at  least  to  control,  in  the  purview 
of  a  Court  of  Equity,  that  entire  freedom  which  is  essential  to  the  per- 


INJ.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  365 

fection  of  a  bargain  or  contract ;  and  if  a  regimental  officer  places  him- 
self in  a  position  where  such  influence  may  operate  to  the  prejudice  of 
the  junior,  the  transactions  between  them  are  liable  to  be  set  aside  for 
want  of  fairness  or  conscientiousness.  This  is  the  rule  applied  to  deal- 
ings between  a  guardian  and  his  ward,  a  physician  and  his  patient,  a 
landlord  and  his  steward,  a  clergyman  and  a  penitent,  and  all  other 
cases  wrhere  the  existence  of  a  just  and  unavoidable  influence  may  lead 
to  abuse. 

II.  Wrongs  towards  Persons  not  under  Military  Authority. — Injuries 
may  be  occasioned  to  persons  not  subject  to  military  authority,  by 
officers  mistaking  or  exceeding  their  powers,  or  exercising  them  with 
malice,  negligence,  or  unskilfulness  ;  but  for  acts  of  this  kind  a  remedy 
lies  only  in  the  civil  courts  ;  the  military  tribunals,  as  already  observed, 
having  no  power  to  grant  pecuniary  compensation  by  way  of  damages, 
and  non-military  persons  having  no  locus  standi  as  prosecutors  before 
such  courts,  which  are  instituted  solely  for  the  maintenance  of  order  and 
discipline  among  the  armed  forces. 

In  cases  of  the  kind  now  under  consideration,  it  is  quite  immaterial 
whether  the  cause  of  action  has  arisen  within  the  realm,  or  beyond  the 
seas  ;  though  this  proposition  was  not  finally  established  until  the  year 
1774,  when  the  great  case  of  Fabrigas  v.  Mostyn  was  determined  in  the 
Court  of  King's  Bench,  and  put  an  end  to  all  further  question  or  doubt 
upon  the  subject.  The  plaintiff  was  a  native  of  Minorca,  of  which  island 
the  defendant,  General  Mostyn,  was  governor.  The  general  had  by  his 
own  absolute  authority  imprisoned  the  plaintiff*  and  banished  him  from 
the  island  without  a  trial.  The  defence  was,  that  in  the  peculiar  district 
of  Minorca,  where  the  offence  occurred,  no  ordinary  court  or  magistrate 
had  jurisdiction.  But  the  proof  of  this  defence  failed,  and  the  jury  gave 
the  plaintiff  £3,000  damages.  The  objection,  however,  was  taken  that 
the  action  did  not  lie,  by  reason  of  the  foreign  locality  of  the  cause  of 
it,  and  the  point  was  twice  argued  at  great  length  ;  but  judgment  was 
eventually  pronounced  against  General  Mostyn,  in  accordance  with  the 
verdict  of  the  jury.  It  should  be  noticed  also  that,  as  General  Mostyn 
happened  to  be  a  governor,  his  appointment  gave  him  the  character  of 
a  viceroy,  so  that  locally  and  during  his  government  no  civil  or  criminal 
action  lay  against  him.  On  principles  of  public  justice,  therefore,  it 
was  necessary  that  a  remedy  should  be  had  in  England. 

The  undue  ajpumption  or  mistaken  exercise  of  authority  by  officers 
towards  non-military  persons,  is  a  clear  ground  of  action  against  them 
in  the  civil  courts,  even  though  there  be  no  malice  accompanying  the 
transaction. 


366  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [!NJ. 

Captain  Gambler,  of  the  navy,  under  the  orders  of  Admiral  Bos- 
cawen,  pulled  down  the  houses  of  some  sutlers  on  the  coast  of  Nova 
Scotia,  who  supplied  the  seamen  of  the  fleot  with  spirituous  liquors. 
The  act  was  done  with  a  good  intention  on  the  part  of  the  admiral ;  for 
the  health  of  the  sailors  had  been  affected  by  frequenting  these  houses. 
Captain  Gambier,  on  his  return  to  England,  incautiously  brought  home 
in  his  ship  one  of  the  sutlers  whose  houses  had  been  thus  demolished. 
The  man  would  never  otherwise  have  got  to  England  ;  but  on  his  ar- 
rival he  was  advised  to  bring  an  action  against  Captain  Gambier.  He. 
did  so,  and  recovered  £1,000  damages.  But  as  the  captain  had  acted 
by  the  orders  of  Admiral  Boscawen,  the  representatives  of  the  admiral 
defended  the  action,  and  paid  the  damages  and  costs.  This  was  a  favor- 
able case,  unaccompanied  by  any  malicious  feeling ;  but  the  parties  con- 
cerned did  not  attempt  to  disturb  the  verdict. 

Admiral  Sir  Hugh  Palliser  was  defendant  in  a  similar  action  for 
destroying  fishing  huts  on  the  Labrador  coast.  After  the  treaty  of 
Paris,  the  Canadians,  early  in  the  season,  erected  huts  for  fishing,  and 
by  such  means  obtained  an  advantage  over  the  fishermen  who  came 
from  England.  It  was  a  nice  question  upon  the  rights  of  the  Canadians. 
But  the  admiral,  on  grounds  of  public  policy,  ordered  the  huts  to  be 
destroyed.  An  action  was  brought  against  him  in  England  by  one  of 
the  injured  parties,  and  the  case  ended  in  arbitration.  But  on  the  part 
of  the  admiral  it  was  never  contended  that  the  action  did  not  lie  by 
reason  of  the  subject-matter  of  it  having  occurred  beyond  the  seas. 

"  I  remember,"  said  Lord  Mansfield,  "  early  in  my  time  being  coun- 
sel in  an  action  brought  by  a  carpenter  in  the  train  of  artillery  against 
Governor  Sabine,  who  was  governor  of  Gibraltar,  and  who  had  barely 
confirmed  the  sentence  of  a  court-martial,  by  which  the  plaintiff  had 
been  tried  and  sentenced  to  be  whipped.  The  governor  was  very  ably 
defended,  but  nobody  ever  thought  that  the  action  would  not  lie ;  and  it 
being  proved  that  the  tradesmen  who  followed  the  train  were  not  liable 
to  martial  law,  the  court  were  of  that  opinion,  and  the  jury  found  the 
defendant  guilty  of  the  trespass,  as  having  had  a  share  in  the  sentence, 
and  gave  £700  damages." 

The  following  case,  involving  the  same  principle,  occurred  in  India, 
and  was  there  tried  before  the  Supreme  Court  of  Madras.  Mr.  H. 
Smith  was  agent,  at  Secunderabad,  of  a  mercantile  house  at  Madras, 
from  whom  he  received  a  very  handsome  salary.  He  Jpcame  indebted 
to  a  soldier  of  II.  M.'s  33d  regiment  for  some  work  intrusted  to  him, 
and  a  dispute  having  arisen  between  them  as  to  the  amount,  this  led  to 
a  violent  altercation  between  Mr.  Smith  and  the  superintendent  of  the 


LNJ.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  367 

bazaar  acting  under  local  military  regulations.  Lieutenant-colonel  Gore 
thereupon  sent  a  file  of  men  to  arrest  the  plaintiff,  who  was  accordingly 
seized  about  six  o'clock  in  the  evening,  and  marched  from-  his  house 
through  the  streets  of  the  cantonment  to  the  main  guard  at  Secundera- 
bad,  where  he  was  kept  till  twelve  o'clock  the  next  day.  In  conse- 
quence of  these  proceedings,  he  brought  an  action  against  Colonel  Gore 
for  false  imprisonment.  Secunderabad  was  an  open  cantonment  for  a 
part  of  the  subsidiary  force  serving  in  the  territories  of  the  Nizam  ;  the 
force  consisting  partly  of  British  and  partly  of  native  troops.  It  had 
barracks,  and  the  men  were  hutted.  It  was  also  upon  a  field  establish- 
ment, constantly  ready  for  immediate  service.  The  Article  of  War 
then  in  force,  being  the  22d  in  the  llth  section  of  the  Statute  27  Geo. 
II.,  was  thus  intituled,  "  Of  duties  in  quarters,  in  garrison,  and  in  the 
field ;  "  and  it  enacted,  "  that  all  sutlers  and  retainers  to  the  camp,  and 
all  persons  whatsoever  serving  with  forces  in  the  field,  though  not  en- 
listed soldiers,  are  to  be  subject  to  orders,  according  to  the  rules  and 
discipline  of  war."  Sir  Thomas  Strange,  C.  J. :  "  The  question  was, 
whether  the  troops,  being  cantoned,  were  in  the  state  to  which  the  cited 
Articles  of  War  applied.  The  court  thought  they  were  not.  It  might 
have  been  a  field  force,  being  upon  a  field  establishment,  so  as  to  be 
ready  to  move  at  the  shortest  notice.  There  might  be  great  similarity 
in  the  arrangements  adopted  for  an  army,  whether  in  the  field  or  can- 
toned. A  respectable  witness,  Brigade-major  Lyne,  intimated  as  much. 
Still,  so  far  as  the  court  could  form  a  judgment  upon  a  question  of  this 
nature,  there  seemed  to  be  a  difference  between  a  camp  and  a  canton- 
ment, which  appeared  material When  in  the  field,  not  only 

the  army,  but  its  appendages,  must  be  under  the  immediate  control  of 
the  officer  commanding  it,  according  to  the  rules  and  discipline  of  war. 
So  situated,  the  sutler,  who  chose  to  follow  the  camp,  identified  himself 
in  a  manner  with  the  soldier  for  every  purpose  almost  but  that  of  fight- 
ing  The  plaintiff  called  upon  the  court  to  say,  whether  the 

force  in  question,  under  the  command  of  the  defendant,  was  at  the  time 
in  the  field.  It  seemed  impossible  to  say  that  it  was,  without  confound- 
ing ideas  apparently  very  distinct The  defendant  appeared  to 

have  acted  under  a  mistake  of  his  authority,  for  which  he  was  liable  to 
answer,  as  it  had  been  productive  of  serious  injury  to  the  plaintiff." 
Judgment  was  therefore  given  against  Colonel  Gore,  with  fifty  pagodas 
damages. 

In  the  foregoing  case  reference,  was  made  to  an  action  brought  by 
Mr.  Robert  Bailie,  an  up-country  trader  in  the  province  of  Bengal, 
against  Major-general  Robert  Stewart,  for  an  assault  and  false  imprison- 


368   •  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [!NJ. 

merit.  Mr.  Bailie  had  resided  within  the  cantonments  of  Cawnpore  for 
many  years,  and  dealt  in  European  articles,  which  he  principally  dis- 
posed of  to  the  military  stationed  there.  In  October,  1797,  upon  a 
complaint  made  to  him  by  one  of  the  people  of  his  Zenanah,  he  tied  up 
and  very  severely  flogged  one  of  his  chowkydars.  For  this  act  Major- 
general  Stewart  ordered  Mr.  Bailie  to  be  tried  by  court-martial ;  and 
as  he  acknowledged  to  have  used  no  less  than  six  switch  whips  in  the 
flogging,  alleging  as  his  reason,  that  as  they  were  new  whips,  he  was 
afraid  of  breaking  them  and  spoiling  their  sale,  the  court-martial  sen- 
tenced him  to  five  days'  imprisonment,  and  to  make  an  apology  to  the 
commanding  officer.  This  sentence  General  Stewart,  though  he  did  not 
approve  of  it,  confirmed ;  and  issued  orders  for  Mr.  Bailie  to  depart  the 
camp  as  soon  after  his  enlargement  as  possible.  The  Supreme  Court 
of  Calcutta  held  Mr.  Bailie  to  be  a  sutler  within  the  meaning  of  the  Ar- 
ticles of  War,  so  as  to  render  him  amenable  to  military  law.  But  in 
the  above-mentioned  action  of  Smith  v.  Lieut.-col.  Gore,  the  chief-justice, 
Sir  T.  Strange,  declined  to  be  governed  by  the  decision  in  General 
Stewart's  case,  as  the  note  furnished  to  the  court  did  not  clearly  show 
whether  or  not  the  army  was  in  the  field  when  the  transaction  occurred. 

An  unreasonable  or  malicious  exercise  of  power  will,  in  like  manner, 
render  an  officer  liable  to  an  action  for  damages.  An  instance  of  this 
occurred  in  the  year  1783,  when  an  action  was  brought  against  General 
Murray,  governor  of  Minorca,  for  improperly  suspending  the  judge  of 
the  Vice-admiralty  Court  of  that  island.  The  general  had  professed 
himself  ready  to  restore  the  judge  on  his  making  a  particular  apology  ; 
and,  on  reference  to  the  home  authorities,  the  king  approved  of  the  sus- 
pension, unless  the  governor's  terms  were  complied  with.  There  was 
no  doubt  as  to  General  Murray's  power  to  suspend  the  judge  for  proper 
cause ;  yet,  on  the  proof  of  his  having  unreasonably  and  improperly 
exercised  the  authority,  and  notwithstanding  the  king's  approbation  of 
his  proceedings,  damages  to  the  amount  of  £5,000  were  awarded  against 
him  by  a  jury  ;  and,  as  Mr.  Baron  Eyre  observed,  it  never  occurred  to 
any  lawyer  that  there  was  any  pretence  for  questioning  the  verdict. 

Negligence  or  unskilfulness  in  the  exercise  of  an  officer's  duty  may 
also  be  a  cause  of  action  for  damages  in  respect  of  private  injuries  thus 
occasioned ;  and  in  such  cases  the  approval  of  an  officer's  conduct  by 
the  government,  or  by  the  superior  military  authorities,  will  neither 
relieve  him  from  liability  to  an  action,  nor  have  any  influence  upon  the 
decision  of  the  courts  of  Westminster  Hall.  Those  tribunals  investigate 
such  matters  on  independent  evidence,  according  to  their  own  rules,  and 
pay  no  regard  to  the  previous  conclusions  of  official  functionaries,  how- 
ever high  their  rank  may  be. 
I 


INS.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY. 


vv , 

<^>  - y  > 

It  is  a  rule  of  English  law,  in  unison  with  the  law  of  na*t*6tis,  ty   &  * 
which  all  civilized  states  are  governed,  that  no  officer  engaged  in  fmU- 
tary  operations  in  his  country's  cause,  by  the  order  or  with  the  sanction*  */ 
of  the  constituted  authorities,  shall  incur  any  individual  or  private  re-    "^/ 
sponsibility  for  acts  done  by  virtue  of  his  commission  or  official  instruc- 
tions.    Such  transactions  being  of  a  public  nature,  redress  or  satisfac- 
tion j|r  injuries  to  which  they  give  birth,  is  to  be  sought  by  public 
means  alone,  from  the  sovereign  power  of  the  belligerent  or  offending 
state,  accord  ing 'to  the  principles  of  international  law,  and  the  general 
usages  of  civilization,  which  never  suffer  such  matters  to  be  litigated 
before  ordinary  tribunals. 

If,  in  time  of  peace,  the  citizens  of  a  friendly  foreign  state  sustain  a 
private  injury  at  the  hands  of  a  naval  or  military  officer  serving  under 
the  orders  of  the  British  government,  but  unauthorized  by  his  commis- 
sion or  instructions  to  do  the  act  complained  of,  the  ordinary  tribunals 
of  England  afford  the  same  redress  against  him  as  in  the  case  of  a  Brit- 
ish subject  similarly  aggrieved;  and  this  rule  applies  even  in  those 
cases  where  the  violated  rights  of  the  foreigner  are  such  as  the  law  of 
England  denies  or  prohibits  to  its  own  subjects. 

But  if  the  British  government  have  expressly  instructed  the  officer 
to  commit  the  act  which  constitutes  or  gives  occasion  to  the  grievance, 
the  matter  becomes  an  affair  of  state  which  is  not  cognizable  by  the 
courts  of  law,  and  must  be  adjusted  by  diplomatic  arrangement  be- 
tween the  two  governments  concerned.  In  such  cases  also  it  is  quita 
sufficient,  if  the  officer's  proceedings,  though  not  originally  directed  or 
authorized  by  the  terms  of  his  instructions,  are  afterward  sanctioned 
and  adopted  by  the  government ;  for  this  renders  them  public  acts,  over 
which  courts  of  law  have  no  jurisdiction.  (Consult  PREXDERGAST'S 
Law  relating  to  Officers  of  the  Army.) 

INJURING  PRIVATE  PROPERTY.     (See  WASTE  or  SpJL) 

INLYING  PICKET.  A  body  of  infantry  or  cavalry  in  cam- 
paign, detailed  to  march,  if  called  upon,  and  held  ready  for  that  purpose 
In  camp  or  quarters. 

INSPECTORS-GENERAL.  There  are  two  inspectors-general  of 
the  army  with  the  rank  of  colonel.  Assistant  adjutants-general  are  ex- 
officio  assistant  inspectors-general.  The  duties  of  inspectors-general  are 
prescribed  by  Army  Regulations.  In  the  French  army,  a  certain  num- 
ber of  general  officers  are  annually  designated  to  make  inspections,  and 
such  inspections  embrace  every  thing  relative  to  organization,  recruit- 
ing,  discharges,  administration,  accountability  for  money  and  property 
instruction,  police,  and  discipline  of  the  several  corps  of  the  army.  At 
24 


370  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [Iss. 

these  inspections  all  wrongs  are  redressed,  and  each  inspection  is  con- 
tinued from  eight  to  ten  days.  The  inspector  examines  and  studies  the 
condition  of  the  corps  under  arms,  as  well  as  off  parade  ;  he  receives  all 
applications  for  discharge,  and  for  the  retired  list.  He  notes  those 
who  merit  promotion,  rewards,  or  reprimands.  He  assembles  the 
council  of  administration,  and  verifies  their  accounts ;  visits  the  store- 
houses, quarters,  hospitals,  prisons ;  inspects  the  clothing,  arm^  &c., 
&c.,  and,  in  fine,  scrutinizes  every  thing  which  it  is  desirable  should  be 
known.  He  gives  his  orders  to  the  regiment  for  the  ensuing  year,  and 
makes  a  detailed  report  of  what  he  has  seen  and  done. 

INSURRECTION.  (See  CALLING  FORTH  MILITIA.)  It  will  be  ob- 
served that  whenever  the  President  of  the  United  States  is  authorized 
by  law  to  use  the  military  force  in  cases  of  insurrection  or  obstruction 
to  the  laws,  he  must  first,  by  proclamation,  have  commanded  the  in- 
surgents to  disperse  and  retire  peaceably  to  their  respective  abodes  with- 
in a  limited  time  ;  (Act  Feb.  28, 1795.  See  OBSTRUCTIONS  TO  THE  LAWS.) 

INTERIOR  FLANKING  ANGLE— is  formed  by  the  line  of  de- 
fence and  the  curtain. 

INTERIOR  SIDE— is  the  line  drawn  from  the  centre  of  one  bas- 
tion to  that  of  the  next,  or  the  line  of  the  curtain  produced,  to  the  two 
oblique  radii  of  the  front. 

INTRENCHED  CAMP.  A  position  is  so  called  when  occupied 
by  troops,  and  fortified  for  their  protection  during  the  operations  of 
a  campaign. 

INTRENCHMENT.  A  ditch  or  trench  with  a  parapet;  field- 
works.  In  permanent  fortification,  intrenchments  are  made  in  various 
parts  of  the  works  to  prolong  the  defence,  as  a  breast-work  and  ditch  at 
the  gorge  of  the  bastion,  &c. 

INUNDATION.  An  inundation  or  collection  of  water  is  produced 
by  forming  across  a  stream  one  or  more  dams. 

INVASION.  (See  CONSTITUTION  ;  CALLING  FORTH  MILITIA  ;  NA- 
TIONAL DEFENCE.) 

INVERSION.  In  case  a  column,  marching  right  in  front,  shall  be 
under  the  necessity  of  forming  into  line  faced  to  the  reverse  flank  by 
the  promptest  means,  the  command  is  given  :  Halt !  By  inversion  right 
into  line  wheel,  battalion  guide  right.  This  movement  will  give  an  or- 
der of  battle  with  the  left  company  occupying  the  right  of  the  battalion, 
and  the  right  the  left. 

Inversions  are  very  important  in  the  field,  and  they  oner  such  great 
advantages,  that  Bonaparte  strongly  advised  their  employment  in  many 
circumstances.  Our  tactics  admit  the  employment  of  inversions  in  the 


IRQ.]  «*>  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  371 

formations  to  the  right  and  left  in  line  of  battle,  and  also  in  the  successive 
formations,  except  in  that  of  faced  to  the  rear  into  line  of  battle.  When 
used,  the  first  command  always  begins,  By  inversion.  (See  INFANTRY.) 

INVEST.  To  take  the  initiatory  measures  to  besiege  a  town,  by  se- 
curing every  road  and  avenue  leading  to  it,  to  prevent  ingress  or  egress. 

IRON  PLATES.  In  the  experiments  made  against  the  "Un- 
daunted," at  Portsmouth,  the  following  results  were  obtained  : — Six 
wrought-iron  68-lb.  shot  were  fired  with  a  charge  of  16  Ibs.  at  200 
yards,  the  iron  plates  being  4|-  in.  thick  ;  four  of  these  shot  broke  the 
plates,  but  did  not  penetrate  the  timber ;  two  passed  entirely  through 
both  plates  and  timber.  Forty-three  cast-iron  68-lb.  shot  were  fired 
against  other  plates  of  similar  thickness.  Of  these,  four  passed  through 
the  plates  but  not  the  timber.  Nine  passed  through  both ;  but  there 
was  only  one  case  of  a  shot  taking  good  effect  after  striking  an  uninjured 
plate.  Thus  of  the  four  shots  that  passed  through  the  plates  without 
penetrating  the  timber,  only  one  went  through  a  plate  that  had  not  been 
previously  weakened. 

The  shot  that  penetrated  entirely  through  the  plates  and  the  timber 
had  all  passed  through  plates  previously  weakened.  No  penetration 
was  effected  by  red-hot  68-lb.  shot,  with  a  charge  of  10  Ibs.  The  3  and 
2£-in.  plates  were  all  penetrated  by  68-lb.  shot  and  shells. 

The  following  conclusions  have  been  drawn  from  experiments  : — 

1st.  That  thin  plates  of  wrought  iron  are  proof  against  any  shells; 
for,  though  the  shells  may  pass  through  the  plates,  they  will  be  in  a 
broken  state. 

2d.  That  being  proof  against  shells  will  avail  little,  unless  vessels 
are  likewise  proof  against  solid  shot ;  for  shells  would,  of  course,  not  be 
fired  against  ships  proof  against  them,  whereas  the  destructive  effects 
produced  by  fragments  of  shot  and  of  plates,  and  the  great  damage 
done  to  the  scantling  of  the  ship  by  solid  shot,  appear  more  like  the 
result  of  a  shell  than  of  a  shot. 

3d.  That  rifled  projectiles  produce  greater  effect  than  spherical  pro- 
jectiles of  the  same  weight  at  long  than  at  short  ranges,  on  account  of 
the  rifled  elongated  projectiles — the  resistance  to  which  is  a  minimum 
— retaining  more  of  their  initial  velocity  than  spherical  projectiles  at 
the  same  distance. 

4th.  That  the  thickness  of  plates  required  to  resist  shot  fired  from 
the  heaviest  nature  of  guns,  must  not  be  less  than  4£  in. 

5th.  That,  to  secure  the  resistance  of  the  plates  and  the  impenetrabil- 
ity of  the  sides  of  a  ship,  it  is  indispensable  that  the  plates  be  strongly 
backed  by  masses  of  the  strongest  and  most  resisting  timber,  as,  in  alJ 


372  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [JOL 

the  cases  to  which  reference  has  just  been  made,  it  appears  that  the 
plates  are  easily  broken  when  the  support  is  removed  from  behind 
them,  by  the  crushing,  fracturing,  and  damaging  effects  of  the  impacts 
of  the  shot  ;#  (Sir  HOWARD  DOUGLAS.) 

With  the  knowledge  of  these  data,  an  iron-clad  ship,  "  Le  Gloire," 
has  been  built  in  France,  carrying  38  rifled  50-pounders,  and  Trance, 
it  is  said,  will  soon  have  300  rifled  guns  in  such  vessels. 

In  England,  the  iron-clad  "  Warrior,"  420  feet  long  and  over  6,000 
tons'  burden,  has  been  built.  The  new  principle  introduced  in  England, 
of  inclining  the  iron-clad  sides  inwardly,  so  as  to  make  an  angle  with 
the  horizontal  of  from  35°  to  40°,  will  cause  the  shot  to  glance  off,  with 
little  injury  to  the  sides.  In  addition  to  this,  it  is  proposed  to  suppress 
the  port-holes,  and  place  the  guns  in  rotating  iron  cupolas,  from  which, 
by  a  rotatory  of  180°,  they  fire  over  the  bulwarks  on  either  broadside 
— the  gunners  being  perfectly  sheltered  under  these  shot-proof  covers  ; 
(BARNARD'S  Sea-coast  Defence.)  The  great  objection  to  such  an  ar- 
rangement is  its  unwieldiness,  and  the  opinion  of  distinguished  officers — 
that  iron  plates  are  only  practicable  for  floating  batteries,  gunboats, 
and  other  vessels  of  small  draft  of  water,  for  special  purposes,  may 
prove  the  better  opinion,  notwithstanding  the  great  outlay  made  by  the 
French  and  English  governments. 


JOISTS.  The  timbers  of  a  floor,  whereto  boards  or  lathing  for 
ceiling  are  nailed.  They  either  rest  on  the  wall  or  on  girders,  or  some- 
times on  both.  (See  CARPENTRY.) 

JOURNAL,  OR  ITINERARY.  Directions  for  keeping  the  journal  of  a 
march  west  of  the  Mississippi. — The  journal  should  be  kept  in  a  pocket 
note-book ;  or,  if  one  cannot  be  obtained,  in  a  book  made  of  sheets  of 
paper  folded  to  half  the  letter  size.  The  record  is  to  run  from  the  bottom 
to  the  top  of  each  page.  The  horizontal  divisions  in  the  column  headed 
"  Route"  represent  portions  of  a  day's  march.  The  distance,  in  miles, 
between  each  of  the  horizontal  divisions,  will  be  noted  in  the  column 
headed  "  Distance"  which  will  be  summed  up  at  the  top  of  each  column, 
and  the  sum  carried  to  the  bottom  of  the  next  column.  The  notes 
within  each  horizontal  division  are  to  show  the  general  directions  of 
the  march,  and  every  object  of  interest  observed  in  passing  over  the 
distance  represented  thereby ;  and  all  remarkable  features,  such  as 
hills,  streams  with  their  names,  fords,  springs,  houses,  villages,  forests, 
marshes,  &c.,  and  the  places  of  encampment,  will  be  sketched  in  their 
relative  positions.  The  "  Remarks "  corresponding  to  each  division 


Jou.] 


MILITARY  DICTIONARY. 


373 


will  be  upon  the  soil,  productions,  quantity  and  quality  of  timber,  grass, 
water,  fords,  nature  of  the  roads,  &c.,  and  important  incidents.  They 
should  show  where  provisions,  forage,  fuel,  and  water  can  be  obtained ; 
whether  the  streams  to  be  crossed  are  ford  able,  miry,  have  quicksands 
or  steep  banks, 'and  whether  they  overflow  their  banks  in  wet  seasons ; 
also  the  quality  of  the  water ;  and,  in  brief,  every  thing  of  practical  im- 
portance. When  a  detachment  leaves  the  main  column,  the  point  on 
the  "  Route  "  will  be  noted,  and  the  reason  given  in  the  Remarks.  The 
commander  of  the  detachment  will  be  furnished  with  a  copy  of  the 
journal  up  to  that  point,  and  will  continue  it  over  his  new  line  of  march. 

JOURNAL  of  the  march  of  [here  insert  the  names  of  the  regiments  or  companies  composing 

the  column,}  commanded  by ,  from  [here  insert  the  point  of  departure]  to  [the 

stopping  place,}  pursuant  to  [here  give  the  No.  and  date  of  order  for  the  march.} 


1 

Date. 

Hour.        Weather. 

Distance. 

Eoute. 

REMARKS. 

1860. 

Total,  19 

mm 

Road  rocky;  but  little 

grass  ;  good  water.  Plenty 
of  timber  on  summit  of 

July  8. 

0.  A.  M. 

hills,  extending  3  miles  ; 
road  to  right  of  hills. 

1  P.M. 

j* 

8 

^'"liX-    #*£*  timbered  Peak 

>  ff-^  A  Camp  No.  1. 

Good  shelter  for  camp 
at  foot  of  peak  ;  fuel  plen- 
ty.   Springs  of  sweet  wa- 

g 
F3 

Springs. 

ter,  with  good  grass  near. 
Road  to  this  point  rather 

T 

more  sandy. 

10. 

w 

3 

§. 

Road   runs   through    a 

d 

canon  i  mile  long,  to  right 

h 

of  a  small  stream  ;  marsh 

o 

on  left  of  stream  ;  water 

S 

sweet  ;    grass    excellent. 

•S 

Halted  to  graze  two  hours. 

,&* 

: 

No  Indian  signs. 

i 

2 

. 

6.30. 

o 

1 

Ht.P— 

Companies  F,  G,  and  I, 
3d  ,  detached  at  Mt. 

T3 

§X  Det. 

P  ,  under  command  of 

•s 

v 

,  (see  par.  3,Gen- 

' 

x\  . 

eral  Orders,  No.  ,)  to 

•5 

^**\^ 

A  small    creek,   easily 

£ 

forded. 

6. 

o 

5 

4 

1      /             ^ 

Road  turns  short  to  right 
at  top  of  hill  after  crossing 
river;  crossing  good,  but 

t  ^*            CQ 

a  little  boggy  on    right 
bank.   This  bottom  shows 

signs  of  recent  overflow, 

when  it  must  have  been 

V\ 

impassable  ;    banks  low  ; 
water   sweet  ;    no   wood 

July  7. 

4.30. 

x 

near  crossing  ;  road  hard 
and  good  up  to  river. 

374 


MILITARY  DICTIONARY. 

JOURNAL,  (Continued.') 


Date. 

Hour. 

Weather. 

Distance. 

Koute 

BEMARK3. 

1860. 

Total,  47 

d 

3 

5 

_v 

At  the  point  where  the 
road   forks,  turn   to  the 
right.   The  left-hand  road 

July  9. 

4.30  A.  M. 

rH 

***** 

leads  to   a   deep  ravine, 
which  cannot  be  crossed. 

4.30  P.  M. 

3 

A  CWjt>  No.  2. 

After  the  road  strikes 
the  ravine,   it  runs  one 

s^jpC 

mile  along  its  bank  before 
coming  to   the   crossing 

s 

^  ** 

place.        The     camping 
ground  is  at  springs,  halt 
a  mile  beyond  the  ravine. 

£ 

°5 

Old  Indian  signs  at  the 

<D 

OQ 

springs. 

3  P.M. 

15 

Road  less  rocky  ;   last 

•B 

x   Grave. 

three  miles  rather  sandy  ; 

1 

ML  T— 

no  water.     Passed  at  the 
point  marked   +   an  In- 

1 

dian  grave. 

B 

0. 

>-, 

5 

tf| 

Road  still  rocky  ;  good 
springs,     where      casks 

t> 

^•R 

should  be  filled.  No  more 

'///'ii> 

water  for  twenty  miles 

00  Springs 

after     leaving     springs. 

Jf        y 

Occasional  hills  to  left  of 

§' 

road  ;  no  wood  or  grass. 

^ 

erf 

05 

July  8. 

6.30  A.  M. 

11 

19 

JUDGE-ADVOCATE.  There  is  one  judge-advocate  selected  from 
the  captains  of  the  army  with  the  brevet  rank  and  pay  of  a  major 
of  cavalry.  The  judge-advocate,  or  some  person  deputed  by  him,  or 
by  the  general,  or  officer  commanding  the  army,  detachment,  or  garri- 
son,  shall  prosecute  in  the  name  of  the  United  States,  but  shall  so  far 
consider  himself  as  counsel  for  the  prisoner,  after  the  said  prisoner  shall 
have  made  his  plea,  as  to  object  to  any  leading  question  to  any  of  the 
witnesses,  or  any  question  to  the  prisoner,  the  answer  to  which  might 
tend  to  criminate  himself.  The  judge-advocate  administers  the  pre- 
scribed oaths  to  the  court  and  witnesses  ;  (ART.  69.) 


JUD.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  375 

The  appropriate  functions  of  the  judge-advocate,  as  an  essential  officer 
in  all  general  courts-martial,  are  various  in  their  nature ;  and  as  the 
Articles  of  War  do  not  describe  them  with  much  precision,  it  is  proper 
to  resort  to  the  less  positive,  though  equally  binding  authority,  of  estab- 
lished usage  and  practice. 

The  Articles  of  War  are  silent  on  the  subject  of  the  judge-advocate's 
assisting  the  court  with  his  counsels  and  advice  as  to  any  matters  of 
form  or  law ;  it  nevertheless  is  his  duty,  by  custom,  to  explain  any 
doubts  which  may  arise  in  the  course  of  its  deliberations,  and  to  pre- 
vent any  irregularities  or  deviations  from  the  regular  form  of  proceed- 
ings. The  duty  assigned  the  judge-advocate  by  ART.  69,  is  more  espe- 
cially incumbent  on  him  in  cases  where  the  prisoner  has  not  the  aid  of 
professional  counsel  to  direct  him,  which  generally  happens  in  the  trials 
of  private  soldiers,  who,  having  had  few  advantages  of  education, 
or  opportunities  for  mental  improvement,  stand  greatly  in  need  of 
advice  under  circumstances  often  sufficient  to  overwhelm  the  acutest 
intellect,  and  embarrass  or  suspend  the  powers  of  the  most  culti- 
vated understanding.  It  is  certainly  not  to  be  understood  that,  in 
discharging  this  office,  which  is  prescribed  solely  by  humanity,  the 
judge-advocate  should,  in  the  strictest  sense,  consider  himself  as  bound 
to  the  duty  of  counsel,  by  exerting  his  ingenuity  to  defend  the  prisoner, 
at  all  hazards,  against  those  charges  which,  in  his  capacity  of  prosecutor, 
he  is,  on  the  other  hand,  bound  to  urge,  and  sustain  by  proof;  for,  un- 
derstood to  this  extent,  the  one  duty  is  utterly  inconsistent  with  the 
other.  All  that  is  required  is,  that  in  the  same  manner  as  in  civil 
courts  of  criminal  jurisdiction,  the  judges  are  understood  to  be  counsel 
for  the  person  accused,  the  judge-advocate,  in  courts  martial,  shall  do 
justice  to  the  cause  of  the  prisoner,  by  giving  full  weight  to  every  cir- 
cumstance or  argument  in  his  favor ;  shall  bring  the  same  fairly  and 
completely  into  the  view  of  the  court;  shall  suggest  the  supplying 
of  all  omissions  in  exculpatory  evidence ;  shall  engross  in  the  written 
proceedings  all  matters  which,  either  directly  or  by  presumption, 
tend  to  the  prisoner's  defence  ;  and  finally,  shall  not  avail  himself 
of  any  advantage  which  superior  knowledge  or  ability,  or  his  influence 
with  the  court  may  give  him,  in  enforcing  the  conviction,  rather  than 
the  acquittal,  of  the  person  accused. 

When  a  court-martial  is  summoned  by  the  proper  authority,  for  the 
trial  of  any  military  offender,  the  judge-advocate,  being  required  to 
attend  to  his  duty,  and  furnished  with  articles  of  charge  or  accusation, 
on  which  he  is  to  prosecute,  must,  from  the  information  of  the  accuser, 
instruct  himself  in  all  the  circumstances  of  the  case,  and  by  what  evi- 


376  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [Jun. 

dence  the  whole  particulars  are  to  "he  proved  against  the  prisoner.  Of 
these,  it  is  proper  that  he  should  prepare,  in  writing,  a  short  analysis, 
or  plan,  for  his  own  regulation  in  the  conduct  of  the  trial,  and  examin- 
ation of  the  witnesses.  He  ought  then,  if  it  has  not  been  done  by  some 
other  functionary,  to  give  information  to  the  prisoner  of  the  time  and 
place  appointed  for  his  trial,  and  furnish  him,  at  the  same  time,  with  a 
copy  of  the  charges  that  are  to  be  exhibited  against  him,  and  likewise 
a  correct  detail  of  the  members  of  the  court.  The  judge-advocate 
ought  then  to  hand  in  to  the  adjutant-general,  or  staff-officer  charged 
with  the  details,  a  list  of  witnesses  for  the  prosecution,  in  order  that 
they  may  be  summoned  to  give  their  attendance  at  the  time  and  place 
appointed. 

It  is  proper,  likewise,  that  he  should  desire  the  prisoner  to  make  a 
similar  application,  to  insure  the  attendance  of  the  witnesses  necessary 
for  his  defence.  These  measures  ought  to  be  taken  as  early  as  possible, 
that  there  may  be  sufficient  time  for  the  arrival  of  witnesses  who  may 
be  at  a  distance.  When  the  court  is  met  for  trial,  and  the  members  are 
regularly  sworn,  the  judge-advocate,  after  opening  the  prosecution  by  a 
recital  of  the  charges,  together  with  such  detail  of  circumstances  as  he 
may  deem  necessary,  proceeds  to  examine  his  witnesses  in  support  of  the 
charges,  while  at  the  same  time  he  acts  as  the  recorder  or  clerk  of  the 
court,  in  taking  down  the  evidence  in  writing  at  full  length,  and  as 
nearly  as  possible  in  the  words  of  the  witnesses.  At  the  close  of  the 
business  of  each  day,  and  in  the  interval  before  the  next  meeting  of  the 
court,  it  is  the  duty  of  the  judge-advocate  to  make  a  fair  copy  of  the  pro- 
ceedings ;  which  he  continues  thus  regularly  to  engross  till  the  conclu- 
sion of  the  trial,  when  the  whole  is  read  over  by  him  to  the  court, 
before  the  members  proceed  to  deliberate  and  form  their  opinions. 
The  sentence  of  the  court  must  be  fairly  engrossed  and  subjoined  to  the 
record  copy  of  the  proceedings ;  and  the  whole  must  be  authenticated  by 
the  signature  of  the  president  of  the  court,  and  that  of  the  judge-advocate. 

It  is  required  by  the  Articles  of  War,  (ART.  90,)  that  "  every  judge- 
advocate,  or  person  officiating  as  such,  at  any  general  court-martial, 
shall  transmit,  with  as  much  expedition  as  the  opportunity  of  time  and 
distance  of  place  can  admit,  the  original  proceedings  and  sentence  of 
such  court-martial,  to  the  Secretary  of  War ;  which  said  original  pro- 
ceedings and  sentence  shall  be  carefully  kept  and  preserved  in  the  office 
of  the  said  secretary,  to  the  end  that  the  persons  entitled  thereto,  may 
be  enabled,  upon  application  to  the  said  office,  to  obtain  copies  thereof." 
The  judge-advocate  sends  the  proceedings  to  the  Secretary  of  War 
through  the  adjutant-general. 


JUR.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  377 

The  judge-advocate  (jonnot  be  challenged.  He  may  be  relieved  al 
any  time.  He  should,  in  complicated  cases,  arrange  and  methodize  the 
evidence,  applying  it  distinctly  to  the  facts  of  the  charge.  Besides  ap- 
plying the  evidence  fairly  to  each  side  of  the  question,  he  should  inform 
the  court  as  to  the  legal  bearing  of  the  evidence,  for  there  may  have 
been  admitted  evidence  which  ought  to  be  rejected  from  their  minds  as 
illegal ;  (HOUGH'S  Military  Law  Authorities.) 

JURISDICTION.  All  officers,  conductors,  gunners,  matrosses, 
drivers,  or  other  persons  whatsoever,  receiving  pay,  or  hire,  in  the  serl 
vice  of  the  artillery,  or  corps  of  engineers  of  the  United  States,  shall  be 
governed  by  the  aforesaid  rules  and  articles,  and  shall  be  subject  to  be 
tried  by  courts-martial,  in  like  manner  with  the  officers  and  soldiers  of 
the  other  troops  in  the  service  of  the  United  States  ;  (ART.  96.) 

The  officers  and  soldiers  of  any  troops,  whether  militia  or  others, 
being  mustered  and  in  pay  of  the  United  States,  shall  at  all  times  and 
in  all  places,  when  joined  or  acting  in  conjunction  with  the  regular  forces 
of  the  United  States,  be  governed  by  these  Rules  and  Articles  of  War, 
and  shall  be  subject  to  be  tried  by  courts-martial,  in  like  manner  with 
the  officers  and  soldiers  in  the  regular  forces,  save  only  that  such  courts- 
martial  shall  be  composed  entirely  of  militia  officers ;  (ART.  97.) 

No  person  shall  be  liable  to  be  tried  and  punished  by  a  general 
court-martial  for  any  offence  which  shall  appear  to  have  been  com- 
mitted more  than  two  years  before  the  issuing  of  the  order  for  such 
trial,  unless  the  person,  by  reason  of  having  absented  himself,  or  some 
other  manifest  impediment,  shall  not  have  been  amenable  to  justice 
within  that  period  ;  (ART.  88.) 

JURISDICTION,  (CONCURRENT.)  Can  courts-martial  and  civil 
courts  have  concurrent  jurisdiction  over  offences  committed  by  soldiers? 
Or,  in  other  words,  if  a  soldier  is  guilty  of  an  offence  which  renders  him 
amenable  for  trial  before  the  civil  courts  of  the  land,  can  he  also  be 
tried  for  that  offence  (if  its  specification  should  establish  a  violation  of 
the  Rules  and  Articles  of  War)  by  a  court-martial  ? 

By  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States  Congess  is  authorized  "  to 
make  rules  for  the  government  and  regulation  of  the  land  and  naval 
forces  ;  "  and  Congress,  pursuant  to  this  authority,  has  established  rules 
and  articles  .for  the  government  of  the  armies  of  the  United  States. 
These  rules  are  an  additional  code,  to  which  every  citizen  who  becomes 
a  soldier  subjects  himself  for  the  preservation  of  good  order  and  mil- 
itary discipline.  The  soldier,  however,  is  still  a  citizen  of  tho  United 
States.  He  has  not,  by  assuming  the  military  character,  become,  as  in 
many  European  countries,  a  member  of  a  privileged  body  who  may 


378  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [Jen. 

claim  trial  for  all  offences  by  courts  martial.  *ITe  is  still  amenable  to 
the  ordinary  common  law  courts  for  any  offences  against  the  persons  or 
property  of  any  citizen  of  any  of  the  United  States,  such  as  is  punish- 
able by  the  known  laws  of  the  land ;  (ART.  33.)  An  examination  of 
the  Rules  and  Articles  of  War  will  show  that  the  offences  therein  de- 
scribed, and  against  which  punishment  is  denounced,  are  purely  mili- 
tary. They  are  crimes  which  impair  the  efficiency  of  the  military  body, 
and  even  in  cases,  in  which  they  would  be  recognized  as  offences  by  the 
Ordinary  common  law  courts,  they  could  not  be  considered  the  same 
offences. 

Take,  for  instance,  Article  9,  which  inflicts  the  punishment  of  death 
or  other  punishment,  according  to  the  nature  of  his  offence,  upon  any 
officer  or  soldier  who  shall  strike  his  superior  officer.  Here  is  an 
offence  punishable  under  the  known  laws  of  the  land  as  an  assault  and 
battery,  and,  as  such,  it  could  be  tried  by  the  common  law  courts.  But 
such  trial  would  not  prevent  a  court-martial  from  afterwards  taking 
cognizance  of  it  under  Article  9  ;  for  the  offence  before  the  common  law 
court  would  be  striking  an  equal,  while  before  the  military  court  it 
would  have  essentially  changed  its  character. 

Again,  suppose  an  officer  had  been  guilty  of  stealing,  he  might  be 
prosecuted  before  the  common  law  court  for  the  felony,  and  afterwards 
charged  with  conduct  unbecoming  an  officer  and  a  gentleman,  and  dis- 
missed the  service.  It  can  hardly  be  contended  that  the  offences  in 
either  of  the  cases  cited  would  be  the  same  before  the  different  courts  ; 
and  if  not,  Article  87,  which  forbids  a  trial  a  second  time  for  the  same 
offence,  could  not  be  pleaded  in  bar  of  trial.  Recognizing,  then,  the 
principle  that  tne  soldier,  as  citizen,  is  subject  to  the  common  law 
courts  for  offences  committed  against  the  well-being  of  the  State,  it 
must  also  be  recollected  that  ho  is  subject  to  trial  by  a  court-martial 
for  any  violation  of  the  Rules  and  Articles  of  War. 

In  the  case  of  "  Eels,  plaintiff  in  error,  v.  the  People  of  the  State  of 
Illinois,"  it  was  urged  that  the  act  of  the  State  of  Illinois  under  which 
Eels  was  tried  was  void,  as  it  would  subject  the  delinquent  to  a  double 
punishment  for  the  same  offence,  the  crime  with  which  he  was  charged 
being  actionable  under  a  law  of  the  United  States.  The  Supreme  Court 
decided  that,  admitting  the  plaintiff  in  error  to  be  liable  to  an  action 
under  the  act  of  Congress,  it  did  not  follow  he  would  be  twice  punished 
for  the  same  offence,  and  gave  the  following  definition  of  that  term  : 

"  An  offence  in  its  legal  signification  means  the  transgression  of  a 
law.  A  man  may  be  compelled  to  make  reparation  in  damages  to  the 
injured  party,  and  be  liable  also  to  punishment  for  a  breach  of  the  pub- 


KNO.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  379 

lie  peace  in  consequence  of  the  same  act,  and  may  be  said,  in  common 
parlance,  to  be  twice  punished  for  the  same  offence.  Every  citizen  of 
the  United  States  is  also  a  citizen  of  a  State  or  Territory.  He  may 
be  said  to  owe  allegiance  to  two  sovereigns  and  may  be  liable  to  pun- 
ishment for  an  infraction  of  the  laws  of  either.  The  same  act  may  be 
an  offence  or  transgression  of  the  laws  of  both.  Thus  an  assault  upon 
the  marshal  of  the  United  States  and  hindering  him  in  the  execution  of 
legal  process  is  a  high  offence  against  the  United  States,  for  which  the 
perpetrator  is  liable  to  punishment ;  and  the  same  act  may  also  be  a 
gross  breach  of  the  pe'ace  of  the  State,  a  riot,  assault,  or  a  murder,  and 
subject  the  same  person  to  a  punishment  under  the  State  laws  for  a 
misdemeanor  or  felony.  That  either  or  both  may,  if  they  see  fit,  pun. 
ish  such  an  offender  cannot  be  doubted.  Yet  it  cannot  be  truly  averred 
that  the  offender  has  been  twice  punished  for  the  same  offence,  but  only 
that  by  one  act  he  has  committed  two  offences,  for  each  of  which  he  is 
justly  punishable.  He  could  not  plead  the  punishment  by  one  in  bar 
to  a  conviction  by  the  other ;  consequently,  this  court  has  decided,  in 
the  case  of  Fox  v.  the  State  of  Ohio,  (5  Howard,  432,)  that  a  State  may 
punish  the  offence  of  altering  or  passing  false  coin  as  a  cheat  or  fraud 
practised  on  its  citizens  ;  and,  in  the  case  of  the  United  States  v.  Mari- 
gold, (9  Howard,  560,)  that  Congress,  in  the  proper  exercise  of  its  au- 
thority, may  punish  the  same  act  as  an  offence  against  the  United 
States. 

K 

KEEP.     To  keep  troops  is  to  maintain  organized  forces. 

KIT.  A  cant  word  among  soldiers  to  express  the  necessary  arti- 
cles provided  for  them,  and  which  they  are  obliged  to  keep  in  order. 

KITCHEN.  For  proposed  kitchen-cart  for  field  service  see 
WAGON. 

KNAPSACK.  A  square  frame  covered  with  canvas  carried  on  an 
infantry  soldier's  back,  containing  his  clothing  and  other  necessaries, 
but  not  his  rations. 

KNOTS.  The  three  elementary  knots,  which  every  one  should 
know,  are  here  represented  (Fig.  147) — viz.,  the  Timber-hitch,  the  Bow- 
line, and  the  Clove-hitch.  The  virtues  of  the  timber-hitch  are,  that,  so 
long  as  the  strain  upon  it  is  kept  up,  it  will  never  give ;  when  the  strain 
is  taken  off,  it  is  cast  loose  immediately.  The  bowline  makes  a  knot 
difficult  to  undo ;  with  it  the  ends*of  two  strings  are  tied  together,  or 
a  loop  made  at  the  end  of  a  single  piece  of  string,  as  in  the  drawing. 
For  slip-nooses,  nse  the  bowline  to  make  the  draw-loop.  The  clove- 
hitch  binds  with  excessive  force,  and  by  it,  and  it  alone,  can  a  weight 


380  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [LAD. 

"be  hung  to  a  smooth  polo,  as  to  a  tent-pole.  A  kind  of  double  clove, 
hitch  is  generally  used,  but  the  simple  one  suffices,  and  is  more  easily 
recollected. 

FIG.  147. 


The  following  additional  remarks  deserve  attention : — A  timber- 
hitch  had  better  have  the  loose  end  twisted  more  than  once  ;  it  is  liable 
to  slip,  if  not.  To  tie  a  bowline,  or  any  other  knot  for  temporary  pur- 
poses, insert  a  stick  into  the  knot  before  pulling  tight.  The  stick  will 
enable  you,  at  will,  to  untie  the  knot — to  break  its  back,  as  the  sailors 
say — with  little  difficulty.  A  bowline  is  firmer,  if  doubled  ;  that  is,  if 
the  lower  loose  end  in  the  figure  be  made  to  wrap  round  a  second  time. 
A  double  clove-hitch  is  firmer  than  a  single  one ;  that  is,  the  rope 
should  make  two  turns,  instead  of  one  turn,  round  the  pole  beneath  the 
lowest  loose  end  in  the  figure.  To  make  a  large  knot  at  the  end  of  a 
piece  of  string,  to  prevent  it  from  pulling  through  a  hole,  turn  the  end 
of  the  string  back  upon  itself,  so  as  to-  make  it  double,  and  then  tie  a 
common  knot.  The  string  may  be  quadrupled  instead  of  doubled,  if 
required.  A  toggle  and  strap  is  a  tourniquet.  A  single  or  a  double 
band  is  made  to  inclose  the  two  pieces  of  wood  it  is  desired  to  lash  to- 
gether. Then  a  stick  is  pushed  into  the  band  and  forcibly  twisted 
round.  The  band  should  be  of  soft  material,  such  as  the  strands  of  a 
rope  that  has  been  picked  to  pieces  on  purpose.  The  strands  must, 
each  of  them,  be  untwisted  and  well  rubbed  with  a  stick  to  take  the 
kink  out  of  them,  and  finally  twisted  in  a  direction  opposite  to  their 
original  one ;  (GALTON'S  Art  of  Travel.) 

L 

LADDER  BRIDGE — may  be  formed  by  running  a  cart  or  gun 
limber  into  the  stream  and  securing  it  there,  with  the  shafts  in  a  verti- 
cal position,  by  ropes  from  both  sides  of  the  river ;  one  end  of  a  ladder 


LAW.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  381 

from  each  bank  resting  upon  it,  and  covering  the  steps  or  rungs  with 
planks. 

LADDERS.     (See  ESCALADE.) 

LANCE.  The  lance  is  composed  of  a  sharp  steel  blade,  from  8  to 
10  inches  long,  grooved  like  a  common  bayonet  with  a  socket  at  its 
base  and  two  iron  straps  for  attaching  it  to  the  handle.  The  handle  is 
of  strong  light  wood,  with  a  tip  of  iron  at  its  lower  end  and  a  leathern 
loop  at  its  centre  of  gravity  to  support  and  guide  the  lance.  It  is  usually 
from  8J  to  11  feet  long,  and  weighs  about  4J  Ibs.  This  weapon  is  not 
used  in  the  United  States  service.  The  Russians  have  their  regular  and 
irregular  Cossacks  armed  with  the  lance.  The  Austrians,  also,  have 
lancers ;  but  the  Polish  cavalry  use  the  lance  better  than  any  other 
people.  The  lance,  when  not  in  use,  rests  in  a  leather  boot  attached  to 
the  stirrup,  the  right  arm  being  passed  through  the  leather  loop  of 
the  lance ;  or  by  putting  the  lower  end  in  the  boot  and  strapping  the 
handle  to  the  pommel  of  the  saddle.  Lancers  are  more  formidable 
than  other  cavalry  because  they  are  able  to  reach  further.  Skill  in 
combating  a  lancer,  consists  in  keeping  to  his  left,  in  order  to  shun  his 
lance.  Pressed  too  nearly,  the  lancer  must  have  recourse  to  his  sabre 
and  let  his  lance  rest  upon  his  arm.  The  moment  in  which  he  attempts 
to  seize  his  sabre  is  dangerous  to  him.  The  Mexican  cavalry  are  gen- 
erally lancers. 

LANDING-.    (See  DISEMBARKATION  and  EMBARKATION.) 

LASHES.  A  general  court-martial  may  sentence  a  soldier  to  receive 
fifty  lashes  for  desertion.  No  other  crime  is  punishable  with  lashes. 

LAW — is  a  rule  of  action  prescribed  by  a  superior  power. 

Natural  law  is  the  rule  of  human  action  prescribed  by  the  Creator, 
discoverable  by  the  light  of  reason. 

Divine  law  is  the  law  of  nature  revealed  by  God  himself. 

The  law  of  nations  is  that  which  regulates  the  conduct  and  mutual 
intercourse  of  independent  nations  with  each  other,  according  to  reason 
and  natural  justice.  (See  WAR.) 

Municipal  or  civil  law  is  the  rule  of  civil  conduct  prescribed  by  the 
supreme  power  in  a  State,  commanding  what  is  right,  and  prohibiting 
what  is  wrong. 

The  parts  of  a  law  are  :  1.  The  declaratory  ;  which  defines  what  is 
right  and  wrong.  2.  The  directory  ;  which  consists  in  commending  the 
observation  of  right,  or  prohibiting  the  commission  of  wrong.  3.  The 
remedial ;  or  method  of  recovering  private  rights,  and  redressing  pri- 
vate wrongs.  4.  The  vindicatory  sanction  of  punishments  for  public 
wrongs  ;  wherein  consists  the  most  forcible  obligation  of  human  laws. 


382  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [LAW. 

To  interpret  a  law,  we  must  inquire  after  the  will  of  the  maker ; 
which  may  be  collected  either  from  the  words,  the  context,  the  subject 
matter,  the  effects  and  consequence,  or  the  spirit  and  reason  of  the  law. 

From  the  latter  method  of  interpretation  arises  equity,  or  the  cor- 
rection of  that  wherein  the  law  (by  reason  of  its  universality)  is  defi- 
cient ;  (BLACKSTONE'S  Commentaries.) 

LAW,  (MARTIAL.)  By  martial  law  is  understood,  not  laws  passed 
for  raising,  supporting,  governing,  and  regulating  troops,  but  "  it  is  in 
truth  and  reality  no  law,  but  something  indulged,  rather  than  allowed  as 
law ; "  (HALE  and  BLACKSTONE.)  The  Constitution  of  the  United  States 
has  guarded  against  the  effects  of  any  declaration  of  martial  law  within 
the  United  States,  by  providing  :  "  No  person  shall  be  held  to  answer 
for  a  capital  or  otherwise  infamous  crime,  unless  on  a  presentment  or 
indictment  of  a  grand  jury,  except  in  cases  arising  in  the  land  or  naval 
forces,  or  in  the  militia,  when  in  actual  service  in  time  of  war  or  public 
danger  ;  nor  shall  any  person  be  subject  for  the  same  offence  to  be  twice 
put  in  jeopardy  of  life  or  limb ;  nor  shall  be  compelled,  in  any  criminal 
case,  to  be  witness  against  himself,  nor  be  deprived  of  life,  liberty,  or 
property,  without  due  process  of  law ;  nor  shall  private  property  be 
taken  for  public  use  without  just  compensation,"  (ART.  5,  Amendments;) 
and  further,  "  In  all  criminal  prosecutions,  the  accused  shall  enjoy  the 
right  to  a  speedy  and  public  trial,  by  an  impartial  jury  of  the  State  and 
district  wherein  the  crime  shall  have  been  committed,  which  district 
shall  have  been  previously  ascertained  by  law,  and  to  be  informed  of 
the  nature  and  cause  of  the  accusation ;  to  be  confronted  with  the  wit- 
nesses against  him  ;  to  have  compulsory  process  for  obtaining  witnesses 
in  his  favor ;  and  to  have  the  assistance  of  counsel  for  his  defence ;  " 
(ART.  6,  Amendments.) 

Within  the  United  States,  therefore,  the  effect  of  a  declaration  of 
martial  law  would  not  be  to  subject  citizens  to  trial  by  courts-martial, 
but  it  would  involve  simply  a  suspension  of  the  writ  of  habeas  corpus, 
under  the  authority  given  in  the  2d  clause  of  Sec.  9  of  the  Constitution, 
viz. :  "  The  privilege  of  the  writ  of  habeas  corpus  shall  not  be  suspended 
unless  when,  in  cases  of  rebellion  or  invasion,  the  public  safety  may  re- 
quire it." 

The  universal  practice  of  all  nations  has  been  to  give  supremacy  to 
the  military  commander  in  all  sieges.  "Inter  arma  silent  leges"  is 
then  a  maxim  universally  admitted.  The  public  safety  in  that  case  im- 
periously requires  that  the  orders  of  the  commander  of  the  troops 
should  be  obeyed,  and  a  commander  in  the  United  States  is  then  only 
justified,  ex  necessitate  rei,  in  suspending  the  privilege  of  the  writ  of 
habeas  corpus. 


LAW.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  383 

The  suspension  of  this  privilege  would  enable  a  commander  to  in- 
carcerate all  dangerous  citizens ;  but  when  brought  to  trial,  the  citizen 
would  necessarily  come  before  the  ordinary  civil  courts  of  the  land. 

Beyond  the  United  States,  troops  take  with  them  the  Rules  and 
Articles  of  War,  but  not  the  municipal  law,  to  which  they  are  also 
subject  at  home.  It  is  necessary,  therefore,  for  a  commander,  in  the 
absence  of  laws  made  by  Congress,  to  declare  his  own  will,  command, 
ing  what  is  right,  and  prohibiting  and  punishing  what  is  wrong,  in  the 
new  relation  established  between  his  army  and  the  citizens  of  the  for- 
eign country.  The  following  order  was  the  declaration  of  martial  law 
by  Gen.  Scott  in  Mexico  : — 

HEAD-QUARTERS  OF  THE  ARMY,      ) 
National  Palace  of  Mexico,  Sept.  17,  1847.  \ 

GENERAL  ORDERS— No.  287.- 

The  General-in-Chief  republishes,  with  important  additions,  his  General  Orders,  No.  20, 
of  February  19,  1847,  (declaring  MARTIAL  LAW,)  to  govern  all  who  maybe  concerned. 

1.  It  is  still  to  be  apprehended  that  many  grave  offences  not  pfe- 
vided  for  in  the  act  of  Congress  "  establishing  rules  and  articles  for  the 
government  of  the  armies  of  the  United  States,"  approved  April  10, 
1806,  may  be  again  committed — by,  or  upon,  individuals  of  those  ar- 
mies, in  Mexico,  pending  the  existing  war  between  the  two  republics. 
Allusion  is  here  made  to  offences,  any  one  of  which,  if  committed  with- 
in the  United  States  or  their  organized  territories,  would,  of  course,  be 
tried  and  severely  punished  by  the  ordinary  or  civil  courts  of  the  land. 

2.  Assassination,  murder,  poisoning,  rape,  or  the  attempt  to  commit 
either  ;  malicious  stabbing  or  maiming  ;  malicious  assault  and  battery  ; 
robbery ;   theft ;  the  wanton  desecration  of  churches,  cemeteries,  or 
other  religious  edifices  and  fixtures  ;  the  interruption  of  religious  cere- 
monies ;  and  the  destruction,  except  by  order  of  a  superior  officer,  of 
public  or  private  property,  are  such  offences. 

3.  The  good  of  the  service,  the  honor  of  the  United  States,  and  the 
interests  of  humanity,  imperiously  demand  that  every  crime  enumer- 
ated above  should  be  severely  punished. 

4.  But  the  written  code,  as  above,  commonly  called  the  Rules  and 
Articles  of  War,  does  not  provide  for  the  punishment  of  one  of  those 
crimes,  even  when  committed  by  individuals  of  the  army  upon  the  per- 
sons or  property  of  other  individuals  of  the  same,  except  in  the  very- 
restricted  case  in  the  9th  of  those  articles  ;  nor  for  like  outrages,  com- 
mitted by  the  same  class  of  individuals,  upon  the  persons  or  property 
of  a  hostile  country,  except  very  partially,  in  the  51st,  52d,  and  55th 
Articles ;  and  the  same  code  is  absolutely  silent  as  to  all  injuries  which 


384  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [LAW. 

may  be  inflicted  upon  individuals  of  the  army,  or  their  property,  against 
the  laws  of  war,  by  individuals  of  a  hostile  country. 

5.  It  is  evident  that  the  99th  Article,  independent  of  any  restriction 
in  the  87th,  is  wholly  nugatory  in  reaching  any  one  of  those  high 
crimes. 

G.  For  all  the  offences,  therefore,  enumerated  in  the  second  para- 
graph .above,  which  may  be  committed  abroad — in,  by,  or  upon  the 
army,  a  supplemental  code  is  absolutely  needed. 

7.  That  unwritten  code  is  Martial  Law,  as  an  addition  to  the  written 
military  code,  prescribed  by  Congress  in  the  Rules  and  Articles  of  War, 
and  which  unwritten  code  all  armies,  in  hostile  countries,  are  forced  to 
adopt,  net  only  for  their  own  safety,  but  for  the  protection  of  the  un- 
offending inhabitants  and  their  property,  about  the  theatres  of  military 
operations,  against  injuries  on  the  part  of  the  army,  contrary  to  the 
laws  of  war. 

8.  From  the  same  supreme  necessity  martial  law  is  hereby  declared 
as  a  supplemental  code,  in  and  about  all  cities,  towns,  camps,  posts, 
hospitals,  and  other  places,  which  may  be  occupied  by  any  part  of  the 
forces  of  the  United  States  in  Mexico,  and  in  and  about  all  columns, 
escorts,  convoys,  guards,  and  detachments  of  the  said  forces,  while  en- 
gaged in  prosecuting  the  existing  war  in  and  against  the  said  republic, 
and  while  remaining  within  the  same. 

9.  Accordingly  every  crime  enumerated  in  paragraph  No.  2  above, 
whether  committed: — 1.  By  any  inhabitant  of  Mexico,  sojourner  or 
traveller  therein,  upon  the  person  or  property  of  any  individual  of  the 
United  States'  forces,  retainer,  or  follower  ot  the  same  ;  2.  By  any  in- 
dividual of  the  said  forces,  retainer  or  follower  of  the  same,  upon  the 
person  or  property  of  any  inhabitant  of  Mexico,  sojourner  or  traveller 
therein ;  or  3.  By  any  individual  of  the  said  forces,  retainer  or  follower 
of  the  same,  upon  the  person  or  property  of  any  other  individual  of  the 
said  forces,  retainer  or  follower  of  the  same,  shall  be  duly  tried  and 
punished  under  the  said  supplemental  code. 

10.  For  this  purpose  it  is  ordered  that  all  offenders  in  the  matters 
aforesaid  shall  be  promptly  seized,  confined,  and  reported  for  trial,  be- 
fore Military  Commissions,  to  be  duly  appointed,  as  follows  : 

11.  Every  military  commission,  under  this  order,  will  be  appointed, 
governed,  and  limited,  as  nearly  as  practicable,  as  prescribed  by  the 
65th,  66th,.  67th,  and  97th  of  the  said  Rules  and  Articles  of  War,  and 
the  proceedings  of  such  commissions  will  be  duly  recorded  in  writing, 
reviewed,  revised,  disapproved  or  approved,  and  the  sentences  executed ; 
all,  as  near  as  may  be,  as  in  the  cases  of  the  proceedings  and  sentences 


LAW.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  385 

of  courts-martial,  provided,  that  no  military  commission  shall  try  any 
case  clearly  cognizable  by  any  courts-martial,  and  provided,  also,  that 
no  sentence  of  a  military  commission  shall  be  put  in  execution  against 
any  individual  belonging  to  this  army,  which  may  not  be,  according  to 
the  nature  and  degree  of  the  offence,  as  established  by  evidence,  in  con- 
formity with  known  punishments,  in  like  cases,  in  some  one  of  tho 
States  of  the  United  States  of  America. 

12.  The  sale,  waste,  or  loss  of  ammunition,  horses,  arms,  clothing, 
or  accoutrements,  by  soldiers,  is  punishable  under  the  37th  and  38th 
Articles  of  War.    Any  Mexican,  or  resident,  or  traveller  in  Mexico,  who 
shall  purchase  of  an  American  soldier  either  horse,  horse-equipments, 
arms,  ammunition,  accoutrements,  or  clothing,  shall  be  tried  and  se- 
verely punished  by  a  military  commission,  as  above. 

13.  The  administration  of  justice,  both  in  civil  and  criminal  matters, 
through  the  ordinary  courts  of  the  country,  shall  nowhere,  and  in  no 
degree,  be  interrupted  by  any  officer  or  soldielr  of  the  American  forces, 
except,  1.  In  cases  to  which   an  officer,  soldier,  agent,  servant,  or  fol- 
lower of  the  American  army  may  be  a  party  ;  and  2.  In  political  cases, 
that  is,  prosecutions  against  other  individuals  on  the  allegations  that 
they  have  given  friendly  information,  aid,  or  assistance,  to  the  Ameri- 
can forces. 

14.  For  the  ease  and  safety  of  both  parties  in  all  cities  and  towns 
occupied  by  the  American  army,  a  Mexican  police  shall  be  established 
and  duly  harmonized  with  the  military  police  of  the  said  forces. 

15.  This  splendid  capital — its  churches  and  religious  worship ;  its 
convents  and  monasteries  ;  its  inhabitants  and  property,  are,  moreover, 
placed  under  the  special  safeguard  of  the  faith  and  honor  of  the  Ameri- 
can army. 

16.  In  consideration  of  the  foregoing  protection,  a  contribution  of 
$150,000  is  imposed  on  this  capital,  to  be  paid  in  four  weekly  instal- 
ments of  thirty-seven  thousand  five  hundred  dollars  ($37,500)  each,  be- 
ginning on  Monday  next,  the  20th  instant,  and  terminating  on  Monday 
the  llth  of  October. 

17.  The  Ayuntamiento,  or  corporate  authority  of  the  city,  is  specially 
charged  with  the  collection  and  payment  of  the  several  instalments. 

18.  Of  the  whole  contribution  to  be  paid  over  to  this  army,  twenty 
thousand  dollars  shall  be  appropriated  to  the  purchase  of  extra  comforts 
for  the  wounded  and  sick  in  hospital ;  ninety  thousand  dollars  ($90,000) 
to  the  purchase  of  blankets  and  shoes  for  gratuitous  distribution  among 
the  rank  and  file  of  the  army,  and  forty  thousand  dollars  ($40,000)  re- 
served for  other  necessary  military  purposes. 

25 


386  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [LAW. 

19.  This  order  will  be  read  at  the  head  of  every  company  of  the 
United  States'  forces  serving  in  Mexico,  and  translated  into  Spanish  for 
the  information  of  Mexicans. 

LAW,  (MILITARY.)  Under  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States,  Con- 
gress is  intrusted  with  the  creation,  government,  regulation,  and  support 
of  armies  ;  and  all  laws  passed  by  Congress  for  those  purposes  are  mili- 
tary laws.  Congress,  being  also  invested  with  power  "  to  make  all  laws 
which  shall  be  necessary  and  proper  for  carrying  into  execution  the 
foregoing  powers,  and  all  other  powers  vested  by  this  constitution  in 
the  Government  of  the  United  States,  or  in  any  department  or  officer 
thereof,"  is  supreme  in  all  military  matters.  The  office  of  commander- 
in-chief,  intrusted  by  the  constitution  to  the  President,  must  have  its 
functions  first  defined  by  Congress.  Such  military  powers  only  as 
Congress  confers  upon  him  can  be  exercised.  Excepting  that,  bf  ing 
the  commander-in-chief  under  the  constitution,  he  of  course  exercises 
all  authority  that  Congress  may  delegate  to  any  military  commander 
whatever,  by  reason  of  the  axiom  that  the  power  of  the  greater  includes 
that  of  the  less. 

Many  of  the  functions,  thus  devolved  by  the  constitution  on  Con- 
gress, in  most  governments  belong  to  the  executive.  The  king  of 
Great  Britain  makes  rules  and  articles  for  the  government  of  armies 
raised  by  him  with  the  consent  of  parliament.  Congress,  \vith  us,  both 
raises  and  governs  armies.  An  army  raised  in  Great  Britain  is  the 
king's  army  ;  with  us  it  is  the  army  of  the  United  States.  These  most 
essential  distinctions  should  cause  Congress  to  give  more  of  its  atten- 
tion to  the  army.  It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  our  rules  for  the 
government  of  the  army  have  been  borrowed  almost  entirely  from 
Great  Britain  ;  that  the  relation  of  the  army  to  the  people  is  in  the  two 
countries  entirely  distinct ;  therefore,  that  rules  adapted  to  an  aristo- 
cratic government  may  not  be  entirely  suited  to  democratic  forms. 
(See  ACADEMY,  (Military  ;)  ACCOUNTS  ;  ACCOUNTABILITY,  (System  of;) 
ADMINISTRATION,  and  references  ;  ALLOWANCES  ;  APPOINTING  POWER  ; 
APPROPRIATIONS  ;  ARDENT  SPIRITS  ;  ARREARS  OF  PAY  ;  ARMORIES  AND 
ARSENALS  ;  ARMY  ;  ARMY,  (Regular ;)  ARMY  REGULATIONS  ;  ARTICLES 
OF  WAR,  and  references  under  that  head  ;  ASYLUM,  (Military  ;)  AUDI- 
TORS ;  AUTHORITY,  ( Civil ;)  BILLET  ;  BOOTY  ;  BONDS  ;  BOUNTY  ;  BRE- 
VET ;  BRIGADE  ;  CADET  ;  CALLING  FORTH  MILITIA  ;  CAPTAIN  ;  CLERKS  ; 
CLOTHING  ;  COLONEL  ;  COMMISSION  ;  CONGRESS  ;  CONSTITUTION  ;  CON- 
SCRIPTION ;  CONTRACTS  ;  CORPOREAL  PUNISHMENT  ;  CORPS  ;  COUNCIL  OF 
ADMINISTRATION  ;  COURT-MARTIAL,  and  references  under  that  head ; 
COURTS  OF  INQUIRY  ;  CUSTOM  OF  WAR  ;  DAMAGE  ;  DEBT  ;  DEFAULTERS  ; 


LEV.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY:  337 

•r 

DEFENCE,  (National;)  DEPARTMENT  ;  DEPARTMENT  OF  WAR  ;  DEPOT  ; 
DETACHMENT  ;  DISBURSING   OFFICERS  ;  DISCHARGE  ;  DISCIPLINE  ;  DIS- 
MISSION ;  DIVISION  ;  DRAGOONS  ;  EMOLUMENTS  ;  ENGINEER  CORPS  ;  EN- 
GINEERS, (Topographical;)    ENLISTMENTS;    EVIDENCE;    EXECUTION  OF 
LAWS  ;    EXEMPTS   FROM    MILITIA    DUTY  ;    EXTRA   EXPENSES  ;    EXTRA 
ALLOWANCES  ;    FATIGUE     DUTY  ;    FIELD    OFFICERS  ;    FLAG  ;     FORAGE 
MASTER  ;  GARRISON  ;  GENERAL  ;  GENERAL  OFFICERS  ;  GOVERNMENT,  and 
references  under  that  head  ;  INDEMNIFICATION  ;  INDIAN  ;  INSURRECTION  ; 
JURISDICTION  ;  LAW  ;  LAW,  (Martial ;)  LINE  ;  LOSSES  ;  MARINE  CORPS  ; 
MARSHALS  ;    MAY  ;   MEDICAL    DEPARTMENT  ;   MESS  ;   MILEAGE  ;  MILI- 
TIA ;  OATH  ;  OBEDIENCE  ;  OFFICER  ;  ORDERS  ;  ORDNANCE  DEPARTMENT  ; 
ORDNANCE  SERGEANT  ;   PAY  ;  PAY  DEPARTMENT  ;  PAYMASTER-GENERAL  ; 
PENSION  ;    PONTOON  ;    POST  ;    POSSE    COMITATUS  ;    PRESIDENT  ;    PRIZE 
MONEY  ;  PROMOTION  ;  PURCHASING  ;   QUARTERS  ;  QUARTERMASTER'S  DE- 
PARTMENT ;    RAISE,  and  references  under  that  head  ;  RANK  ;  RATION  ; 
RECRUITING  ;     REDRESSING  WRONGS  ;    REGIMENT  ;    REGULATIONS,  and 
references  under  that  head  ;    REPRIEVE  ;    RETAINERS  ;  RETURNS  ;  RE- 
VISION ;    SALE  ;    SAPPERS  ;    SECRETARY  OF  WAR  ;  SERVANTS  ;  SERVICE, 
and  references  under  that  head  ;    STAFF  ;  STANDARDS  ;  STORES  ;  STORE- 
KEEPERS ;  STRIPES  ;  SUBSISTENCE  DEPARTMENT  ;  SUIT  ;  SUPERINTENDENT  ; 
SUPERNUMERARIES  ;    SUTLERS  ;    TRADE  ;    TRANSFERS  ;    TRAVELLING  AL- 
LOWANCES ;     UNIFORM  ;    VICTUALS  ;    VICE-PRESIDENT  ;     VOLUNTEERS  ; 
WAGON-MASTERS  ;   WAR  ;  WARRANT  ;    WASTE  OR    SPOIL  ;  WHIPPING  ; 
WILLS,   (Nuncupative;)  WITNESS;  WIDOWS  AND  ORPHANS;  WOMEN; 
WORSHIP  ;  WOUNDS  ;  WRONGS.) 

LEAD  BALLS — are  now  generally  made  by  compression,  by 
means  of  machinery,  either  at  arsenals  or  at  private  establishments. 

LEAVE.     (See  ABSENCE.) 

LEGION.  A  variable  number  of  men  in  the  Roman  army,  from 
four  to  six  thousand,  but  which  always  retained  its  distinctive  charac- 
teristic of  combining  all  the  elements  of  a  separate  army.  (Consult 
BARDIN,  Dictionnaire  de  VArmee  de  Terre,  and  ARNOLD'S  Rome  for  a  full 
account  of  the  Roman  legion.) 

LEVER.  The  effective  arm  of  a  lever  is  the  perpendicular  distance 
from  the  fulcrum  to  the  line  of  direction  of  the  power  or  weight.  The 
power  is  to  the  weight  inversely  as  the  effective  arms  of  the  lever : 

P  D  =  wd 

The  pressure  on  the  fulcrum  is  the  resultant  of  tho  power  and  weight. 
The  common  balance  is  a  simple  lever,  the  arms  of  which  are  equal. 
If  the  balance  is  not  accurate,  the  true  weight  of  a  body  may  be  found 


388  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [LiE. 

by  placing  the  body  in  one  scale  and  counterpoising  it  by  any  weights 
in  the  opposite  scale ;  then  remove  the  body  and  replace  it  by  known 
weights  until  the  equilibrium  is  again  restored.  The  sum  of  the  latter 
weights  will  be  the  weight  of  the  body  ;  (Ordnance  Manual.) 

LIEUTENANT.     Rank  next  below  captain. 

LIEUTENANT-COLONEL.  Rank  next  below  colonel,  and  above 
major. 

LIEUTENANT-GENERAL.  Rank  above  major-general.  Cre- 
ated by  Act  May  28,  1798.  Revived  by  brevet  by  Act  Feb.  15,  1855. 
To  expire  with  present  incumbent.  Appoints  in  time  of  peace  not  ex 
ceeding  two  aides  and  one  secretary  with  rank,  pay,  and  emoluments  of 
lieutenant-colonel.  In  war,  entitled  to  four  aides  and  two  secretaries. 

LIFTING-  JACK.  A  geared  screw-jack,  for  lifting  heavy  weights, 
used  in  mechanical  manoeuvres  of  heavy  artillery.  (Consult  Instruction 
for  Heavy  Artillery.) 

LIGHT  BALL.  A  projectile  of  an  oval  shape  formed  of  sacks 
of  canvas  filled  with  a  combustible  composition,  which  emits  a  bright 
flame.  Used  to  light  up  our  own  works. 

LIGHT  INFANTRY.     (See  INFANTRY.) 

LIMBER.  The  forepart  of  a  travelling  gun  carriage  to  which  the 
horses  are  attached.  The  same  limber  is  used  for  all  field-carriages.  It 
has  two  wheels  and  carries  the  same  ammunition  chest  as  the  caisson. 

LINCHPINS — prevent  the  wheel  from  sliding  off  the  axle-tree. 

LINE.  President  Fillmore  in  general  orders,  No.  51  of  1851,  has 
given  the  following  satisfactory  exposition  of  the  use  of  the  word  line 
in  our  statute  book  :  The  62d  Article  of  War  provides  that — "  If,  upon 
marches,  guards,  or  in  quarters,  different  corps  of  the  army  shall  hap- 
pen to  join,  or  do  duty  together,  the  officer  highest  in  rank  of  the  line 
of  the  army,  marine  corps,  or  militia,  by  commission  there,  on  duty,  or 
in  quarters,  shall  command  the  whole,  and  give  orders  for  what  is  need- 
ful to  the  service,  unless  otherwise  specially  directed  by  the  President 
of  the  United  States,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  case."  The  inter- 
pretation of  this  act  has  long  been  a  subject  of  controversy.  The 
difficulty  arises  from  the  vague  and  uncertain  meaning  of  the  words 
"  line  of  the  army,"  which,  neither  in  the  English  service,  (from  which 
most  of  our  military  terms  are  borrowed,)  nor  in  our  own,  have  a  well- 
defined  and  invariable  meaning.  By  some  they  are  understood  to  des- 
ignate the  regular  army  as  distinguished  from  the  militia :  by  others, 
as  meant  to  discriminate  between  officers  by  ordinary  commissions  and 
those  by  brevet ;  and,  finally,  by  others,  to  designate  all  officers  not  be- 
longing to  the  staff.  The  question  is  certainly  not  without  difficulty, 


LIN.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  3SC 

and  it  is  surprising  that  Congress  should  not  long  since  have  settled,  by 
some  explanatory  law,  a  question  which  has  been  so  fruitful  a  source 
of  controversy  and  embarrassment  in  the  service.  The  President  has 
maturely  considered  the  question,  and  finds  himself  compelled  to  differ 
from  some  for  whose  opinions  he  entertains  a  very  high  respect.  His 
opinion  is,  that,  although  these  words  may  sometimes  be  used  in  a 
different  sense,  (to  be  determined  by  the  context  and  subject-matter,)  in 
the  62d  Article  of  War,  they  are  used  to  designate  those  officers  of  the 
army  who  do  not  belong  to  the  staff,  in  contradistinction  to  those  who 
do,  and  that  the  article  intended,  in  the  case  contemplated  by  it,  to  con- 
fer the  command  exclusively  on  the  former.  The  reasons  which  have 
brought  him  to  this  conclusion  are  briefly  these :  1st.  It  is  a  well- 
settled  rule  of  interpretation  that  in  the  construction  of  statutes,  words 
of  doubtful  or  ambiguous  meaning  are  to  be  understood  in  their  usual 
acceptation.  Now  it  must  be  admitted  that,  in  common  parlance,  both 
in  and  out  of  the  army,  the  words  "  line  "  and  "  staff"  are  generally 
used  as  correlative  terms.  2d.  Another  rule  of  construction  is,  that  the 
same  word  ought  not  to  be  understood,  when  it  can  be  avoided,  in  two 
different  senses  in  different  laws,  on  the  same  subject,  and,  especially, 
in  different  parts  of  the  same  law.  Now  in  another  article  (74)  of  this 
same  law,  the  words  "  line  and  staff  of  the  army  "  are  clearly  used  as 
correlative  and  contradistinctive  terms.  The  same  remark  applies  to 
almost  every  case  in  which  the  words  "  line  "  and  "  staff"  occur  in  acts 
of  Congress.  See 

Act  of  1813,       sec.      4,  Cross'  Military  Laws,  p.  165  ; 

1813,  «        9,  "  166; 

1814,  «      19,  "  174; 
"   1816,         «      10,                     "                     190; 

1838,         "        7,  "  263; 

1838,         "        8,  "  263; 

1838,         "      15,  «  264; 

1838,  pars.  7  &  9,  «  268; 

1§46,       sec.     2,  "  283; 

1846,        "       7,  «  286. 

There  are  many  other  instances  in  which  the  words  are  so  employed, 
but  1  have  selected  these  as  the  most  striking.  On  the  other  hand,  I 
find  but  one  act  of  Congress  in  which  the  words  "  line  of  the  army  " 
have  been  employed  to  designate  the  regular  army  in  contradistinction 
to  the  militia,  and  none  in  which  they  have  been  manifestly  used  as  con- 
tradistinctive of  brevet.  3d.  If  Congress  had  meant  by  these  words  to 
discriminate  between  officers  of  the  regular  army  and  those  of  the  mill- 


390  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [Lin, 

tia,  or  between  officers  by  brevet  and  by  ordinary  commission,  it  is  to  be 
presumed  that  they  would  have  employed  those  terms,  respectively, 
which  are  unequivocal,  and  are  usually  employed  to  express  those 
ideas.  4th.  If  we  look  at  the  policy  of  the  law,  we  can  discover  no 
reasons  of  expediency  which  compel  us  to  depart  from  the  plain  and 
ordinary  import  of  the  terms  :  on  the  contrary,  we  may  suppose  strong 
reasons  why  it  may  have  been  deemed  proper,  in  the  case  referred  to 
by  the  article,  to  exclude  officers  of  the  staff  from  command.  In  the 
first  place  the  command  of  troops  might  frequently  interfere  with  their 
appropriate  duties,  and  thereby  occasion  serious  embarrassment  to  the 
service.  In  the  next  place,  the  officers  of  some  of  the  staff  corps  are  not 
qualified  by  their  habits  and  education  for  the  command  of  troops,  and 
alhough  others  are  so  qualified,  it  arises  from  the  fact  that,  (by  laws 
passed  long  subsequently  to  the  article  in  question)  the  officers  of  the 
corps  to  which  they  belong,  are  required  to  be  appointed  from  the  line 
of  the  army.  Lastly,  officers  of  the  staff  corps  seldom  have  troops  of 
their  own  corps  serving  under  their  command,  and  if  the  words  "  officers 
of  the  line  "  are  understood  to  apply  to  them,  the  effect  would  often  be 
to  give  them  command  over  the  officers  and  men  of  all  the  other  corps, 
when  not  a  man  of  their  own  was  present — an  anomaly  always  to  be 
avoided  where  it  is  possible  to  do  so.  5th.  It  is  worthy  of  observation 
that  Article  25,  of  the  first  "  rules  and  articles,"  enacted  by  Congress  for 
the  government  of  the  army,  corresponds  with  Article  62  of  the  present 
rules  and  articles,  except  that  the  words  "  of  the  line  of  the  army  "  are 
not  contained  in  it.  It  is  evident,  therefore,  that  these  words  were  in- 
serted intentionally  with  a  view  to  a  change  in  the  law,  and  it  is  prob- 
able that  some  inconvenience  had  arisen  from  conferring  command  in- 
discriminately on  officers  of  the  line  or  the  staff,  and  had  suggested  the 
necessity  of  this  change.  It  is  contended,  however,  that  sec.  10,  of  the 
act  of  1795,  enumerates  the  major-general  and  brigadier-general  as 
among  the  staff  officers,  and  that  this  construction  of  the  article  would 
exclude  them  from  command,  which  would  be  an  absurdity.  No  such 
consequence  would,  however,  follow.  The  article  in  question  was  ob- 
viously designed  to  meet  the  case  (of  not  unfrequent  occurrence)  where 
officers  of  different  corps  of  the  army  meet  together  with  no  officer 
among  them  who  does  not  belong  exclusively  to  a  corps.  In  such  a 
case,  there  being  no  common  superior,  in  the  absence  of  some  express 
provision  conferring  the  power,  no  officer,  merely  of  a  corps,  would  have 
the  right  to  command  any  corps  but  his  own  :  to  obviate  this  difficulty, 
the  article  in  effect  provides  that,  in  such  an  event,  the  officer  of  the  line, 
highest  in  rank,  shall  command  the  rest.  But  if  there  be  a  major- 


LIT.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  391 

general  or  brigadier-general  present,  the  case  contemplated  by  tha 
article  does  not  exist.  No  question  can  arise  as  to  the  right  of  com- 
mand, because  the  general  officer,  not  belonging  to  any  particular  corps, 
takes  the  command  by  virtue  of  the  general  rule  which  assigns  the  com- 
mand to  the  officer  highest  in  rank.  (See  RANK  ;  COMMAND  ;  BHEVET.) 

LINE  OF  DEFENCE— is  the  line  which  extends  from  the  angle 
of  the  polygon  or  extremity  of  the  exterior  side,  through  the  inner  end 
of  the  perpendicular,  to  the  flank,  of  the  bastion. 

LINE  OF  LEAST  RESISTANCE  (THE)— is  that  which  is  sup- 
posed to  extend,  from  the  centre  of  the  charge  of  a  mine,  to  the  nearest 
surface  of  the  ground. 

LINES.  A  connected  series  of  field-works,  whether  continuous  or 
at  intervals. 

LINES  AT  INTERYALS— are  lines  composed  of  separate  field- 
works,  so  arranged  as  to  flank  and  defend  one  another. 

LINES  CREMAILLERE— are  composed  of  alternate  short  and 
long  faces,  at  right  angles  to  each  other. 

LINES  OF  BASTION— as  the  name  indicates,  are  formed  of  a 
succession  of  bastion-shaped  parapets,  each  consisting  of  two  faces  and 
two  flanks,  connected  together  by  a  curtain. 

LINES  OF  TENAILLES — consist  of  parapets,  forming  a  series 
of  salient  and  re-entering  angles. 

LINSTOCK.  A  pointed  forked  staff  used  for  lighting  fort  fires  ; 
the  lower  end  pointed  and  shod  with  iron. 

LITTER.    If  a  man  be  wounded  or  sick,  and  has  to  be  carried  alons 

'  O 

upon  the  shoulders  of  the  others,  make  a  litter  for  him  in  the  Indian 
fashion,  (Fig.  148 ;)  that  is  to  say,  cut  two  stout  poles,  each  8  feet  long, 

FIG.  148. 


392  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [LOA. 

to  make  its  two  sides,  and  three  other  cross-bars  of  2^  feet  each,  to  be 
lashed  to  them.  Then,  supporting  this  ladder-shaped  framework  over 
the  sick  man  as  he  lies  in  his  blanket,  knot  the  blanket  well  up  to  it ; 
and  so  carry  him  off.  One  cross-bar  will  be  just  behind  his  head, 
another  in  front  of  his  feet ;  the  middle  one  will  cross  his  stomach,  and 
keep  him  from  falling  out ;  and  there  will  remain  two  short  handles  for 
the  carriers  to  lay  hold  on.  The  American  Indians  carry  their  wounded 
companions  by  this  contrivance  after  a  fight,  and  in  a  hurried  retreat, 
for  wonderful  distances. 

LOAD.  Command  in  infantry  and  artillery  instruction.  (Consult 
Tactics  of  those  arms.)  In  loading  small  arms  the  powder  should 
be  well  shaken  out  of  the  paper,  to  prevent  the  formation  of  gas,  which, 
forcing  the  paper  against  the  sides  of  the  bore,  prevents  it  from  leaving 
•with  the  charge,  and  endangers  the  explosion  of  the  next  charge  when 
loading,  from  the  lighted  paper.  There  is  no  danger  of  heating  the  piece 
by  rapid  firing  so  as  to  cause  premature  explosions,  since  long  before  it 
reaches  600°,  the  temperature  at  which  gunpowder  inflames,  it  is  entirely 
too  hot  to  handle.  In  loading  cannon  the  vent  should  always  be  kept 
carefully  closed,  while  the  loading  is  going  on,  especially  when  spong- 
ing, to  prevent  the  current  of  air  from  passing  out  and  collecting  there 
pieces  of  thread,  paper,  &c.,  from  the  cartridge-bag,  which  would  retain 
fire  in  the  gun,  and  cause  premature  explosion  the  next  time  the  gun 
was  loaded.  This  precaution  is  the  more  necessary,  when  the  sponge 
fits  the  bore  tight,  and  acts  as  a  piston.  The  sponge  should  be  well 
pressed  down  against  the  bottom  of  the  bore,  and  turned,  so  as  to  leave 
no  remnant  of  the  cartridge-bag.  In  mortars,  where  a  sponge  is  seldom 
used,  or  when  it  does  not  fit  tightly,  the  stopping  of  the  vent  is  not 
necessary  ;  but  it  should  always  be  cleared  out  with  the  priming  wire 
before  the  powder  is  placed  in.  Mortar-shells  should  be  let  down 
gently  so  as  not  to  be  forced  into  the  chamber,  or  crush  suddenly  any 
powder  they  may  meet.  The  use  of  sabots  is  avoided  when  firing  over 
the  heads  of  our  own  men.  It  may  sometimes  become  necessary  to  fire 
a  shell  from  a  mortar  too  large  for  it ;  in  which  case  it  is  wedged  in  on 
different  sides  with  pieces  of  soft  wood,  and  the  space  between  it  and 
the  bore  filled  in  with  earth. 

LOCK.     (See  ARMS.) 

LODGEMENT.  In  a  siege  lodgement  signifies  the  occupation  of  a 
position  and  the  hasty  formation  of  an  entrenchment  thereon  to  main- 
tain it  against  recapture.  Thus  it  is  said  the  besiegers,  having  carried 
the  dcmi-lune  or  bastion,  effected  a  lodgement,  or  the  besieged  destroyed 
the  lodgements  of  the  enemy.  (See  SIEGE.) 


LOG.]  .  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  393 

LOGARITHM.  The  logarithm  of  a  number  is  the  exponent  of 
the  power  to  which  another  given  invariable  number  must  be  raised  in 
order  to  produce  the  first  number.  Thus  in  the  common  system  of 
logarithms  in  which  the  invariable  number  is  10,  the  logarithm  of  1,000 
is  3,  because  10  raised  to  the  third  power  is  1,000.  In  general,  if 
ax—y  in  which  equation  a  is  a  given  invariable  number,  then  x  is  the 
logarithm  of  y.  All  absolute  numbers  positive  or  negative,  whole  or 
fractional,  may  be  produced  by  raising  an  invariabe  number  to  suitable 
powers.  This  invariable  number  is  called  the  base  of  the  system  of 
logarithms  :  it  may  be  any  number  whatever  greater  or  less  than  unity  ; 
but  having  been  once  chosen,  it  must  remain  the  same  for  the  formation 
of  all  numbers  in  the  same  system.  Whatever  number  may  be  selected 
for  the  base,  the  logarithm  of  the  base  is  1 ,  and  the  logarithm  of  1  is  0.  In 
fact  if,  in  the  equation  a*=y,  we  make  #  =  1  we  shall  have  al=a,  whence 
by  definition  log.  a— I  ;  and  if  we  make  #=0  we  shall  have  a°=l, 
whence  log.  1=0.  The  chief  properties  of  logarithms  are  :  that  the  log- 
arithm of  a  product  is  equal  to  the  sum  of  the  logarithms  of  its  factor ; 
the  logarithm  of  a  quotient  is  equal  to  the  difference  between  the  log- 
arithm of  the  dividend  and  the  logarithm  of  the  divisor ;  and  the  log- 
arithm of  the  power  of  a  number  is  equal  to  the  product  of  the  log- 
arithm of  the  number  by  the  exponent  of  the  power  ;  and  the  logarithm 
of  any  root  of  a  number  is  equal  to  the  logarithm  of  the  number  di- 
vided by  the  index  of  the  root.  These  properties  of  logarithms  great- 
ly facilitate  arithmetical  operations.  For  if  multiplication  is  to  be 
effected,  it  is  only  necessary  to  take  from  the  logarithmic  tables  the 
logarithms  of  the  factors,  and  then  add  them  into  one  sum,  which  gives 
the  logarithm  of  the  required  product ;  and  on  finding  in  the  table  the 
number  corresponding  to  this  new  logarithm,  the  product  itself  is  ob- 
tained. Multiplication  is  thus  performed  by  simple  addition.  In  like 
manner  division  is  performed  by  simple  subtraction,  and  by  means  of 
a  table  of  logarithms  numbers  may  be  raised  to  any  power  by  simple 
multiplication,  and  the  roots  of  numbers  extracted  by  simple  division. 
(Consult  BABBAGE,  Logarithms  of  Numbers  ;  FARLEY'S  Tables  of  Six- 
figure  Logarithms.} 

LOGISTICS.  Bardin  considers  the  application  of  this  word  by 
some  writers  as  more  ambitious  than  accurate.  It  is  derived  from  Latin 
LOGISTA,  the  administrator  or  intendant  of  the  Eoman  armies.  It  is 
properly  that  branch  of  the  military  art  embracing  all  details  for  mov- 
ing and  supplying  armies.  It  includes  the  operations  of  the  ordnance, 
quartermaster's,  subsistence,  medical,  and  pay  departments.  It  also  em- 
braces the  preparation  and  regulation  of  magazines,  for  opening  a  cam- 


394  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [Loa 

paign,  and  all  orders  of  march  and  other  orders  from  the  general-in- 
chief  relative  to  moving  and  supplying  armies.  Some  writers  have, 
however,  extended  its  signification  to  embrace  STRATEGY. 

LOOP  HOLED  GALLERIES  — are  vaulted  passages  or  case- 
mates,  usually  placed  behind  the  counterscarp  revetment,  and  behind 
the  gorges  of  detached  works,  having  holes  pierced  through  the  walls,  to 
enable  the  defenders  to  bring  a  musketry  fire  from  unseen  positions, 
upon  the  assailants  in  the  ditch.  Loopholes,  however,  are  not  confined 
to  galleries.  In  modern  fortifications,  the  revetments,  both  scarp  and 
counterscarp,  are  very  generally  pierced  for  a  musketry  fire. 

LOOPHOLES — are  apertures  formed  in  a  wall  or  stockade,  that 
through  them  a  fire  of  musketry  may  be  directed  on  the  exterior  ground. 
LOSSES.     In  the  British  army  there  is  a  regular  provision  made 
for  indemnification  for  losses  by  fire  ;  by  shipwreck  ;  in  action  with  the 
enemy  ;  by  capture  at  sea  ;  by  destruction  or  capture  of  a  public  store- 
house ;  by  the  destruction  of  articles  or  horses,  to  prevent  their  falling 
into  the  hands  of  the  enemy,  or  to  prevent  the  spreading  of  an  infec- 
tious disorder.     In  the  United  States  it  would  seem  just  that  Congress 
should  establish  some  general  rules  regulating  such  matters.     The  prin- 
ciple of  settling  all  such  claims  by  special  legisla- 
tion cannot  but  bear  hardly  on  a  number  of  indi- 
viduals, and  also  probably  in  the  end  imposes 
greater  burdens  upon  the  treasury. 

LUNETTES— are  redans  having  flanks  paral- 
lel to  their  capitals,  as  in  Fig.  149.     The  faces  and 
flanks  may  have  any  moderate  extent,  according 
to  the  purpose  for  which  they  are  intended ;  50 
yards  for  the  face,  and  25  yards  for  the  flanks, 
would  be  a  convenient  size  for  many  positions. 
LYING-  OUT  OF  CAMP  OR  QUARTERS.     Punishable,  accord- 
ing to  the  nature  of  the  offence,  by  a  court-martial ;  (ART.  42.) 

M 

MACHICOULIS.     A  projecting  wooden  gallery'lrom  the  second 
story  of  a  house  to  enable  the  assailed  to  fire  down  on  their  opponents. 
MAGAZINE  COYER— of  Rifle  Musket,  1855.   (See  ARMS,  Small.) 
MAGAZINES.      Powder  magazines   ought   to   secure   an   unob- 
structed circulation  of  air  under  the  flooring  as  well  as  above.     The 
magazine  should  be  opened  and  aired  in  clear  dry  weather  ;  the  ven- 
tilators should  be  kept  free ;  and  no  shrubbery  or  trees  should  be  al- 
lowed to  grow  so  near  as  to  protect  the  building  from  the  sun. 


HAL.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  395 

All  batteries  of  attack  require  magazines  capable  of  holding  ammu- 
nition for  daily  consumption.  Fig.  150  is  a  section  of  two  strong  splin- 
ter-proof timbers,  say  8  to  9  feet  long,  and 
9  to  12  inches  in  breadth  and  thickness, 
resting  on  sleepers,  and  giving  an  interior 
space  of  about  the  dimensions  seen  in  the 
figure,  covered  with  one  or  two  tiers  of 
fascines,  and  over  them  3  or  4  feet  of 
dung  or  stiff  earth ;  this  simple  construc- 
tion would  answer  in  many  cases.  By  some  persons  it  is  considered 
better  to  have  two  small  magazines  in  a  battery,  made  of  very  stout 
mining  cases,  and  constructed  in  the  epaulements.  Sir  John  Jones,  in  his 
work  on  "  Sieges,"  says  :  "  Splinter-proof  timbers  for  magazines  were  cut 
12  feet  in  length,  and  from  8  to  10  inches  in  breadth  and  thickness,  and 
were  placed  against  an  epaulement,  or  parapet,  at  an  angle  making  the 
base  equal  to  half  the  height.  They  were  then  covered  with  a  tarpaulin, 
extending  well  over  the  top  of  the  epaulement  upon  which  were  laid  one 
or  two  rows  of  filled  sand-bags,  so  as  to  prevent  the  possibility  of  the 
tarpaulin  being  cut  by  splinters  of  shells.  A  second  tarpaulin  was  usually 
thrown  over  the  exterior  in  rainy  weather.  On  this  construction,  the 
magazines  were  found  to  be  perfectly  dry,  and  sufficiently  spacious,  and 
of  the  strength  no  doubt  can  remain,  as  the  sand-bag  covering  was  fre- 
quently knocked  off  by  large  shells,  and  in  no  instance  were  the  splinter- 
proofs  broken.  The  best  situations  for  magazines  are  on  the  flanks  of 
the  batteries.  Nothing  can  be  worse  than  to  place  them  in  rear  of  the 
centre  of  a  battery,  as  then  every  cartridge  has  to  be  carried  along  the 
most  exposed  and  dangerous  part  of  the  battery,  and  the  number  of 
accidents  and  casualties  which  arise  therefrom  is  very  great  indeed. 
The  artillery  always  preferred  having  two  magazines  formed,  rather 
than  to  have  one  exceeding  10  or  12  feet  in  length ;  when  two  were 
made,  they  were  placed  one  on  either  flank,  a  situation  which  was  found 
to  answer  extremely  well."  (Consult  HYDE'S  Fortification  ;  Ordnance 
Manual.) 

MAGISTRAL  LINE — in  a  plan,  is  that  which  regulates  the  form 
of  the  works.  It  is  that  which  is  first  laid  down,  and  from  which  the 
other  parts  of  the  works  are  traced.  (See  CORDON.) 

MAJOR.     Rank  between  captain  and  lieutenant-colonel. 

MAJOR-GENERAL.  Rank  between  brigadier-general  and  lieu- 
tenant-general. 

MALARIA.     (See  SANITARY  PRECAUTIONS.) 

MALINGERER.     A  soldier  who  feigns  illness  in  order  to  avoid 


MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [MAN. 

his  duty.  Any  soldier,  in  the  English  army,  convicted  of  malingering, 
feigning  or  producing  disease  or  infirmity,  or  of  being  detained  in  hos- 
pital in  consequence  of  materially  injuring  his  health  by  his  own  vice 
or  intemperance,  and  thereby  rendering  himself  unfit  for  the  service ; 
or  of  absenting  himself  from  an  hospital  whilst  under  medical  treat- 
ment ;  or  of  being  guilty  of  a  gross  violation  of  the  rules  of  the  hospi- 
tal ;  or  of  intentionally  protracting  his  cure  ;  or  of  wilfully  aggravating 
his  disease,  is  liable  to  be  tried  by  a  court-martial  for  "  disgraceful 
conduct,"  and  to  suffer  the  punishments  attached  to  that  crime. 

MANOEUVRE.  For  prescribed  manoeuvres  consult  Cavalry  Tac- 
tics ;  Infantry  Tactics;  Rifle  and  Light  Infantry  Tactics;  Instruction 
for  Field  Artillery,  horse  and  foot ;  and  Instruction  for  Heavy  Artil- 
lery, embracing  Mechanical  Manoeuvres. 

The  word  manoeuvre  signifies  also  movements  of  entire  corps  in 
war  executed  with  general  views ;  and  by  some  writers  it  is  confined 
to  that  signification,  and  the  word  evolution  is  made  to  designate  the 
particular  means,  or  the  elements  of  manoeuvres  ;  (JABRO.)  Manoeu- 
vres, according  to  Bardin,  are  operations  in  war  whether  really  before 
an  enemy,  or  simulated  on  a  field  of  exercise.  Their  precision  and 
aptness  depend  upon  the  skill  of  the  general ;  the  intelligence  of  his 
aides-de-camp  ;  upon  the  chiefs  of  battalions  and  their  adjutants,  and 
the  general  guides.  Evolutions  and  manoeuvres  are,  however,  often  ap- 
plied in  the  same  sense,  and  indeed  it  may  well  be  questioned  whether 
there  be  any  propriety  in  retaining  in  books  of  instruction  evolutions 
which  are  not  used  as  manoeuvres  against  an  enemy. 

Manoeuvres  of  Infantry  in  battle. — The  vicious  idea  that  tactical 
evolutions  are  not  used  in  war  is  by  no  means  uncommon,  and  has  fre- 
quently caused  the  loss  of  battles.  It  is  true  that  the  number  of  ma- 
noeuvres used  in  combats  is  limited,  and  that  those  which  are  needed  can 
only  be  judiciously  applied  by  keeping  in  view  moral  and  physical  re- 
quirements. The  judicious  tactician  will,  therefore,  in  war  eschew  :  de- 
ployments, which  cause  the  soldier  to  turn  his  back  towards  an  enemy  ; 
countermarches ;  forming  a  battalion  on  the  right  or  left  by  file  into 
line,  and  some  other  movements  suited  only  to  parades.  One  of  the 
most  hazardous  manoeuvres  is  the  formation  of  columns  of  great  depth 
and  deploying  those  columns  when  too  near  the  enemy.  Without  giv- 
ing names  or  places,  (says  Marshal  Bugeaud.)  I  affirm  that  I  have  seen 
an  entire  division  in  column  of  regiments,  which  began  its  deployment 
within  range  of  the  enemy's  guns,  routed  before  it  finished  its  ma- 
noeuvre. 

The  column  is  an  order  of  march  and  manoeuvre,  rarely  an  order  of 


MAN.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  397 

battle. — When  beyond  the  range  of  cannon,  and  at  a  distance  from  the 
line  of  battle  to  be  occupied,  if  the  enemy  approach  and  time  permits, 
it  is  necessary  to  close  in  mass,  in  order  to  hold  the  troops  in  hand  for 
all  possible  dispositions. 

So,  in  marches  near  the  enemy  the  columns  should  march  at  half 
distance,  when  roads  permit,  in  order  that  they  may  be  less  elon- 
gated, and  all  the  troops  be  ready  to  act  promptly.  If.  surprised  in 
this  order  by  the  necessity  of  forming  immediately  forward  into  line 
of  battle,  or,  if  without  being  under  this  pressing  necessity,  there  is  be- 
tween us  and  the  enemy  ground  admitting  an  easy  march  in  line  of 
battle,  the  column  ought  to  execute  forward  into  line,  according  to  the 
principles  of  the  tactics.  This  movement  is  more  prompt  and  greatly 
better  than  closing  column  in  mass,  in  order  to  deploy  afterwards.  In  the 
first  case  troops  only  pass  over  one  side  of  the  triangle,  whilst  by  mass- 
ing the  column  to  deploy  afterwards,  they  must  pass  over  two  sides  by 
a  complicated  manoeuvre,  which  is  dangerous  from  the  beginning.  In 
general,  it  is  necessary  to  shun  as  much  as  possible  the  deployment  of 
great  massed  columns,  for  this  movement  is  badly  executed  even  in 
exercises.  It  can  only  be  performed  far  from  the  enemy,  and  it  is  even 
there  inconvenient.  It  should  be  renounced  in  all  formations  whose 
object  is  to  take  the  enemy  in  flank  or  reverse,  if  he  be  sufficiently  neai 
to  take  measures  to  prevent  success.  In  that  case,  the  formation  of  the' 
close  columns  in  mass  upon  the  right  or  left  into  line  of  battle  is  a 
necessary  manoeuvre.  This  movement,  as  Marshal  Bugeaud  suggests, 
is  most  important  in  war ;  (Fig.  151.)  It  would  have  an  influence 
upon  battles  by  the  simplicity  and  rapidity  of  its  execution,  and 
accidents  of  ground  would  often  be  found  to  conceal  the  movement 
from  the  enemy.  It  admits  of  an  attack  in  echelons  of  battalions 
against  an  enemy  being  commenced  as  soon  as  one  battalion  or  the 
half  of  a  battalion  has  formed  on  the  right  or  on  the  left  of  the  line  of 
the  enemy.  It  also  offers  the  advantage  of  giving  to  the  line,  with  the 
greatest  facility,  every  form  that  may  be  wished,  and  protecting  the  suc- 
cessive formations  by  a  mass  that  may  be  disposed  of  at  pleasure, 
whether  at  the  extremity  of  the  line  to  form  square  against  cavalry,  or 
to  occupy  in  advance  upon  the  right  or  left  a  commanding  position,  pro* 
tecting  the  flanks  of  our  line.  When  circumstances,  then,  compel  a 
march  in  heavy  mass,  it  is  better  to  present  to  the  enemy  a  flank  of 
columns,  in  order  to  deploy  them  by  formations  on  the  right  or  on  the 
left  into  line  of  battle. 

When  a  line  has  to  pass  over  a  great  distance,  it  is  commonly  formed 
into  columns  of  attack.    The  formation  by  company  in  column,  in  rear  of 


398 


MILITARY  DICTIONARY. 


[MAN. 


the  grenadiers  of  each  battalion,  is  preferred  by  Marshal  Bugeaud,  because 
it  is  thus  easier  to  make  good  dispositions  against  cavalry.  The  gren- 
adiers of  each  battalion  make  a  half  wheel,  and  each  battalion,  after 


FIG.  151. 


MANEUVRE  OF  A  COLUMN 
IN  MASS  TO  TAKE  THE 
ENEMY  IN  FLANK.    - 

tfa.       £ 


RESERVE   OF  THE   ENEMY 
0*1      ~C 


i 


IN  EOF  THE  ENJJEMY;. 


being  closed  in  mass,  forms  square.  But  neither  the  column  by  com- 
panies or  divisions  ought  to  be  used  within  range  of  cannon,  whenever 
there  is  a  possibility  of  marching  in  line  of  battle.  It  is  time  that  the 
fact  should  be  admitted,  that  although  the  moral  effect  of  the  column 
may  be  considerable,  yet  this  may  be  paralyzed  by  a  little  manoeu- 
vring on  the  part  of  the  enemy's  line,  which  would  necessarily  obtain 
great  advantage  from  the  superiority  of  its  fire.  Small  columns,  at 
distances  of  three  battalions  from  each  other  marching  under  cover  of 
the  line,  may  render  great  services.  They  would  be  ready  promptly 
to  fill  the  holes  made  in  the  line  of  battle,  and  the  best  means  of  doing 
this  would  be  to  take  the  enemy  in  flank  who  had  pierced  them,  when- 
ever they  could.  It  is  desirable  that  these  columns  should  each  not 
exceed  a  half  battalion,  and  be  commanded  by  energetic  officers. 

The  depth  of  the  column  adds  nothing  to  the  strength  of  the  first 
battalion  composing  it,  and  diminishes  that  of  the  mass. — It  is,  then, 
vicious  to  employ  more  than  one  battalion,  except  in  the  small  number 


MAN.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY. 

of  cases  where  it  is  necessary  to  fight  in  mass,  as  in  carrying  a  bridge, 
a  defile,  an  entrenchment,  a  breach,  &c.  The  other  battalions  ought  to 
follow  at  such  a  distance  that  they  may  sustain  the  attacking  battalion 
without  sharing  in  its  disaster  or  rout,  if  such  should  take  place.  With 
an  interval  the  chiefs  of  battalions  have  time  to  prepare  their  troops, 
and  make  necessary  dispositions  ;  with  a  single  mass  the  disorder  at 
the  head  of  the  column  is  communicated  to  the  rear  almost  as  readily 
as  an  electric  spark. . 

Flank  marches,  in  presence  of  the  enemy,  ought  always  to  be  made 
in  open  column.  In  this  order  we  are  always  ready  to  fight  by  a  sim- 
ple wheel  of  each  subdivision  of  the  column.  Nothing  is  deranged  in 
the  order  of  battle,  whatever  may  be  the  strength  and  number  of  the 
lines.  Without  derangement  an  excellent  disposition  may  also  be 
made  against  cavalry.  The  column  will  be  halted,  and  each  battalion 
will  be  closed  in  mass  upon  its  grenadiers,  who  make  a  half  wheel.  The 
field-officers,  staff,  and  the  officers  of  grenadiers  will  be  previously  warned. 
Each  battalion  will  form  then  Marshal  Bugeaud's  square.  The  first 
order  will  be  resumed  by  taking  distances  by  the  head  of  each  battal- 
ion ;  the  grenadiers  retaking  their  direction  at  once. 

If  deep  columns  are  condemned  as  an  order  of  attack,  those  barba- 
rous columns  employed  in  some  of  the  last  battles  of  Napoleon,  and 
particularly  at  Waterloo,  ought  to  be  condemned  still  more.  That 
column,  which  appeared  to  announce  the  decline  of  art,  consisted  in  em- 
ploying all  the  battalions  of  a  division  one  behind  the  other,  and  thus 
marching  towards  the  enemy. 

Every  column  has  for  its  object  to  pass  rapidly,  and  without  con- 
fusion, into  the  order  of  battle,  to  pass  over  lightly  a  given  space,  and 
to  make  prompt  dispositions  against  cavalry.  The  column  against 
which  these  remarks  are  made  does  nothing  of  that  kind,  and  if  it  be 
attacked  upon  its  flanks,  whether  by  cavalry  or  infantry,  it  cannot  fail 
to  be  destroyed. 

Order  of  battle,  march  in  line  of  battle,  and  changes  of  front. — The 
line  of  battle  is  the  true  order  of  battle.  It  is  also  the  best  order  of 
march  when  in  range  of  cannon,  and  not  exposed  to  cavalry.  It  is  only 
in  this  order  that  infantry  can  make  use  of  its  fire.  If  battalions  con- 
sist of  800  men  they  will,  in  a  formation  of  two  ranks,  be  too  much 
extended  for  most  chiefs  of  battalions.  Two  companies  of  each  battal- 
ion ought  then  to  be  formed  as  columns  of  reserve.  The  order  in  two 
ranks  is  beyond  question  best  suited,  in  oblique  attacks,  for  that  part  of 
the  line  not  to  be  engaged ;  and  with  rifle  muskets  now  used  the  two- 
rank  formation  will  be  found  better  for  that  part  of  the  line  which  is  to 


400  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [MAN. 

strike  also.  Even  with  old  muskets  the  two-rank  formation  was  used 
by  the  British  very  successfully  at  Waterloo  in  squares  against  cavalry. 
The  fire  in  two-rank  formation  is  made  with  more  order,  more  easily, 
and  is  better  aimed.  The  march  in  line  of  battle  ought  to  be  employed 
whenever  the  ground  permits  it,  within  1,000  yards  of  the  enemy.  Wo 
lose  then  fewer  men  by  cannon,  and  even  if  it  be  desirable  to  approach 
the  enemy  in  column,  (which  is  very  rare,  and  should  even  then  be  in 
columns  of  single  battalions,)  the  march  ought  still  to  be  in  line  of 
battle  until  within  two  hundred  yards,  and  then  the  column  of  attack 
ought  to  be  formed  while  marching.  Troops  cannot  be  too  much  ex- 
ercised in  marching  in  line  of  battle.  This  march  is  no  more  difficult 
than  the  march  of  many  heads  of  columns  upon  the  same  line,  perhaps 
even  less  so,  for  it  is  difficult  to  maintain  between  the  columns  the  in- 
tervals necessary  for  deployments. 

Changes  of  front  very  near  the  enemy  are  rarely  perpendicular. 
The  new  front  nearly  always  forms  with  the  line  of  battle  an  acute 
angle.  In  this  case,  it  is  necessary  to  guard  against  breaking  the  bat- 
talions into  column.  It  is  better  to  use  the  changes  of  direction  for  the 
line  of  battle  prescribed  by  the  tactics.  The  two  pivot  battalions  may 
be  thrown  upon  the  new  line  by  companies  half  faced  to  the  right  or 
left.  The  other  battalions  ought  to  be  directed  upon  the  new  line  by 
changes  of  direction  which  would  least  expose  them  to  artillery.  If, 
however,  we  have  to  guard  against  cavalry  during  the  execution  of  the 
movement,  it  will  be  better  to  break  into  column  the  battalions  of  the 
leading  wing.  They  will  thus  form  the  stem  of  the  battery,  and  would 
rapidly  make  good  dispositions  against  cavalry,  as  they  would  only  be 
obliged  to  close  in  mass  upon  the  grenadiers  and  form  square. 

Changes  of  front  forward  are  possible  under  fire,  but  changes  of  front 
to  the  rear  are  not  so.  I  believe,  (says  Marshal  Bugeaud,)  that  the  loss 
of  one  of  our  battles  in  Spain  may,  in  great  part,  be  attributed  to  a 
change  of  front  in  rear  of  the  left  wing,  which  was  attempted  at  a  mo- 
ment when  warmly  engaged.  The  movement  rapidly  degenerated  into 
a  rout;  and  it  could  not  be  otherwise.  There  are  no  troops  with 
sufficient  sang-froid  and  self-possession  to  make  that  movement  under 
the  fire  of  ball  and  grape.  To  make  the  movement,  it  is  necessary  first 
to  stop  the  enemy,  and  the  means  of  doing  that  vary  with  circum- 
stances, and  the  resources  within  our  command.  Charges  of  cavalry — 
above  all  if  they  threaten  the  flanks  of  the  enemy's  line,  would  cover 
the  change  of  front  to  the  rear.  If  cavalry  be  not  at  hand,  there  is  no 
better  means  than  to  advance  the  second  line  to  the  position  that  it  is 
desired  that  the  front  should  occupy  after  its  change  of  front,  and  with- 


MAN.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  401 

draw  the  first  line  at  a  run,  directing  it  to  form  the  second  line,  passing 
through  the  intervals  of  the  battalions,  now  become  the  first  line. 

If  a  line  is  about  coming  up  with  the  enemy  at  the  moment  of  re- 
ceiving the  order  to  change  front,  it  would  be  better  to  finish  the  charge, 
by  putting  the  first  line  of  the  enemy  in  rout  before  executing  tho 
movement  to  the  rear.  This  last  principle  is  applicable  to  retreats 
generally  :  it  is  often  necessary  to  overthrow  an  enemy  who  is  too  nigh 
before  retiring. 

Running  movements  may,  in  many  cases,  save  us  from  destruction. 
It  is  necessary,  then,  to  exercise  troops  in  such  movements,  and  make 
them  run  in  disorder,  and  re-form  at  some  given  point. 

Echelons. — The  order  in  echelons  is  the  manoeuvre  of  oblique  at- 
tacks. By  that  means  we  approximate  those  troops  only  who  are  to 
fight.  The  remainder  are  at  once  threatening  and  defensive.  They 
hold  in  check  one  or  many  parts  of  the  order  of  battle  of  the  enemy, 
and  present  the  best  possible  protection  to  the  attacking  portion.  Some 
echelons  to  the  right  and  left  of  that  which  attacks,  are  greatly  better 
than  any  other  support.  They  render,  if  not  impossible,  at  least  very 
difficult,  an  attack  upon  the  flank  of  the  attacking  portion,  as  that  cannot 
be  assailed  without  the  enemy  in  turn  being  taken  in  flank  by  echelons. 
And  the  latter  cannot  be  turned,  except  by  strong  movements,  which 
must  weaken  the  army  executing  them,  and  also  afford  necessary  time 
to  guard  against  them. 

Instead  of  placing  flank  brigades  in  advance  of  the  front  of  the  col- 
umns or  lines  that  they  protect,  it  is  better  to  place  them  in  rear.  Be- 
sides the  physical  advantages  of  this  disposition,  there  are  moral  advan- 
tages, inasmuch  as  the  latter  position  enables  the  echelons  to  assail, 
whereas,  if  they  were  immediately  on  the  flank  of  the  attack,  they  might 
be  assailed. 

In  theory,  echelons  are  placed  at  regular  distances.  In  practice, 
the  distance  is  determined  by  circumstances,  and,  above  all,  by  the 
formation  of  the  ground.  The  regularity  of  echelons  can,  therefore, 
only  exist  in  broad  plains.  The  greater  or  less  distance  between  eche- 
lons depends  upon  the  number  of  troops,  the  distances  between  those 
of  the  enemy,  and  the  ulterior  views  of  the  general-in-chief ;  but  in  gen- 
eral they  ought  to  be  within  mutual  succor,  and  if  cavalry  is  to  be  re- 
pulsed, they  ought  to  cross  fire  at  about  150  paces  after  having  formed 
square.  The  different  movements  of  echelons,  the  changes  of  front  in 
each  echelon,  with  the  same  angle,  are  very  useful  in  war ;  it  is  neces- 
sary, therefore,  that  troops  should  be  exercised  in  such  movements. 
(See  BATTLE  ;  CHARGE  ;  CONVOY  ;  DEFILE  ;  INFANTRY  ;  SQUARES.  Con- 
26 


402  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [MAN. 

suit  Apergus  sur  quelques  Details  de  la  Guerre, par  MARSHAL  BUGEAUD  ; 
Tactique  des  Trois  Armes,  par  DECKER.) 

MANTLET — is  a  musket-proof  shield,  which  is  sometimes  used  for 
the  protection  of  sappers  or  riflemen  during  the  attack  of  a  fortress. 
(See  PENETRATION.) 

MANUAL.  Exercise  of  arms ;  books  of  reference,  as  Ordnance 
Manual,  &c. 

MARAUDING.    (See  PLUNDER  and  PILLAGE.) 

MARCH.  Recruits  are  taught  to  march  by  explaining  the  princi- 
ples of  the  cadcnced  step  in  common,  quick,  and  double-quick  time.  The 
march  in  line  of  battle  is  the  most  difficult  and  most  important  of  the 
tactical  marches.  A  regiment  which  can  pass  over  two  hundred  paces 
in  line  of  battle  without  losing  its  allignment,  is  well  instructed. 
Marches  may  be  divided  into  :  marches  in  time  of  war ;  marches  in 
route,  in  time  of  peace ;  and  tactical  marches.  Those  in  time  of  war 
are  either  movements  to  pass  over  ground,  or  else  manoeuvres  to  ob- 
tain an  advantageous  position.  When  an  army  moves  forward  to  meet 
an  enemy  who  is  still  very  distant,  it  will  .be  sufficient  to  have  advanced 
and  rear  guards,  some  flankers,  and  march  in  parallel  columns  over  the 
best  routes,  each  column  having  its  squadrons  of  cavalry,  batteries  of  ar- 
tillery, and  wagon  trains.  If  the  enemy  is,  however,  in  the  neighbor- 
hood, if  we  march  along  the  front  of  his  camp,  or  his  line  of  posts,  every 
precaution  must  be  redoubled  to  gain  information  of  his  movements 
and  guard  against  surprise. 

When  the  march  is  only  a  manoeuvre,  it  is  often  made  across  fields  ; 
through  by-roads  ;  then  it  is  necessary  to  reconnoitre  in  advance,  clear 
away  obstacles,  and  sometimes  even  construct  little  bridges  ;  guides  are 
taken,  and  information  gained  from  them  as  well  as  by  reconnaissances. 
Armies  are  collected  together  by  routes  of  march,  the  troops  usually 
marching  about  17  miles  a  day.  In  general,  the  marches  are  made  by 
battalions  echeloned  at  intervals  one  day's  distance  from  each  other. 
Cavalry  ordinarily  marches  alone  and  follows  the  least  direct  roads,  but 
it  is  difficult  to  subsist  a  numerous  cavalry  without  retarding  military 
operations.  Artillery  follows  the  cavalry,  or  if  it  has  a  large  convoy, 
it  marches  by  another  route  alone.  The  troops  begin  to  concentrate  on 
the  base  of  operations.  Still  advancing,  the  echelons  converge,  and  the 
troops  are  cantoned  together  by  lines  one  day's  march  from  each  other. 
The  nearer  we  approach  the  enemy,  the  more  columns  are  used ;  if  the 
country  offers  parallel  debouches,  it  is  always  advantageous  to  march 
an  army  corps  on  many  routes,  if  they  are  within  distance  for  deploy- 
ments ;  but  if  there  is  only  one  means  of  communication,  the  different 


MAR.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  403 

arms  are  kept  200  yards  distant  from  each  other,  and  the  cavalry 
marches  in  rear  of  the  column. 

On  these  marches,  when  a  defile  is  to  be  passed,  the  successive  pas- 
sage of  each  echelon  is  commanded  in  advance  ;  and  it  is  a  general  rule 
never  to  crowd  troops,  so  as  to  paralyze  their  action,  or  even  render 
movements  difficult ;  but  care  must  be  taken  always  to  keep  troops 
within  easy  supporting  distance  of  each  other. 

Sometimes  an  army  is  collected  very  near  the  enemy.  It  is  neces- 
sary then  nicely  to  calculate  distances,  &c.,  in  order  to  combine  marches 
for  a  simultaneous  convergence  of  columns  on  the  offensive  point.*  To 
bring  troops  suddenly  together,  forced  marches  are  made  by  some  of 
the  troops ;  relays  and  railways  are  also  used.  By  forced  marches  the 
ordinary  day's  march  is  doubled,  but  under  extraordinary  circumstances 
62  miles  have  been  made  in  26  hours.  Relays  are  the  use  of  wagons, 
&c.,  obtained  by  requisition.  250  wagons  may  carry  from  2,000  to 
2,300  men.  Sometimes  the  march  is  made  entirely  in  wagons,  and  each 
echelon  passes  over  three  days'  march  in  8  hours.  This  is  done  by  the 
troops  taking  new  wagons  twice,  the  old  returning  empty  for  other  troops. 

It  is  but  seldom  that  any  one  arm  is  exclusively  employed  when  near 
the  enemy ;  it  is  usual  to  operate  with  a  combined  force  of  cavalry, 
infantry,  and  artillery,  so  that  it  may  be  always  possible  to  employ  one 
or  the  other  arm,  according  to  circumstances  and  locality.  If  the  main 
body  of  the  army  is  composed  of  the  different  arms,  then  the  advanced 
guard  is  similarly  constituted,  that  it  may  be  able  to  act  in  all  localities. 

The  composition  of  such  an  advanced  guard  depends — 

1st.  Upon  the  object  and  nature  of  its  intended  operations.  During 
marches  in  pursuit,  it  is  reinforced  by  cavalry  ;  but  if  it  is  to  make  an 
obstinate  resistance,  it  is  strengthened  with  much  infantry  and  artillery. 
In  general,  light  cavalry  are  the  best  for  advanced  guards,  wherever  the 
nature  of  the  ground  permits  them  to  operate,  but  infantry  are  neces- 
sary to  support  them.  Mounted  rifles  and  mounted  engineer  troops  are 
of  great  service  in  advanced  guards. 

*  To  calculate  exactly  the  time  T  necessary  for  the  execution  of  a  march :— A  column  of  in- 
fantry will  generally  pass  over  about  five  miles  in  two  hours,  halts  included.  A  column  of  cavalry 
at  a  walk  and  trot  alternately  makes  about  six  miles  per  hour.  Let  D  then  be  the  distance  to  be 
accomplished,  d  the  distance  that  the  men  comprising  the  column  pass  over  in  an  hour,  halts  in- 
cluded ;  I  the  length  of  the  column ;  o  the  delay  caused  by  obstacles ;  then  t  —  -  will  be  the 

d 

time  that  passes  until  the  left  arrives  at  its  destination,  and  the  formula  T  =  t  +  o  +  D  will  give 
the  time  Bought.  One  of  the  elements  of  o  is  the  lengthening  I'  of  a  column  in  a  defile;  it  ig 

9« 

considered  by  introducing  —  into  the  formula;  o  is  also  the  delay  caused  by  marching  across  fields. 
These  elements  may  all  be  estimated  and  introduced  into  the  formula. 


404  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [MAR. 

2d.  The  composition  of  the  advanced  guard  depends  also  upon  the 
locality ;  if  the  ground  is  broken,  much  infantry  is  required ;  if  it  is 
open,  much  cavalry  ;  and,  in  general,  light  troops. 

The  order  of  march  of  an  advanced  guard  depends  principally  upon 
its  composition,  the  order  of  march  of  the  main  body,  the  locality,  &c. 
The  main  rule  is,  that  it  should  never  be  too  much  divided,  so  that 
there  may  always  be  a  considerable  force  in  hand  to  seek  the  enemy 
more  boldly,  and  detain  him  longer.  Therefore,  even  when  the  main 
body  moves  in  several  columns,  the  principal  part  of  the  advanced 
guard  marches  on  the  main  road,  sending  only  small  parties  on  the 
others  to  watch  the  enemy  and  detach  patrols  as  far  as  possible  in  all 
directions.  In  an  open,  level  country,  the  cavalry  marches  at  the  head  ; 
in  a  broken  country,  there  is  only  a  small  detachment  of  cavalry  at  the 
head,  to  furnish  advanced  detachments  and  patrols.  An  advanced  de- 
tachment of  cavalry,  which  sends  out  patrols  in  front  and  on  its  flanks, 
moves  at  the  distance  of  a  few  miles  in  front  of  the  advanced  guard. 
Small  detachments  of  cavalry  move  in  a  line  with  it  on  the  other  roads ; 
also  others  on  the  flanks  of  the  main  advanced  guard,  to  secure  it 
against  being  turned.  All  the  front  and  flank  detachments  maintain 
constant  mutual  communication  by  means  of  patrols,  and  thus  guard 
the  whole  space  in  front  of  the  main  body  over  a  great  extent. 
But  if  the  flank  columns  of  the  main  body  march  at  a  great  distance 
from  the  main  road,  followed  by  the  advanced  guard,  then,  in  addition 
to  this  last,  each  flank  column  detaches  a  small  advanced  guard  for  its 
own  security. 

If  the  advanced  guard  is  composed  of  different  arms,  its  distance 
from  the  main  body  depends  not  only  upon  its  strength,  but  also  on  the 
following  circumstances  :  1.  On  its  composition.  Cavalry  may  advance 
much  further  than  infantry.  2.  Upon  the  locality.  The  more  fully  the 
nature  of  the  country  secures  the  advanced  guard  against  being  turned, 
the  further  may  it  move  from  the  main  body.  3.  Upon  the  object  in 
view.  Prior  to  defensive  combats  in  position,  it  is  advantageous  to 
have  the  advanced  guard  as  far  from  the  main  body  as  possible,  in  or- 
der to  secure  time  for  making  the  necessary  arrangements  ;  but  if  the 
main  body  is  already  concentrated  for  a  decisive  attack  upon  the  enemy, 
it  is  sometimes  well  to  be  entirely  without  an  advanced  guard ;  during 
a  pursuit,  the  main  body  should  follow  the  advanced  guard  as  closely 
as  possible.  4.  Upon  the  order  of  march  of  the  main  body.  The 
longer  the  time  needed  by  the  main  body  to  form  in  order  of  battle,  on 
account  of  the  intervals  between  the  columns,  the  nature  of  the  ground 
between  them,  the  length  of  the  columns,  &c.,  so  much  further  forward 


MAR.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  405 

should  the  advanced  guard  be  pushed.  In  general,  the  distance  of  the 
advanced  guard  from  the  head  of  the  main  body  should  be  a  little 
greater  than  the  interval  between  the  outside  columns  of  the  main 
body. 

Fig.  152  gives  an  example  of  the  arrangement  of  an  advanced  guard 
composed  of  one  brigade  of  light  cavalry,  8  battalions  of  infantry,  one 
battalion  of  sappers,  6  pieces  of  horse  artillery,  and  12  pieces  of  foot 
artillery ;  the  main  body  following  in  3  columns. 

Whatever  slight  changes  may  be  made  necessary  by  the  nature  of 
the  country,  can  easily  be  made  with  the  aid  of  a  map  and  the  special 
information  obtained  in  other  ways. 

If  the  country  is  partially  broken  and  obstructed,  it  is  advantageous 
to  have  four  or  five  companies  of  infantry  just  behind  the  leading  de- 
tachment of  cavalry  to  examine  places  that  are  difficult  or  dangerous 
for  the  latter. 

Upon  the  plains,  the  patrols  are  of  cavalry  ;  in  a  mountainous  re- 
gion, of  infantry.  In  the  latter  case,  not  only  the  advanced  detachments 
and  patrols  are  of  infantry,  but  also  the  head  and  rear  of  every  column ; 
the  cavalry  and  artillery  march  in  the  middle,  under  the  protection  of 
the  infantry. 

In  passing  through  a  village,  the  infantry  enter  it  first,  if  there  are 
any  with  the  advanced  guard  ;  the  cavalry  either  ride  rapidly  around 
it^  or,  according  to  circumstances,  halt  a  little  before  reaching  the  vil- 
lage, and  wait  until  the  infantry  have  passed  through. 

The  passage  of  important  bridges,  ravines,  and  defiles,  should  be 
effected  in  the  same  manner,  the  infantry  examining  them.  As  soon  as 
the  infantry  have  crossed  and  formed  on  the  other  side,  the  cavalry 
send  out  patrols  to  a  great  distance  to  examine  the  ground  in  front  be- 
fore the  main  body  of  the  advanced  guard  begins  to  cross. 

The  advanced  guard  having  crossed  rapidly,  forms  in  front  of  tlje 
passage,  to  cover  the  debouche  of  the  main  body.  The  distance  of  such 
a  position  from  the  passage  should  be  such  that,  in  the  event  of  being 
attacked,  the  advanced  guard  may  not  be  too  quickly  forced  back  upon 
the  main  body  while  debouching,  and  that  the  latter  may  have  ample 
time  to  form  without  disorder. 

Since  attacks  should  be  most  expected  when  passing  through  defiles, 
or  when  issuing  from  them,  they  should  be  traversed  rapidly,  and  with 
the  most  extended  front  possible,  to  prevent  the  column  from  stretching 
out. 

An  advanced  guard  possessing  a  certain  degree  of  independence, 
without  neglecting  any  of  the  precautions  here  laid  down,  should  not  be 


406 


MILITARY  DICTIONARY. 


[MAR. 


FIG.  152. 

HARCH  OP   AN  ADVANCED   GTTARD   COMPOSED   OF   1   BRIGADE   OF   CAVALRY,  (20    COMPANIES,) 

2  DIVISIONS  OF   INFANTRY,  (8  BATTALIONS,)  1   BATTALION   OF   SAPPERS,  6  PIECES 

OF  HORSE   AND   12  OF   FOOT  ARTILLERY. 


,2  Companies 2d  Reg't 


from  2  to  4  milei 


Platoon 

1/3  mile 
3 1  ft  Companies  Id  Reft 

about  2/3  mile 

E?2  Companies  2d  Rtg'l 

from  2  to  4  milet 


From  1%  to  2  milet 


6  Guns     *+  \  8  Companies  1st  Reg'  t 


M 

I 


Lifht 


read  of  main  body 


2d  Infantry  D 


\tt  Infantry  Division 


Sapper  Battalion 


IX  miles 


»!}£  Comp's  1st  Seg't 

Vs  mile 
.>  Platoon— 1st  Reg't 


Bead  of  main  body 


Hrad  of  main  body 


MAR.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  4(/J 

too  apprehensive,  and,  in  examining  the  country,  ought  not  to  be  de- 
tained by  objects  which  cannot  conceal  the  enemy  in  sufficient  force  to 
make  him  dangerous  to  the  advanced  guard. 

In  very  mountainous  regions,  it  is  necessary  to  rely  upon  the  infan- 
try alone  ;  the  cavalry  and  train  remaining  in  rear,  and  not  entering  the 
defiles  until  they  have  been  occupied.  Here  'the  infantry  patrols  are 
sent  out  as  far  as  possible,  and  occupy  the  heights  from  which  the  direc- 
tion of  the  columns  may  be  seen,  until  relieved  by  the  patrols  of  the 
rear  guard,  which  is  also  of  infantry.  In  this  manner  the  cavalry,  which 
the  enemy  would  attack  in  such  places  in  preference,  is  protected.  Not 
a  gorge  or  defile  should  be  left  unexamind,  for  in  the  mountains  an  at- 
tack may  be  expected  at  any  moment. 

In  a  wooded  country,  the  commander  of  the  advanced  guard  takes 
nearly  the  same  precautions  as  in  the  mountains. 

If  the  forest  is  deep  but  not  broad,  detachments  of  cavalry  ride  along 
the  skirts,  which  are  occupied  by  infantry  skirmishers  as  supports  ;  if 
the  forest  is  dense,  but  not  deep,  the  infantry  lead.  The  infantry  place 
themselves  along  the  skirts  of  the  wood  on  both  sides  of  the  road ;  the 
cavalry  then  passes  through  at  a  fast  trot,  forms  on  the  plain  beyond, 
and  there  awaits  the  rest  of  the  column. 

When  the  road  passes  through  a  country  but  little  obstructed  by 
defiles,  villages,  or  other  obstacles  to  the  movements  of  cavalry,  and 
there  is 'no  infantry  with  the  advanced  guard,  mounted  rifles  are  very 
useful ;  finally,  the  enemy,  in  retreating  through  such  a  country,  leaves 
infantry  at  these  obstacles  to  arrest  the  pursuit  of  the  cavalry,  and  de- 
lay until  the  arrival  of  the  infantry ;  in  such  cases,  mounted  rifles  or 
dismounted  dragoons  will  produce  sure  results  by  acting  against  the 
enemy's  infantry. 

The  main  body. — It  remains  to  be  said,  in  reference  to  this,  that  the 
nature  of  the  country  must  determine  its  order  of  march,  whether  cav- 
alry or  infantry  are  to  lead.  If  the  country  is  broken,  particularly  if  it 
is  wooded,  there  is  great  danger  in  placing  the  cavalry  at  the  head ;  for 
it  may  not  only  be  unable  to  act,  but,  if  forced  to  retreat,  may  carry 
disorder  into  the  infantry  following. 

The  artillery  should  march  in  the  midst  of  the  other  troops,  but  a 
few  pieces  may  move  with  the  head  of  the  column,  to  protect  it  in  case 
of  meeting  the  enemy  suddenly. 

Infantry,  in  traversing  extensive  forests,  in  which  parties  of  the 
enemy  may  easily  conceal  themselves,  replace  the  flank  detachments  and 
patrols  of  cavalry.  (Consult  Aide  Memoire  tfEtat  Major  ;  McCLEL- 
LAN'S  Military  Companion.) 


408  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [MAR. 

MARINE  CORPS — when  serving  with  the  army,  to  be  supplied 
by  the  several  officers  of  the  staff  of  the  army  ;  (Act  Dec.  15,  1814.) 
The  officers  of  the  marine  corps  may  be  associated  with  the  officers  of 
the  land  forces  for  the  purpose  of  holding  courts-martial  and  trying 
offenders  belonging  to  either  ;  and  in  such  cases  the  orders  of  the  senior 
officer  of  cither  corps,  who  may  be  present  and  duly  authorized,  shall  be 
received  and  obeyed  ;  (ART.  68.)  The  marine  corps  shall  at  any  time 
be  liable  to  do  duty  in  the  forts  and  garrisons  of  the  United  States  on 
the  sea-coast,  or  any  other  duty  on  shore,  as  the  President,  at  his  dis- 
cretion, shall  direct;  (Act  July  11,  1798.)  The  officers,  nori-commis- 
sioned  officers,  privates,  and  musicians  shall  take  the  same  oath  and  shall 
be  governed  by  the  same  rules  and  articles  as  are  prescribed  for  the 
military  establishment  of  the  United  States  and  by  the  rules  for  the 
regulation  of  the  navy  heretofore,  or  which  shall  be  established  by  law, 
according  to  the  nature  of  the  service  in  which  they  shall  be  employed, 
and  shall  be  entitled  to  the  same  allowance  in  case  of  wounds  or  dis- 
abilities, according  to  their  respective  ranks,  as  are  granted  by  the  act 
to  fix  the  military  establishment  of  the  United  States  ;  (Act  July  11, 
1798.) 

MARKER,.  Soldier  who  marks  the  direction  of  an  alignment  or 
pivot  points. 

MARKSMAN.  Good  shot;  sharp-shooter.  (See  RIFLEMEN; 
TARGET.) 

MARSH  POISONS.     (See  SANITARY  PRECAUTIONS.) 

MARSHALS.  The  marshals  of  the  several  districts  and  their  dep- 
uties shall  have  the  same  powers  in  executing  the  laws  of  the  United 
States,  as  sheriffs  and  their  deputies,  in  the  several  States,  have  by  law, 
in  executing  the  laws  of  the  respective  States ;  (Act  Feb.  28,  1795.) 
(See  OBSTRUCTION  OF  LAWS  ;  POSSE  COMITATUS.) 

MARTELLO  TOWERS— are  buildings  of  masonry,  generally 
circular,  and  of  various  dimensions.  They  are  chiefly  placed  on  the  sea- 
coast,  having  a  gun  on  their  summit,  mounted  on  a  traversing  platform, 
by  which  it  can  fire  in  any  direction. 

MARTIAL  LAW.     (See  LAW,  Martial.) 

MASKED  BATTERY— is  when  the  battery  is  so  concealed  or 
disguised,  as  not  to  be  seen  and  recognized  by  the  enemy,  until  it  opens 
its  fire. 

MATCH.  Slow  match  is  made  of  hemp,  flax,  or  cotton  rope,  with 
three  strands  slightly  twisted.  Cotton  rope  well  twisted  forms  a 
good  match  without  any  preparation,  and  burns  4^  inches  an  hour. 
Quick  match  is  made  of  cotton  yarn  such  as  is  used  in  candle-wick, 


MED.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  409 

which,  after  preparation  described  in  the  Ordnance  Manual,  is  dredged 
with  meal  powder.  One  yard  burns  in  the  open  air  13  seconds.  Quick 
match  inclosed  in  tubes  burns  more  rapidly  than  in  the  open  air,  and 
more  so  in  proportion  as  the  tubes  are  smaller. 

MATTOCK.  A  pioneer  tool,  resembling  a  pick-axe,  but  having  two 
broad  sharp  edges  instead  of  points. 

MAY.  To  be  permitted ;  to  be  at  liberty ;  to  have  the  power. 
Whenever  a  statute  directs  the  doing  of  a  thing  for  the  sake  of  justice  or 
the  public  good,  the  word  may  is  the  same  as  shall.  For  example,  the 
23  II.  6  says,  the  sheriff  may  take  bail — that  is  construed  he  shall,  for 
heiscompellabletodoso;  (Carth.,293.  Salk.,  609.  £&m.,370.)  The 
words  shall  and  may,  in  general  acts  of  the  legislature  or  in  private  con- 
stitutions, are  to  be  construed  imperatively,  (3  Alk.,  166 ;)  but  the  con- 
struction of  these  words  in  a  deed  depends  on  circumstances  ;  (3  Alk., 
282,  sec.  1  ;  Vern.  152,  Case  142;  9  Porter,  R.  S90.) 

MEASURES.     (See  WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES.) 

MEDICAL  DEPARTMENT.  (See  ARMY  for  its  organization.) 
•  No  person  can  receive  the  appointment  of  assistant-surgeon  until  he 
has  been  examined  and  approved  by  an  army  medical  board  of  not  less 
than  three  surgeons  or  assistant-surgeons  ;  and  no  person  can  receive 
the  appointment  of  surgeon  unless  he  shall  have  served  five  years  as 
asst.-surgeon,  and  also  have  been  examined  by  an  army  medical  board 
constituted  as  above ;  (Act  June  30,  1834.)  (See  AMBULANCE  ;  LIT- 
TER ;  SURGERY.) 

MEDICINE,  RECIPES,  &c.,  &c.  An  officer,  unless  he  be  a  pro- 
fessed physician,  need  not  take  a  large  assortment  of  drugs.  He 
wants  a  few  powders,  ready  prepared ;  which  any  physician  will  pre- 
scribe for  him,  such  as  : — 1.  Emetic,  mild  ;  2.  ditto,  very  powerful  for 
poison,  (sulphate  of  zinc.)  3.  Aperient,  mild  ;  4.  ditto,  powerful.  5. 
Cordial  for  diarrhoea.  6.  Quinine  for  ague.  7.  Sudorific,  (Dover's  pow- 
der.) It  will  save  trouble  if  these  be  so  prepared,  that  one  measureful  of 
each  shall  be  a  full  average  dose  for  an  adult ;  and  if  the  measure  to 
which  they  are  adapted  be  cylindrical,  and  of  such  a  size  as  just  to  admit 
a  common  lead-pencil,  and  three-quarters  of  an  inch  long,  it  can  at  any 
time  be  replaced  by  twisting  up  a  paper-cartridge.  In  addition  to  the 
at)ove  powders  take  cold  cream  ;  heart-burn  lozenges ;  lint ;  a  small  roll 
of  diachylon  ;  lunar-caustic,  in  a  proper  holder,  to  touch  old  sores  with, 
and  for  snake  bites ;  a  scalpel  and  a  blunt-pointed  bistoury,  to  open  ab- 
scesses with,  (the  blades  of  these  should  be  waxed,  to  keep  them  from  rust;) 
a  good  pair  of  forceps,  to  pull  out  thorns  ;  a  couple  of  needles,  to  sew  up 
gashes ;  waxed  thread.  A  mild  effervescing  aperient  is  very  convenient. 


410  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [MED. 

Seidlitz-powders  are  perhaps  a  little  too  strong  for  frequent  use  in  a 
tropical  climate.  The  medicines  should  be  kept  in  zinc  pill-boxes,  ail 
of  the  same  diameter,  with  a  few  letters  punched  both  on  their  tops  and 
bottoms,  to  indicate  what  they  contain,  as  Emet.,  Astr.,  &c. ;  and  the 
pill-boxes  should  slip  one  above  another  into  a  long  zinc  box  lined  with 
flannel,  and  lie  there  like  sovereigns  in  a  rouleau.  The  sulphate  of  zinc 
may  be  invaluable  as  an  eyewash  ;  for  ophthalmia  is  a  scourge  in  many 
countries.  The  taste,  which  should  be  strongly  astringent,  is  the  best 
guide  to  the  strength  of  its  solution. 

For  emetics,  drink  a  charge  of  gunpowder  in  a  tumblerful  of  warm 
water  or  soap-suds,  or  even  tickle  the  throat. 

Vapor-baths  are  used  in  many  countries,  and  the  Russian  plan  of 
making  them  is  often  the  most  convenient.  They  heat  stones  in  the 
fire,  and  put  them  on  the  ground  in  the  middle  of  their  cabin  or  tent ; 
on  these  they  pour  a  little  water  and  clouds  of  vapor  are  given  off. 
Elsewhere,  branches  are  spread  on  hot  wood-embers,  and  the  patient 
placed  on  these,  wrapped  in  a  large  cloth ;  water  is  then  sprinkled  on 
the  embers,  which  soon  covers  the  patient  with  a  cloud  of  vapor.  The 
traveller  who  is  chilled  or  over-worked,  and  has  a  quiet  day  before  him, 
would  do  well  to  practise  this  simple  and  pleasant  remedy. 

Ointment. — Simple  cerate  is  equal  parts  of  oil  and  wax ;  lard  and 
wax  will  do. 

Seidlitz-powders  are  made  as  follows  : — 
1£  oz.  Carbonate  of  Soda    ) 
3    oz.  Tartarized  Soda          |     For  the  blue  papers. 

7  drachms  Tartaric  Acid  For  the  white  papers. 

These  quantities  make  12  sets. 

DISEASES. — Fevers  of  all  kinds,  diarrhoea,  and  rheumatism,  are  the 
plagues  that  most  afflict  soldiers ;  ophthalmia  often  threatens  them. 
Change  of  air,  from  the  flat  country  up  into  the  hills,  as  soon  as  possible 
after  the  first  violence  of  the  illness  is  past,  works  wonders  in  hastening 
and  perfecting  a  cure.  With  a  bad  diarrhoea,  take  nothing  but  broth, 
and  it  may  be  rice,  in  very  small  quantities  at  a  meal,  until  quite  re- 
stored. The  least  piece  of  bread  or  meat  causes  an  immediate  relapse. 

REMEDIES. — A  great  discovery  of  modern  days  is  the  power  of  qui- 
nine to  keep  off  fever  while  travelling  across  a  fever  district.  It  is  a 
widely-corroborated  fact,  that  a  residence  on  the  banks  of  the  river,  or 
in  low  land,  is  often  less  affected  by  malaria  than  the  low  hills  that  over- 
look it.  There  are  certain  precautions  which  should  be  borne  in  mind 
in  unhealthy  seasons — as,  never  to  encamp  to  the  leeward  of  a  marsh ; 
to  sleep  close  in  between  large  fires,  with  a  handkerchief  gathered  round 


MED.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  411 

your  face,  (natural  instinct  will  teach  this ;)  not  to  start  off  too  early  in. 
the  morning ;  to  avoid  unnecessary  hunger,  hardship,  and  exposure. 

Drowning. — A  half-drowned  man  must  be  put  to  bed  in  dry,  heated 
clothes ;  hot  stones,  &c.,  to  his  feet ;  his  head  must  be  raised  moder- 
ately. Human  warmth  is  excellent,  such  as  that  of  two  strapping  men 
made  to  lie  close  up  against  him,  one  on  each  side.  All  rough  treat- 
ment is  hurtful. 

For  Snake-bites,  tie  a  string  tight  above  the  part,  suck  the  wound, 
and  apply  caustic  as  soon  as  you  can.  Or,  for  want  of  caustic, 
cut  away  with  a  knife,  and  afterwards  burn  out  with  the  end  of 
your  iron-ramrod,  heated  as  near  a  white  heat  as  you  can  readily  get 
it.  The  arteries  lie  deep,  and  as  much  flesh  may,  without  much  danger, 
be  cut  or  burnt  into,  as  the  fingers  can  pinch  up.  The  next  step  is  to 
use  the  utmost  energy,  and  even  cruelty,  to  prevent  the  patient's  giving 
way  to  that  lethargy  and  drowsiness  which  is  the  usual  effect  of  snake- 
poison,  and  too  often  ends  in  death. 

Broken  Bones. — It  is  extremely  improbable  that  a  man  should  die,  in 
consequence  of  a  broken  leg  or  arm,  if  the  skin  be  uninjured  •  but,  if 
the  broken  end  forces  its  way  through  the  flesh,  the  injury  is  a  very 
serious  one.  Abscesses  form,  the  parts  mortify,  and  the  severest  conse- 
quences often  follow.  Hence,  when  a  man  breaks  a  bone,  do  not  con- 
vert a  simple  injury  into  a  severe  one,  by  carrying  him  carelessly.  If 
possible,  move  the  encampment  to  the  injured  man,  and  not  vice  versa. 
"  When  a  man  has  broken  his  leg,  lay  him  on  the  other  side,  put  the 
broken  limb  exactly  on  the  sound  one,  with  a  little  straw  between,  and 
tie  the  two  legs  together  with  handkerchiefs.  Thus,  the  two  legs  will 
move  as  one,  and  the  broken  bone  will  not  hurt  the  flesh  so  much,  nor 
yet  come  through  the  skin ; "  (DRUITT.) 

Excessive  Bleeding. — When  the  blood  does  not  pour  or  trickle  in  a 
steady  stream  from  a  deep  wound,  but  in  pulses,  and  is  of  a  bright-red 
color,  all  the  bandages  in  the  world  will  not  stop  it.  It  is  an  artery 
that  is  wounded ;  and,  unless  there  be  some  one  accessible  who  knows 
how  to  take  it  up  and  tie  it,  burn  deeply  into  the  part,  as  you  would  for 
a  snake-bite ;  or  else  pour  boiling  grease  into  the  wound.  It  is,  of 
course,  a  barbarous  treatment,  and  far  from  being  sure  of  success,  as 
the  cauterized  artery  may  break  out  afresh ;  still,  life  is  in  question, 
and  it  is  the  only  hope  of  saving  it.  After  the  cautery,  the  wounded 
man's  limb  should  be  kept  perfectly  still,  and  well  raised,  and  cool,  until 
the  wound  is  nearly  healed.  A  tourniquet,  which  will  stop  the  blood 
for  a  time,  is  made  by  tying  a  strong  thong,  string,  or  handkerchief, 
firmly  above  the  part,  putting  a  stick  through  and  screwing  it  tight. 


412  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [MED. 

If  you  know  whereabouts  the  artery  lies  which  it  is  the  object  to  com- 
press, put  a  stone  over  the  place  and  under  the  handkerchief.  The 
main  arteries  follow  pretty  much  the  direction  of  the  inner  seams  of 
the  coat  sleeves  and  trousers. 

To  cure  blistered  Feet. — u  Rub  the  feet  at  going  to  bed  with  spirits 
mixed  with  tallow  dropped  from  a  candle  into  the  palm  of  the  hand ; 
on  the  following  morning  no  blister  will  exist.  The  spirits  seem  to 
possess  the  healing  power,  the  tallow  serving  only  to  keep  the  skin  soft 
and  pliant.  This  is  Captain  Cochrane's  advice,  and  the  remedy  was 
used  by  him  in  his  pedestrian  tour  ;  "  (MURRAY'S  Handbook  of  Switzer- 
land.) The  receipt  is  excellent ;  all  pedestrians  and  all  teachers  of 
gymnastics  endorse  it,  and  it  cannot  be  too  widely  known.  To  prevent 
the  feet  from  blistering,  it  is  a  good  plan  to  soap  the  inside  of  the 
stocking  before  setting  out,  making  a  good  lather  all  over  it ;  and  a  raw 
egg  broken  into  a  boot,  before  putting  it  on,  greatly  softens  the  leather. 
After  some  hours'  walking,  when  the  feet  are  beginning  to  be  chafed, 
take  off  the  shoes,  and  change  the  stockings ;  putting  what  was  the  right 
stocking  on  the  left  foot,  and  the  left  stocking  on  the  right  foot.  Or,  if 
one  foot  only  hurts,  take  off  the  boot,  and  turn  the  stocking  inside  out. 

Rarefied  Air. — On  high  plateaux  or  mountains,  travellers  must 
suffer  somewhat.  The  symptoms  are  described  by  many  South  Ameri- 
can travellers,  where  it  is  called  the  puna.  The  disorder  is  sometimes 
fatal  to  stout  plethoric  people  ;  oddly  enough,  cats  are  unable  to  endure 
it.  At  villages  13,000  feet  above  the  sea,  Dr.  Tscudi  says  that  they  can- 
not live.  Numerous  trials  have  been  made,  but  the  creatures  die  in  fright- 
ful convulsions.  The  symptoms  of  the  puna  are  giddiness,  dimness  of 
sight  and  hearing,  headache,  fainting-fits,  blood  from  mouth,  eyes,  nose, 
lips,  and  a  feeling  like  sea-sickness.  Nothing  but  time  cures  it.  It  begins 
to  be  felt  at  from  12,000  to  13,000  feet  above  the  sea.  M.  Hermann 
Schlagintweit — whose  large  mountain  experience  in  the  Alps  and  in  the 
Himalaya,  up  to  the  height  of  20,000  feet  or  more,  is  only  paralleled 
by  that  of  his  brother — says  that  he  found  the  headache,  &c.,  to 
come  on  when  there  was  a  breeze,  far  more  than  at  any  other  time. 
His  whole  party  would  awake  at  the  same  moment,  and  begin  to  com- 
plain of  the  symptoms,  immediately  on  the  commencement  of  a  breeze. 
The  symptoms  of  overwork  are  not  wholly  unlike  those  of  the  puna, 
and  many  young  travellers  who  have  felt  the  first,  have  ascribed  them 
to  the  second. 

Snow-blindness. — In  civilized  life  blue  spectacles  are,  as  is  well  known, 
an  indispensable  accompaniment  to  snow-mountain  expeditions.  The 
Esquimaux  adopt  the  following  equivalent :  They  cut  a  piece  of  soft 


MED.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  413 

wood  to  the  curvature  of  the  face.  It  is  about  two  inches  thick,  and  ex- 
tends horizontally  quite  across  both  eyes,  and  rests  on  the  nose,  where  a 
notch  is  cut  to  act  in  the  same  way  as  the  bridge  of  a  pair  of  spectacles. 
This  is  tied  behind  the  ears.  Next  a  long  narrow  slit,  of  the  thickness 
of  a  thin  saw-cut,  is  made  along  its  middle  almost  from  end  to  end. 
Through  this  slit  the  wearer  can  see  very  fairly.  It  is  narrower  than 
the  diameter  of  the  pupil  of  his  eye,  and,  consequently,  the  light  that 
reaches  his  retina  is  much  diminished  in  quantity. 

Scurvy. — Any  vegetable  diet  cures  it :  lime-juice,  treacle,  raw  pota- 
toes, and  acid  fruits  are  especially  efficacious.  Dr.  Kane  insists  on  the 
value  of  meat,  eaten  entirely  raw,  as  a  certain  anti-scorbutic.  It  is  gen- 
erally used  by  the  Esquimaux. 

Teeth. — Tough  diet  tries  the  teeth  so  severely  that  a  man  about  to 
undergo  it  had  much  better  pay  a  visit  to  a  dentist  before  he  leaves. 

Suffering  from  Thirst. — Pour  water  over  the  clothes  of  the  man, 
and  keep  them  constantly  wet ;  restrain  his  drinking,  after  the  first  few 
minutes,  as  strictly  as  you  can  summon  heart  to  do  it.  In  less  severe 
cases,  drink  water  with  a  tea-spoon  ;  it  will  satisfy  a  parched  palate  as 
much  as  if  you  gulped  it  down  in  tumblerfuls,  and  will  disorder  the 
digestion  much  less. 

Suffering  from  Hunger. — Two  or  three  mouth fuls  every  quarter  of 
an  hour  is,  to  a  man  in  the  last  extremity,  the  best  thing ;  and  strong 
broth  the  best  food. 

Wasp  and  Scorpion-stings. — The  oil  scraped  out  of  a  tobacco-pipe  is 
good ;  should  the  scorpion  be  large,  his  sting  must  be  treated  like  a 
snake-bite. 

Poisoning. — The  first  thing  is  to  give  a  powerful  emetic,  to  throw 
up  whatever  poison  may  still  remain  unabsorbed  in  the  stomach.  Use 
soap-suds  or  gunpowder,  if  proper  emetics  are  not  at  hand.  If  there 
be  violent  pains  and  griping,  or  retchings,  give  plenty  of  water  to  make 
the  vomitings  more  easy.  Nothing  now  remains  to  be  done  but  to  re- 
sist the  symptoms  that  are  caused  by  the  poison  which  was  absorbed 
before  the  emetic  acted.  Thus  if  the  man's  feet  are  cold  and  numbed, 
put  hot  stones  against  them  and  wrap  him  up  warmly.  If  he  be  drow- 
sy, heavy,  and  stupid,  give  brandy,  and  try  to  rouse  him.  There  is 
nothing  more  to  be  done,  save  to  avoid  doing  mischief. 

Fleas. — "  Italian  flea-powder,"  sold  in  the  East,  is  really  efficacious. 
It  is  made  from  the  "  Pire  oti,"  (or  flea-bean,)  mentioned  in  CURZON'S 
Armenia,  as  growing  in  that  country.  It  is  powdered  and  sold  as  a 
specific. 

Vermin  on  the  Person. — "  "We  had  now  been  travelling  for  nearly 


414  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [MEM. 

six  weeks,  and  still  wore  the  same  clothing  we  had  assumed  on  our 
departure.  The  incessant  pricklings  with  which  we  were  harassed, 
sufficiently  indicated  that  our  attire  was  peopled  with  the  filthy  vermin 
to  which  the  Chinese  and  Tartars  are  familiarly  accustomed,  but  which, 
with  Europeans,  are  objects  of  horror  and  disgust.  Before  quitting 
Tchagan-Kouren,  we  had  bought  in  a  chemist's  shop  a  few  sapeks'-worth 
of  mercury.  We  now  made  with  it  a  prompt  and  specific  remedy 
against  the  lice.  We  had  formerly  got  the  receipt  from  some  Chinese ; 
and,  as  it  may  be  useful  to  others,  we  think  it  right  to  describe  it  here. 
You  take  half  an  ounce  of  mercury,  which  you  mix  with  old  tea-leaves 
previously  reduced  to  paste  by  mastication.  To  render  this  softer  you 
generally  add  saliva ;  water  could  not  have  the  same  effect.  You  must 
afterwards  bruise  and  stir  it  awhile,  so  that  the  mercury  may  be  divided 
into  little  balls  as  fine  as  dust.  (I  presume  that  blue  pill  is  a  pretty 
exact  equivalent  to  this  preparation.)  You  infuse  this  composition  into 
a  string  of  cotton,  loosely  twisted,  which  you  hang  round  the  neck  ;  the 
lice  are  sure  to  bite  at  the  bait,  and  they  thereupon  as  surely  swell, 
become  red,  and  die  forthwith.  In  China  and  in  Tartary  you  have  to  re- 
new this  salutary  necklace  once  a  month ; "  (Hue's  Travels  in  Tarta- 
ry.}— GALTON'S  Art  of  Travel. 

MEMBERS.     (See  COURT-MARTIAL.) 

MEMBERS,  (SUPERNUMERARY.)  In  case  supernumerary  mem- 
bers are  detailed  for  a  court-martial,  they  are  sworn,  and  it  is  right  that 
they  should  sit  and  be  present  at  all  deliberations  even  when  the  court 
is  cleared,  in  order  to  be  prepared  to  take  the  place  of  any  absent  mem- 
ber. Until  then  they  have  no  voice ;  ( HOUGH.) 

MENACING  WORDS.     (See  CONTEMPT.) 

MENSURATION. 

MATHEMATICAL  FORMULA  AND  DATA. 
Lines. 

CIRCLE.     Ratio  of  circumference  to  diameter,  TT  =  3.1415926536  = 

f  f  f  nearl7- 

Length  of  an  arc  =  ;  r  being  the  radius  of  the  circle,  and  a 

the  number  of  degrees  in  the  arc ;  or,  nearly  =  -          —  ;  c  being  the 

o 

chord   of  the   arc,   and   c'   the   chord   of  half  the   arc,  which   is    = 

>/  4  °a  "H  versine*. 

Length  of  1  degree  —  0.0174533  ;  radius  being  1. 
Length  of  1  minute  =  0.0002909. 
Length  of  1  second  =  0.0000048. 


/ 

^  V 


.X 
>  *<'     415 

^^r 


ELLIPSE.     Circumference  =  -iff  IT  <J  %  (aa  -f  6 
being  the  axes.  -        , 

PARABOLA  :     Length    of    an    arc,    commencing     at     the    TO^tex, 

_  4.    /  0  ),  nearly  :  a  being  the  abscissa,  and  6  the  ordinal/ 
'    3  / 

Surfaces. 
Triangle.      Half  the  base  X   the  height ;    or  half  the  product  of 

two  sides   X  the  sine  of  the  included  angle,   (£    a  b — ^ —  )  ;    or, 

^/  s  (s  —  a)  (s  —  b)  (s  —  c) ;  a,  b,  c  being  the  sides,  and  s  =  — 

Parallelogram.     The  base  X  the  height. 

Trapezoid.     Half  the  sum  of  the  parallel  sides  X  the  height. 

Any  Quadrilateral.  Half  the  product  of  the  diagonals  X  the  sine 
of  their  angle. 

Any  irregular  plane  figure  bounded  by  curves.  Divide  the  figure 
into  any  even  number  of  parts  by  parallel  equidistant  ordinates  ;  let  a 
be  the  sum  of  the  first  and  last  ordinates,  b  the  sum  of  the  even  ordi- 
nates, c  that  of  the  odd  ones,  except  the  first  and  last ;  d  the  common 
distance  between  them ;  then  will  the  area  =  1  d  (a  -f-  46  -f-  2  c). 
Five  ordinates  will  generally  be  found  sufficient. 

Circle.     TT  r2 ;  or  diam.2  X  .7854  ;  or,  circum.'  X  .07958. 

T  a 
Circular  sector.      — ;    a   being   the   length   of  the   arc   in   linear 

measure. 

Circular   segment.     The   difference   between   the    sector,    and   the 

triangle  formed  by  the  cord  and  the  radii ;  or  —        — — —     — ;  or  nearly 

=  .4  v  (c  -j-  f-  V  4  c*  "t"  ^a)  >  c  being  the  cord  and  v  the  versed  sine. 

Ellipse.     .7854  a  b  ;  a  and  6  being  the  axes. 

Parabola,     f  a  6  ;  a  being  the  abscissa,  and  6  the  double  ordinate. 

Right  prism  or  cylinder.  Curved  surface  =  height  X  perimeter  of  base. 

Right  pyramid  or  cone.     Half  the  slant  height  X  perimeter  of  base. 

Frustum  of  a  right  prism  or  cylinder.  The  perimeter  of  the  base 
multiplied  by  the  distance  from  the  centre  of  gravity  of  the  upper  sec- 
tion to  the  base.  If  the  prism  or  cylinder  is  oblique,  multiply  this 
product  by  the  sine  of  the  angle  of  inclination. 

Frustum  of  a  right  pyramid  or  cone.  The  slant  height  X  half  the 
sum  of  the  perimeters  of  the  two  ends. 

Sphere.     4  TT  r2 ;  or,  diam.  X    circum. ;  or,  diam.2  X  3.1416. 


416 


MILITARY  DICTIONARY. 


[MEN. 


Spherical  zone  or  segment.  2  TT  r  h  ;  or,  the  height  of  the  zone  or 
segment  multiplied  by  the  circumference  of  the  sphere. 

Circular  spindle.  2  TT  (r  c  —  a  v/  r'  —  |  c*)  ;  a  being  the  length 
of  the  arc,  and  c  its  chord,  or  the  length  of  the  spindle. 

Spherical  triangle.     TT  r*  -  —  ;  s  being  the  sum  of  the  three 

,  loU 

angles. 

Any  surface  of  revolution.  2  TT  r  I ;  or,  the  length  of  the  generating 
element  multiplied  by  the  circumference  described  by  its  centre  of 
gravity. 

TABLE  OF  REGULAR  POLYGONS. 


No.  of  sides. 

Name. 

Area. 

Eadius  of  circum- 
scribing circio. 

Side  of  inscribed 
polygon. 

3 

Triangle. 

0.4330127 

0.5773503 

1.732051 

4 

Square. 

I.OUGOOOO 

0.7071068 

1.414214 

5 

Pentagon. 

1.7204774 

0.8506508 

1.175570 

6 

Hexagon. 

2.5980762 

1.0000000 

1.000000 

7 

Heptagon. 

3.6339124 

1.1523824 

0.867767 

8 

Octagon. 

4.8284271 

1.3065628 

0.765367 

9 

Nonagon. 

6.1818.242 

1.4619022 

0.684040 

10 

Decagon. 

7.6942088 

1.6180340 

0.618034 

11 

Undecagon. 

9.3656399 

1.7747324 

0.563465 

12 

Dodecagon. 

11.19615-24 

1.9318517 

0.517638 

The  column  of  areas,  in  the  foregoing  table,  gives  the  number  by 
which  the  square  of  the  side  is  to  be  multiplied,  to  find  the  area  of  the 
polygon. 

The  next  column  gives  the  multiplier  for  the  side  of  a  polygon,  to 
find  the  radius  of  the  circumscribing  circle. 

The  last  column  gives  the  multiplier  for  the  radius  of  a  circle,  to 
find  the  side  of  the  inscribed  polygon. 

Solids. 

Prism  or  cylinder.     Area  of  base  multiplied  by  the  height. 

Pyramid  or  cone.  Area  of  base  multiplied  by  one-third  of  the 
height. 

Frustum  of  a  pyramid  or  cone.  \  h  (B  -{-  b  -\-  +J  B  b)  ;  h  being 
the  height ;  B  and  b  the  areas  of.  the  two  ends.  Or,  for  a  conic  frustum : 

J  h  X  .7854  X  f  ^ A  ;  D  and  d  being  the  diameters  of  the  two 

ends. 

Frustum  of  a  right  triangular  prism.  The  base  X  ^  (  H  -f-  H' 
+  H"). 

Frustum  of  any  right  prism.  The  base  multiplied  by  its  distance 
from  the  centre  of  gravity  of  the  section. 


MEN.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  417 

Cylindrical  segment,  contained  between  the  base  and  an  oblique 
plane  passing  through  a  diameter  of  the  base  :  two-thirds  of  the  height 
multiplied  by  the  great  triangular  section  ;  or,  i  r  1?  ;  r  being  the 
radius  of  the  base,  and  h  the  area  of  the  height. 

4  TT  r3 

Sphere.       —  -  —  ;  or,  .5236  d  3  ;  r  being  the  radius  and  d  the  di- 
o 

ameter. 

Spherical  segment.  i7r/ia(3r  —  h)  =  ^-  ;  (361  -f  A2)  ;  b  being 
the  radius  of  the  base,  A  the  height  of  the  segment,  and  r  the  radius  of 

the  sphere:  ~=0.5236. 
o 

Spherical  zone.     ^  (3  £a  -f  3  b9  -f  As)  ;  B,  b  being  the  radii  of 

the  bases. 

Spherical  sector,  i  r  X  the  surface  of  the  segment  or  zone  ;  or,  f- 
Trr'A. 

Ellipsoid.     —  -  —  ;  a  being  the  revolving  diameter  and  b  the  axis 

of  revolution. 

Paraboloid.     Half  the  area  of  the  base  multiplied  by  the  height. 

Circular  spindle.  TT  Q-  c3  —  2  s  +J  r*  —  £  c3  )  ;  s  being  the  area 
of  the  revolving  segment  and  c  its  chord. 

Any  solid  of  revolution.  2  TT  r  s  ;  or,  the  area  of  the  generating 
surface  multiplied  by  the  circumference  described  by  its  centre  o± 
gravity. 

Any  irregular  solid,  bounded  by  a  curved  surface.  Use  the  rule  for 
finding  the  area  of  an  irregular  plane  figure,  suostituting  sections  for 
ordinates. 

Cask  gauging.     1.  —  By  the  preceding  rule  : 


The  content  of  a  cask  =  —  I  (c?a  -f  D9  -f  4  M*  )  ;  I  being  the 
length,  dy  Z>,  the  head  and  bung  diameters,  and  M,  a  diameter  midway 
between  them,  all  measured  in  the  clear,  inside  ;  —  =  0.1309. 

The  same  formula  may  be  thus  stated  :  \  I  (A  -f  B  -f  C)  ;  I  being 
the  length  ;  A  and  JB,  the  areas  of  the  head  and  bung  sections  ;  and  (7, 
that  of  the  section  midway  between  them. 

2.  Contents  of  a  cask,  nearly,  =     -  I  (2  D*  +  d3)  ;  or,  I  X  the  area 

. 

of  a  circle  whose  diameter  is 

27 


418  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [MER. 

CENTRES  OF   GRAVITY. 

Lines. 

Circular  arc.  At  a  distance  from  the  centre  =——  ;  r  being  the 
radius,  c  the  chord,  and  I  the  length  of  the  arc. 

Areas. 

Triangle.  On  a  line  drawn  from  any  angle  to  the  middle  of  the  op- 
posite side,  at  two-thirds  of  the  distance  from  the  angle  to  the  side. 

Trapezoid.  On  a  line  a  joining  the  middle  points  of  the  two  par- 
allel sides,  .Z?,  b  ;  distance  from  B  ^-^-^ — ) 

o   \    B  -f  b    I 

4  r 

Semicircle.     Distance  from  the  centre  =  - — 

3  TT 

C3 

Circular  segment.     Distance  from  the  centre  =— — -  ;  c  being  the 

\£  A 

chord  of  the  segment,  and  A  its  area. 

2  r  c 

Circular  sector.     Distance  from  the  centre  =  ;   c  being  the 

•  06' 

chord,  and  I  the  length  of  the  arc. 

Pkrabolic  segment.  Distance  from  the  vertex  =  three-fifths  of  the 
abscissa. 

Surface  of  a  right  cylinder,  cone,  or  frustum  of  a  cone.  The  centre 
of  gravity  is  at  the  same  distance  from  the  base  as  that  of  the  parallel- 
ogram, triangle  or  trapezoid,  which  is  a  right  section  of  the  same. 

Surface  of  a  spherical  zone  or  segment.    At  the  middle  of  the  height. 

MERLON.     ITie  space  of  the  parapet  between  two  embrasures. 

MESNE  PROCESS.  Any  writ  issued  in  the  course  of  a  suit  be- 
tween the  original  process  and  execution.  By  this  term  is  also  meant 
the  writ  of  proceedings  in  an  action  to  summon  or  bring  the  defendant 
into  court,  or  compel  him  to  appear  or  put  in  bail,  and  then  to  hear 
and  answer  the  plaintiff's  claim.  (See  ARREST  BY  CIVIL  AUTHORITY.) 

MESS.  The  law  is  silent  with  regard  to  messes  in  the  army.  Ex- 
ecutive regulations  have  been  made  on  the  subject,  but  without  law  it 
is  impossible  to  put  messes  on  a  proper  footing.  In  England,  an  allow- 
ance is  granted  by  the  king  in  aid  of  the  expense  of  officers'  messes ; 
and  every  officer  on  appointment  to  a  corps  subscribes  one  month's  pay 
to  the  mess  fund.  All  the  officers  of  the  corps  mess  together.  In 
France,  the  several  grades  mess  separately ;  lieutenants  and  sub-lieu- 
tenants forming  two  tables;  captains  another,  and  field  officers  of  different 
grades  generally  eating  separately  also.  Colonels  and  general  officers  of 


MIL.] 


MILITARY  DICTIONARY. 


419 


the  French  service  receive  an  allowance  for  table  expenses,  not  sufficient 
to  keep  open  house,  but  enough  to  enable  them  to  entertain  guests. 

MIASM,  MIASMATA.     (See  SANITARY  PRECAUTIONS.) 

MILEAGE.  Travelling  allowance  or  transportation  of  baggage. 
(See  TRAVELLING.) 

MILITARY  ACADEMY.     (See  ACADEMY.) 

MILITARY  LAWS.  (See  GOVERNMENT, LAW  (MILITARY);  REGU- 
LATIONS.) 

MILITIA. 

GENERAL  ABSTRACT  OP  THE  MILITIA  FORCE  OP  THE  TJNITED  STATES,  ACCORDING  TO  THE 
LATEST  RETURNS  RECEIVED  AT  THE  OFFICE  OF  THE  ADJUTANT-GENERAL. 


STATES  AND  TERRITORIES. 

For  what  year. 

General  officers. 

2 

8 
5S 

o 

1 

1 

1 

1 

r/r 

1 

o 
2 

E 

Company  officers. 

Total  commissioned  officers. 

Non-commissioned  officers, 
musicians,  artificers,  and 
privates. 

Aggregate. 

Maine 

1854 
1854 
1856 
1843 
1854 
1856 
ISoS 
1852 
1854 
1S27 
1838 
1854 
1845 
1856 
1850 
1845 
1851 
1856 
1838 
1840 
1852 
1.845 
1854 
1832 
1855 
1854 

10 
11 
10 
12 
3 
b 
97 

56 
202 
46 
51 
89 
10 
305 

13 

119 
131 
224 
24 
59 
1,460 

193 
895 
521 
801 
49 
182 
5,402 

272 
1,227 
708 
1,088 
115 
254 
7,264 

'  2,345 
82,311 
154,323 
22,827 
1,036 
51,560 
326,094 

2,617 
88,636 
155,031 
23,915 
1,151 
51,814 
338,358 
81,984 
106,957 
9,229 
46,864 
125,531 
79,448 
86,07-2 
78.699 
12,122 
76,662 
90,732 
86,084 
71,252 
88,979 
176,455 
97,094 
53,913 
257,420 
49,261 

New  Hampshire  

Massachusetts    .  .  . 

Rhode  Island  

Connecticut   .... 

New  York 

New  Jersey  

Pennsylvania  



4 
22 
32 
28 
20 
39 
3 
32 
16 
15 
25 
43 
91 
80 
81 

8 
68 
76 
133 
135 
91 
14 
142 
129 
70 
79 
145 
217 
323 
110 

71 
544 
153 
657 
535 
624 
95 
775 
542 
392 
859 
1,165 
462 
147 
566 

364 
1,763 
614 
8,449 
1,909 
4,296 
508 
1,883 
2,084 
848 
2,644 
3,517 
1,281 
2,358 
2,154 

447 
2,397 

875 
4,267 
2,599 
5,050 
620 
2,832 
2,771 
825 
3,607 
4,870 
2,051 
2,858 
2,861 

8,782 
44,467 
124,656 
75,181 
33,473 
73,649 
11,502 
78,830 
87,961 
85,259 
67,645 
84,109 
174,404 
94,236 
51,052 

Marylau'l  

Virginia.. 

North  Carolina 

South  Carolina  

Georgia    . 

Florida  

Alabama 

Louisiana  

Mississippi  

Tennessee 

Kentucky  

Ohio  

Michigan  

Indiana  

Illinois  

Wisconsin  

15 

88 

125 

914 

1,142 

48,119 

Iowa  

Missouri  

1853 
1854 
1847 

1854 
1851 

"'do' 

15 
12 
2 

17 
89 
45 
11 
§ 

4 
128 
248 

67 
955 
940 
100 

88 
1,132 
1,248 
123 

7 

117,959 
84,922 
18,518 
208,522 
1,996 

118,047 
86,054 
19,766 
208,645 
2,003 

Arkansas  

Texas  

California 

Minnesota  Territory  

Oregon  Terri  tory  

Nebraska  Territory  

Kansas  Terri  tory  

Territory  of  Utah  

1S53 

2 

48 

235 

285 

2,536 

2,821 

Territory  of  New  Mexico  

District  of  Columbia 

1?52 

3 
too 

10 

28 

1S5       226        7,975 

8,201 

Grand  aggregate  

_',W»4 

10,198 

40,611  54,1092,071,249 

2,571,719 

420  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [MIL. 

Notwithstanding  the  feudal  military  service  introduced  into  Eng- 
land by  William  the  Conqueror,  ancient  Anglo-Saxon  laws,  making 
it  the  duty  of  every  freeman  to  arm  himself  and  serve  for  the 
defence  of  his  country  against  invasion,  remained  in  full  vigor.  The 
force  authorized  to  be  raised  under  these  conditions  has  from  the  ear- 
liest times  been  called  the  militia,  and  was  under  the  command  of  the 
alderman  or  earl,  who  was  at  that  time  the  governor  of  the  county. 
By  the  27th  Henry  II.  (1154)  this  force  was  regulated  and  organized, 
every  subject,  according  to  his  rank  and  means,  being  compelled  to 
furnish  himself  with  arms  for  the  maintenance  of  the  king's  peace.  A 
century  afterwards  this  act  was  confirmed,  and  a  fresh  "  Assize  of 
arms  "  ordered  by  the  statute  of  Wynton,  by  which  it  was  enacted 
that  every  man  between  the  ages  of  fifteen  and  sixty  should  be  assessed, 
and  sworn  to  keep  armor  according  to  the  value  of  his  lands  and  goods. 
For  £15  and  upwards  in  rent,  or  40  marks  in  goods,  a  hauberk,  an  iron 
breastplate,  a  sword,  a  knife,  and  a  horse ;  property  of  less  value  en- 
tailing the  possession  of  arms  of  a  proportionately  less  expensive  char- 
acter. Constables  were  also  appointed  to  view  the  armor  twice  a  year, 
which  constables,  the  act  says,  "  shall  present  before  justices  assigned 
such  defaults  as  they  shall  see  in  the  country  about  armor  ;  and  the  jus- 
tices assigned  shall  present  at  every  parliament  unto  the  king  such  de- 
faults as  they  shall  find,  and  the  Icing  shall  provide  the  remedy  therein. 
The  system  organized  by  these  statutes  was  evidently,  from  the  con- 
text, intended  in  the  first  place  for  the  preservation  of  internal  peace, 
by  the  suppression  of  tumults,  and  keeping  in  check  the  bands  of  rob- 
bers that  infested  the  public  ways  ;  the  sheriff,  as  the  conservator  of  the 
public  peace,  had  always  possessed  the  power  of  calling  out  the  posse 
comitatus,  or  assembly  of  liegemen  of  the  county,  to  assist  him  on  such 
occasions ;  and  it  is  supposed  that  it  was  the  object  of  Edward  III.  to 
confirm  and  extend  this  authority,  and  at  the  same  time  to  organize  a 
force  readily  capable  of  being  made  applicable  to  resist  invasion.  In  the 
United  States  each  and  every  free,  able-bodied,  white  male  citizen  of  the 
respective  States  resident  therein,  who  is  of  the  age  of  18  years  and  under 
45  years,  (except  EXEMPTS,  which  see,)  shall  be  enrolled  in  the  militia  by 
the  captain  or  commanding  officer  of  the  company  within  whose  bounds 
such  citizen  shall  reside.  The  militia  of  the  respective  States  shall  be 
arranged  into  divisions,  brigades,  regiments,  battalions  and  companies, 
as  the  legislature  of  each  State  shall  direct.  If  the  same  be  convenient, 
each  brigade  shall  consist  of  four  regiments ;  each  regiment  of  two 
battalions ;  each  battalion  of  five  companies,  and  each  company  of 
sixty-four  privates.  The  said  militia  shall  be  officered  by  the  respec- 


MIL.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  421 

tive  States  as  follows :  to  each  division,  one  major-general  and  two 
aides-de-camp  with  the  rank  of  major,  one  division-inspector  with  the 
rank  of  lieutenant-colonel,  and  one  division-quartermaster,  with  the  rank 
of  major  ;  to  each  brigade,  one  brigadier-general,  one  aide-de-camp  with 
the  rank  of  captain,  one  quartermaster,  with  the  rank  of  captain,  with 
one  brigade-inspector,  to  serve  also  as  brigade-major,  with  the  rank 
of  major ;  to  each  regiment  consisting  of  two  battalions  one  colonel, 
one  lieutenant-colonel,  and  one  major  ;  where  there  shall  be  only 
one  battalion,  it  shall  be  commanded  by  a  major ;  to  each  regi- 
ment one  chaplain  ;  to  each  company  one  captain,  one  lieutenant,  one 
ensign,  four  sergeants,  four  corporals,  one  drummer,  and  one  fifer  or 
bugler.  There  shall  be  a  regimental  staff,  to  consist  of  one  adjutant 
and  one  quartermaster,  to  rank  as  lieutenants ;  one  paymaster,  one 
surgeon,  and  one  surgeon's  mate ;  one  sergeant-major,  one  drum-major, 
and  one  fife-major ;  to  the  militia  of  each  State  one  quartermaster-gen- 
eral ;  (Ads  May  8,  1792,  March  2,  1803,  April  18,  1814,  April  20, 
1816.) 

Out  of  the  enrolled  militia,  there  shall  be  formed  for  each  battalion 
one  company  of  grenadiers,  light  infantry  or  riflemen  ;  and  to  each  di- 
vision there  shall  be  at  least  one  company  of  artillery  and  one  troop  of 
horse ;  there  shall  be  to  each  company  of  artillery,  one  captain,  two 
lieutenants,  four  sergeants,  four  corporals,  six  gunners,  six  bombardiers, 
one  drummer,  and  one  fifer.  There  shall  be  to  each  troop  of  horse, 
one  captain,  two  lieutenants,  one  cornet,  four  sergeants,  four  corporals, 
one  saddler,  one  farrier,  and  one  trumpeter.  Each  troop  of  horse  and 
company  of  artillery  to  be  formed  of  volunteers  of  the  brigade  to  which 
they  belong  ;  (Act  May  8,  1792.) 

It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  brigade-inspector  to  attend  the  regimental 
and  battalion  meetings  of  the  militia,  inspect  their  arms,  ammunition, 
&c.,  superintend  their  exercise  and  manoeuvres,  and  introduce  the  sys- 
tem of  military  discipline  throughout  the  brigade  agreeably  to  law  and 
such  orders  as  they  shall,  from  time  to  time,  receive  from  the  com- 
mander-in-chief  of  the  State ;  to  make  returns  to  the  adjutant-general 
of  the  State  at  least  once. in  every  year,  reporting  the  actual  condition 
of  the  arms,  accoutrements,  and  ammunition  of  the  several  corps,  and 
every  other  thing  which,  in  his  judgment,  may  relate  to  their  govern- 
ment and  the  general  advancement  of  good  order  and  military  disci- 
pline; (^May  8,  1792.) 

Volunteer  corps  shall  retain  their  accustomed  privileges,  subject 
nevertheless  to  all  other  duties  required  by  this  act,  in  like  manner  with 
the  other  militia ;  (Act  May  8,  1792.) 


422  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [MIL. 

There  shall  be  an  adjutant-general  appointed  in  each  State,  whose 
duty  it  shall  be  to  distribute  all  orders  of  the  commander-in-chief  of  the 
State  to  the  several  corps ;  to  attend  all  public  revie\\te  when  the  com- 
mander-in-chief shall  review  the  militia ;  to  obey  all  orders  from  him, 
relative  to  carrying  into  execution  and  perfecting  the  system  of  military 
discipline  established  by  this  act ;  to  furnish  blank  forms  of  different 
returns  that  may  be  required,  and  to  .explain  the  principles  on  which 
they  should  be  made ;  to  receive  from  the  several  officers  of  the  differ- 
ent corps  throughout  the  State,  returns  of  the  militia  under  their  com- 
mand, reporting  the  actual  condition  of  their  arms,  and  every  thing 
which  relates  to  the  advancement  of  good  order  and  discipline ;  all 
which  the  several  officers  of  the  divisions,  brigades,  regiments,  and  bat- 
talions are  required  to  make,  so  that  the  adjutant-general  may  be  duly 
furnished  therewith  ;  from  all  of  which  returns  he  shall  make  abstracts 
and  lay  the  same  annually  before  the  commander-in-chief  of  the  State  ; 
and  he  shall  also  make  an  annual  return  of  the  militia  of  the  State,  with 
their  arms  and  accoutrements,  &c.,  to  the  President  of  the  United 
States ;  and  the  Secretary  of  War  shall,  from  time  to  time,  give  direc- 
tions to  the  adjutant-generals  of  States  to  produce  uniformity  in  such 
returns ;  (Acts  May  8,  1792 ;  March  2,  1803,  and  May  12,  1820.) 

Whenever  militia  shall  be  called  into  actual  service  of  the  United 
States,  their  pay  shall  commence  from  the  day  of  their  appearance  at 
the  places  of  battalion,  regimental,  or  brigade  rendezvous  ;  allowing  to 
each  non-commissioned  officer  and  soldier  a  day's  pay  and  rations  for 
every  fifteen  miles  from  his  home  to  such  place  of  rendezvous,  and  the 
same  allowances  for  travelling  home  from  the  place  of  discharge  ;  (Act 
Jan.  2,  1795.) 

The  militia  or  other  State  troops,  being  mustered  and  in  pay  of  the 
United  States,  shall  be  subject  to  the  same  Rules  and  Articles  of  War 
as  the  troops  of  the  United  States,  save  only  that  courts-martial  for  the 
trial  of  militia  or  other  State  troops  shall  be  composed  entirely  of  mili- 
tia officers  ;  (ART.  97.)  All  officers,  serving  by  commission  from  the 
authority  of  any  particular  States,  shall,  on  all  detachments,  courts-mar- 
tial, or  other  duty  wherein  they  may  be  employed  in  conjunction  with 
the  regular  forces  of  the  United  States,  take  rank  next  after  all  officers 
of  like  grade  in  said  regular  forces,  notwithstanding  the  commissions  *f 
such  militia  or  State  officers  may  be  older  than  the  commissions  of  the 
officers  of  the  regular  forces  of  the  United  States  ;  (ART.  98.) 

By  the  act  for  calling  forth  the  militia,  approved  Feb.  28,  1795,  mi- 
litia not  to  serve  more  than  three  months  after  arrival  at  the  place  of 
rendezvous.  Every  officer,  non-commissioned  officer,  or  private  of  mi- 


MIL.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  f       423 

litia  that  shall  fail  to  obey  tne  orders  of  the  President  of  the  United 
States,  shall  forfeit  a  sum  not  exceeding  one  year's  pay,  and  not  less 
than  one  month's  pay,  to  be  determined  and  adjudged  by  a  court-mar- 
tial ;  and  such  officer  shall,  moreover,  be  liable  to  be  cashiered  by  sen- 
tence of  a  court-martial  and  be  incapacitated  from  holding  a  commission 
in  the  militia  for  a  term  not  exceeding  twelve  months,  at  the  discretion 
of  the  said  court ;  and  such  non-commissioned  officers  and  privates  shall 
be  liable  to  be  imprisoned  by  a  like  sentence,  on  failure  of  the  payment 
of  fines  adjudged  against  them,  for  one  calendar  month  for  every  five 
dollars  of  such  fine. 

Courts-martial  for  the  trial  of  militia,  shall  be  composed  of  militia 
officers  only. 

That  all  fines  to  be  assessed,  as  aforesaid,  shall  be  certified  by  the 
presiding  officer  of  the  court-martial  before  whom  the  same  shall  be  as- 
sessed, to  the  marshal  of  the  district  in  which  the  delinquent  shall  re- 
side, or  to  one  of  his  deputies,  and  also  to  the  supervisor  of  the  revenue 
of  the  same  district,  who  shall  record  the  said  certificate  in  a  book  to 
be  kept  for  that  purpose.  The  said  marshal,  or  his  deputy,  shall  forth- 
with proceed  to  levy  the  said  fines,  with  costs,  by  distress  and  sale  of 
the  goods  and  chattels  of  the  delinquent ;  which  costs,  and  the  manner 
of  proceeding  with  respect  to  the  sale  of  the  goods  distrained,  shall  be 
agreeable  to  the  laws  of  the  State  in  which  the  same  shall  be,  in  other 
cases  of  distress.  And  where  any  non-commissioned  officer  or  private 
shall  be  adjudged  to  suffer  imprisonment,  there  being  no  goods  or  chat- 
tels to  be  found  whereof  to  levy  the  said  fines,  the  marshal  of  the  dis- 
trict, or  his  deputy,  may  commit  such  delinquent  to  gaol,  during  the 
term  for  which  he  shall  be  so  adjudged  to  imprisonment,  or  until  the 
fine  shall  be  paid,  in  the  same  manner  as  other  persons  condemned  to 
fine  and  imprisonment  at  the  suit  of  the  United  States  may  be  com- 
mitted. 

That  the  marshals  and  their  deputies  shall  pay  all  such  fines  by 
them  levied,  to  the  supervisor  of  the  revenue  in  the  district  in  which 
they  are  collected,  within  two  months  after  they  shall  have  received  the 
same,  deducting  therefrom  five  per  centum  as  a  compensation  for  their 
trouble  ;  and  in  case  of  failure,  the  same  shall  be  recoverable  by  action 
of  debt  or  information  in  any  court  of  the  United  States  of  the  district 
in  which  such  fines  shall  be  levied,  having  cognizance  thereof,  to  be  sued 
for,  prosecuted,  and  recovered,  in  the  name  of  the  supervisor  of  the  dis- 
trict, with  interest  and  costs. 

That  the  marshals  of  the  several  districts,  and  their  deputies,  shall 
have  the  same  powers,  in  executing  the  laws  of  the  United  States,  as 


424  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [Mm. 

sheriffs,  and  their  deputies  in  the  several  States,  have  by  law  in  execut- 
ing the  laws  of  the  respective  States. 

And  by  a  supplementary  act  approved  in  Feb.  1813,  That,  in  every 
case  in  which  a  court-martial  shall  have  adjudged  and  determined  a  fine 
against  any  officer,  non-  commissioned  officer,  musician,  or  private,  of 
the  militia,  for  any  of  the  causes  specified  in  the  act  to  which  this  act  is 
a  supplement,  or  in  the  fourth  section  of  an  act,  entitled  "  An  act  to 
authorize  a  detachment  from  the  militia  of  the  United  States,"  all  such 
fines,  so  assessed,  shall  be  certified  to  the  comptroller  of  the  treasury 
of  the  United  States,  in  the  same  manner  as  the  act  to  which  this  act  is 
a  supplement  directed  the  same  to  be  certified  to  the  supervisor  of  the 
revenue. 

That  the  marshals  shall  pay  all  fines  which  have  been  levied  and 
collected  by  them,  or  their  respective  deputies,  under  the  authority  of 
the  acts  herein  referred  to,  into  the  treasury  of  the  United  States,  within 
two  months  after  they  shall  have  received  the  same,  deducting  five  per 
centum  for  their  own  trouble ;  and,  in  case  of  failure,  it  shall  be  the 
duty  of  the  comptroller  of  the  treasury  to  give  notice  to  the  district  at- 
torney of  the  United  States,  who  shall  proceed  against  the  said  marshal 
in  the  district  court,  by  attachment,  for  the  recovery  of  the  same.  (See 
CALLING  FORTH  MILITIA  ;  DEFENCE,  National.) 

MINE.  Powder  placed  in  subterranean  cavities,  by  exploding 
which  every  thing  above  it  is  overthrown.  Mines  are  offensive  when 
they  are  prepared  by  besiegers,  and  defensive  when  used  by  the  besieged. 
The  place  where  the  powder  is  lodged  is  called  the  chamber  of  the  mine, 
and  it  is  generally  made  of  a  cubical  form  large  enough  to  contain  the 
wooden  box  which  holds  the  powder  necessary  for  the  charge.  The  fire 
is  communicated  to  the  mine  by  means  of  a  pipe  or  hose  made  of  coarse 
cloth  filled  with  powder,  laid  in  a  wooden  case  about  an  inch  square,  ex- 
tending from  the  centre  of  the  chamber  to  the  extremity  of  the  gallery, 
where  a  match  is  fixed  so  that  the  miner  who  applies  the  fire  to  it,  may 
have  time  to  retire  before  the  flame  reaches  the  chamber.  (See  Fou- 
GASSE  ;  GALLEEY.) 

MINORS.  The  Secretary  of  War,  on  demand,  is  required  to  grant 
the  discharge  from  the  army  of  any  minor  enlisted  without  the  consent 
of  parent  or  guardian. 

MINUTE  GUNS.  Guns,  fired  at  intervals  of  a  minute,  are  signals 
of  distress. 

MISBEHAVIOR  BEFORE  THE  ENEMY.  Punishable  with 
death  or  otherwise,  according  to  the  sentence  of  a  court-martial ;  (ART.  52.) 

MISNOMER.     If  a  prisoner  plead  a  misnomer,  the  court  may  ask 


MOR.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  425 

the  prisoner  what  is  his  real  name,  and  call  upon  him  to  plead  to  the 
amended  charge  ;  ( HOUGH.) 

MITIGATION.    (See  PARDON.) 

MONEY.  The  embezzlement  or  misapplication  of  public  money 
intrusted  to  an  officer  for  the  payment  of  men  under  his  command,  or 
for  enlisting  men  into  the  service,  or  for  other  purposes,  punishable  with 
cashiering  and  being  compelled  to  refund  the  money.  In  case  of  a  non- 
commissioned officer,  reduction  to  the  ranks  and  being  put  under  stop- 
pages until  the  money  is-  refunded,  and  such  corporeal  punishment  as  a 
court-martial  shall  direct ;  (ART.  39.) 

MONTHLY  RETURNS.     (See  RETURNS.) 

MORTAR.  The  following  mortars  are  used  in  the  United  States 
service  :  The  heavy  13-inch  mortar,  weighing  11,500  Ibs.,  whole  length 
53  inches,  length  of  chamber  13  inches,  and  superior  diameter  of  cham- 

Fia  158. 


$  3  -4* 

~ 


8IEGE   MORTAR. 

1.  Cheeks.  5.  Cap  square. 

2.  Manoeuvring  bolt.  6.  Cap  straps, 

3.  Deck  plank.  7.  Bolster. 

4.  Sleeper.  8.  Quoin. 

9.  Eye  bolts. 

ber  9.5  inches  ;  the  heavy  10-inch  mortar,  weighing  5,775  Ibs.,  whole 
length  46  inches,  length  of  chamber  10  inches  ;  the  light  10-inch  mor- 
tar, weighing  1,852  Ibs.,  whole  length  of  mortar  28  inches,  length  of 
chamber  5  inches  ;  the  light  8-inch  mortar,  weighing  930  Ibs.,  whole 
length  of  mortar  22.5  inches,  length  of  chamber  4  inches  ;  brass  stone 
mortar,  weighing  1,500  Ibs.,  diameter  of  bore  16  inches,  whole  length 
of  mortar  31.55  inches,  length  of  chamber  6.75  inches;  brass  coehorn 
24-pounder,  diameter  of  the  bore  5.82  inches,  weight  164  Ibs.,  whole 
length  16.32  inches,  length  of  chamber  4.25  inches  ;  iron  eprouvette, 
diameter  of  the  bore  5.655  inches,  weight  220  Ibs.,  length  of  bore  ex- 
clusive of  chamber,  11.5  inches,  length  of  chamber  1.35  inch.  Mortars 


426 


MILITARY  DICTIONARY. 


[Mou. 


are  mounted  on  beds,  and  when  used,  siege  mortars  are  placed  on  a 
platform  of  wood  made  of  6  sleepers;  18  deck  planks  ;  and  72  dowels  ; 
fastened  with  12  iron  eye-bolts.  (Consult  Ordnance  Manual  and  Instruc- 
tion in  Heavy  Artillery  for  Mechanical  Manoeuvres.  See  ARTILLERY  ; 
ORDNANCE.) 

MOUNTAIN"  ARTILLERY.  The  mountain  howitzer,  weight 
220  Ibs.,  whole  length  37.21  inches,  diameter  of  bore  4.62  inches ;  length 
of  chamber  2.75  inches,  diameter  of  chamber  3.34 ;  natural  angle  of 

sight,  0°  37' ;  RANGE  500  yards,  at  an 
elevation  of  2°  30',  with  a  charge  of  -J 
Ib.  powder  and  shell ;  time  of  flight,  2 
seconds  ;  writh  same  charge  and  eleva- 
tion, the  range  of  spherical-case  is  450 
yards.  At  an  elevation  of  from  4°  to 
5°  the  range  with  canister  is  250  yards. 
According  to  elevation  the  range  varies 
from  150  to  1,000  yards ;  at  the  same  ele- 
vation the  range  with  shell  being  greater 
than  spherical-case.  A  battery  of  six 
mountain  howitzers  requires  33  pack- 
saddles  and  harness,  and  33  horses  or 
mules.  A  mountain  howitzer  ammu- 
nition chest  will  carry  about  700  musket 
ball-cartridges,  besides  eight  rounds  for 
the  howitzer. 

MOUNTED  RIFLEMEN.  There 
is  one  regiment  of  mounted  riflemen  in 
the  United  States  army.  (See  ARMY 
for  their  organization.)  The  skirmish 
drill  for  mounted  troops  prepared  by 
Capt.  D.  II.  Maury,  U.  S.  A.,  and  used 
by  mounted  riflemen,  differs  from  the 
system  of  cavalry  exercise  : 

1st.  In  prescribing  the  formation  in 
one  rank  instead  of  in  two  ranks. — Be- 
sides extending  the  line  of  front,  this 
change  develops  individual  instruction, 
and  enables  the  officer  to  bring  his  men 
from  column  into  line,  and  the  reverse, 
almost  as  quickly  as  in  infantry.  By  it 
a  mounted  company  may  be  brought 


Mus.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  427 

| 

from  the  full  gallop  into  fighting  order  on  foot,  the  true  order  for  rifle- 
men, within  six  seconds  after  the  command  has  been  given. 

2d.  In  giving  no  heed  to  inversions. — The  effect  of  this  change  is  to 
bring  men  from  marching  into  fighting  order  in  the  simplest  and  most 
rapid  manner. 

3d.  The  grouping  together  of  men  in  sets  of  fours. — This,  besides 
being  convenient  for  the  purposes  of  police  and  guards  in  garrison  and 
camp,  teaches  the  men,  when  in  action,  to  rely  upon  each  other  as  near 
comrades.  (See  CAVALRY.) 

MOUNTING.  The  parade  of  marching  on  guard  is  called  guard- 
mounting. 

MUSKET.  •  (See  ARMS.) 

MUSTER.  At  every  muster,  the  commanding  officer  of  each  regi- 
ment, troop,  or  company  there  present,  shall  give  certificates,  signed  by 
himself,  signifying  how  long  officers  who  do  not  appear  at  muster  have 
been  absent,  and  the  reason  of  their  absence.  In  like  manner,  the  com- 
manding officer  of  every  troop  or  company  shall  give  certificates,  signi- 
fying the  reasons  of  the  absence  of  the  non-commissioned  officers  and 
private  soldiers,  which  reasons  and  time  of  absence  shall  be  inserted  in 
the  muster-rolls,  opposite  the  names  of  the  respective  absent  officers 
and  soldiers.  The  certificates  shall,  together  with  the  muster-rolls,  be 
remitted  by  the  commissary  of  musters  or  other  officer  mustering,  to 
the  Department  of  War,  as  speedily  as  the  distance  of  the  place  will 
admit ;  (ART.  13.)  Every  officer,  who  shall  be  convicted  of  having 
signed  a  false  certificate,  relating  to  the  absence  of  either  officer  or  sol- 
dier, or  relative  to  his  or  their  pay,  shall  be  cashiered ;  (ART.  f4.) 
Every  officer,  who  shall  knowingly  make  a  false  muster  of  man  or  horse, 
and  every  officer  or  commissary  of  musters,  who  shall  willingly  sign, 
direct,  or  allow,  the  signing  of  muster-rolls  wherein  such  false  muster 
is  contained,  shall,  upon  proof  made  thereof  by  two  witnesses  before  a 
general  court-martial,  be  cashiered,  and  shall  be  thereby  utterly  disabled 
to  have  or  hold  any  office  or  employment  in  the  service  of  the  United 
States  ;  (ART.  15.)  Any  commissary  of  muster  or  other  officer,  who 
shall  be  convicted  of  having  taken  money  or  other  things  by  way  of 
gratification,  on  mustering  any  regiment,  troop,  or  company,  or  on 
signing  muster-rolls,  shall  be  displaced  from  office  and  shall  be  thereby 
utterly  disabled  to  have  or  hold  any  office  or  employment  in  the  service 
of  the  United  States;  (ART.  16.)  Any  officer,  who  shall  presume  to 
muster  a  person  as  a  soldier  who  is  not  a  soldier,  shall  be  deemed 
guilty  of  having  made  a  false  muster,  and  shall  suffer  accordingly ; 
(ART.  17.)  Troops  are  mustered  every  two  months.  (See  ARREARS 
OF  PAY  ;  CERTIFICATE  ;  FALSE  ;  PAY.) 


428  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [MUT. 

MUTINY.  Any  officer  or  soldier,  who  shall  begin,  excite,  cause, 
or  join  in  any  mutiny  or  sedition  in  any  troop  or  company  in  the  ser- 
vice of  the  United  States  ,  or  in  any  party,  post,  detachment,  or  guard, 
shall  suffer  death,  or  such  other  puunishment  as  by  a  court-martial  shall 
be  inflicted  ;  (ART.  7.)  Any  officer,  non-commissioned  officer,  or  sol- 
dier who,  being  present  at  any  mutiny  or  sedition,  does  not  use  his  ut- 
most endeavor  to  suppress  the  same,  or  coming  to  the  knowledge  of 
any  intended  mutiny,  does  not,  without  delay,  give  information  thereof 
to  his  commanding  officer,  shall  be  punished  by  the  sentence  of  a  court- 
martial  with  death,  or  otherwise,  according  to  the  nature  of  his  offence ; 
(ART.  8.)  "  Mutiny  is  a  combined  or  simultaneous  resistance,  active 
or  passive,  to  lawful  military  authority."  The  best  authorities  admit 
that  a  single  person,  without  previous  combination  or  concert  with 
others,  cannot  commit  mutiny.  An  overt  act  by  one  person,  in  pursu- 
ance of  a  combined  plan  or  conspiracy,  is,  however,  mutiny  ;  and  con- 
spiracy or  intended  mutiny  is,  under  the  8th  article,  punishable  in  the 
same  degree  as  an  overt  act.  Where  an  overt  act,  therefore,  has  not 
been  committed,  it  is  proper  to  base  the  charge  on  the  8th  article.  But 
all  who  have  conspired  in  intended  mutiny  are  alike  guilty  of  mutiny, 
consisting  in  overt  acts  on  the  part  of  one  or  more  of  the  conspirators. 

N 

NAIL  BALL — is  a  round  projectile  with  an  iron  pin  projecting 
from  it,  to  prevent  its  turning  in  the  bore  of  the  piece. 

NATIONAL  ANNIVERSARY.  The  4th  of  July.  Regulations 
prescribe  the  honors  to  be  paid  by  troops  to  the  National  Anniversary. 

NATIONAL  DEFENCE.    (See  DEFENCE,  National.) 

NEW  MATTER.  It  is  not  proper  that  the  prosecutor  should  be 
allowed  to  introduce  new  matter,  neither  should  it  be  admitted  on  the 
defence.  There  is  a  great  difference  between  new  matter  of  accusation 
and  facts  proved  by  evidence  to  mitigate  the  sentence.  The  latter  are 
not  new  matter  in  its  strict  sense  ;  (HOUGH'S  Military  Law  Authorities.) 

NITRE.  Saltpetre,  or  nitrate  of  potassa ;  54  nitric  acid,  48  potassa. 
It  is  spontaneously  generated  in  the  soil,  and  is  a  necessary  ingredient 
of  powder.  It  has  occasionally  been  produced  artificially  in  nitre  beds, 
formed  of  a  mixture  of  calcareous  soil  with  animal  matter ;  in  these, 
nitrate  of  lime  is  slowly  formed,  which  is  extracted  by  lixiviation,  and 
carbonate  of  potash  added  to  the  solution,  which  gives  rise  to  the  for- 
mation of  nitrate  of  potassa  and  carbonate  of  lime  ;  the  latter  is  precipi- 
tated ;  the  former  remains  in  solution  and  is  obtained  in  crystals  by 
evaporation.  Its  great  use  is  in  the  manufacture  of  gunpowder,  and  in 


OBE.]  MILITARY  EftCTIONARY.  429 

the  production  of  nitric  acid.  It  is  also  employed  in  the  curing  or 
preservation  of  meat. 

NOMENCLATURE.  Technical  designation.  (See  ARMS  ;  ORD- 
NANCE.) 

NON-COMMISSIONED  OFFICER.  Grades  between  private 
and  warrant  officer,  as  corporal,  sergeant,  ordnance-sergeant,  sergeant- 
major,  and  quartermaster-sergeant. 

NOTES.  Members  of  courts-martial  sometimes  take  notes.  They 
are  frequently  necessary  to  enable  a  member  to  bring  the  whole  body 
of  evidence  into  a  connected  view,  where  the  case  is  complex. 

o 

OATH.  "  Every  officer,  non-commissioned  officer,  musician,  and 
private,  shall  take  and  subscribe  the  following  oath  or  affirmation,  to 
wit :  I,  A.  B,  do  solemnly  swear  or  affirm  (as  the  case  may  be)  that  I 
will  bear  true  faith  and  allegiance  to  the  United  States  of  America, 
and  that  I  will  serve  them  honestly  and  faithfully  against  their  enemies 
or  opposers  whomsoever ;  and  that  I  will  observe  and  obey  the  orders 
of  the  President  of  the  United  States,  and  the  orders  of  the  officers  ap- 
pointed over  me,  according  to  the  Rules  and  Articles  of  War ;  (Act 
March  16,  1802.) 

OATH,  (COURT  OF  INQUIRY.)  The  form  of  the  oath  to  be  taken 
upon  courts  of  inquiry  by  members  and  judge-advocate  or  recorder,  is 
prescribed  in  ART.  93.  Witnesses  before  courts  of  inquiry  take  the 
same  oath  as  before  courts-martial. 

OATH,  (PROFANE.)  Any  non-commissioned  officer  or  soldier,  who 
shall  use  any  profane  oath  or  execration,  incurs  the  same  penalties  as 
for  irreverence  at  divine  worship.  (See  WORSHIP.)  A  commissioned 
officer  shall  forfeit  and  pay  for  each  and  every  such  offence  one  dollar, 
to  be  applied  as  forfeitures  for  irreverence  at  worship. 

OATH  OF  WITNESSES.     (See  WITNESS.) 

OATHS  OF  MEMBERS  OF  COURTS-MARTIAL  The  69th 
Article  of  War  prescribes  the  oath  or  affirmation  to  be  taken  upon 
courts-martial,  by  members,  and  the  judge-advocate.  (See  TRIAL.) 

OATS.     (See  FORAGE  ;  WEIGHTS.) 

OBEDIENCE — to  "any  lawful  command  of  his  superior  officer  " 
is  exacted  from  all  officers  and  soldiers  under  penalty  of  death,  or  such 
other  punishment  as  may  be  inflicted  by  a  court-martial ;  (ART.  9.) 

Two  questions,  therefore,  arise  under  this  article :  Who  is  to  judge 
of  the  legality  of  the  command  ?  and,  What  constitutes  a  superior  officer 
in  the  sense  of  the  article  1 


430  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [QBE. 

It  is  evident  that  if  all  officers  and  soldiers  are  to  judge  when  an  or- 
der is  lawful  and  when  not,  the  captious  and  the  mutinous  would  never 
be  at  a  loss  for  a  plea  to  justify  their  insubordination.  It  is,  therefore, 
an  established  principle,  that,  unless  an  order  is  so  manifestly  against 
law  that  the  question  does  not  admit  of  dispute,  the  order  must  first  be 
obeyed  by  the  inferior,  and  he  must  subsequently  seek  such  redress 
against  his  superior  as  the  laws  allow.  If  the  inferior  disputes  the  le- 
gality before  obedience,  error  of  judgment  is  never  admitted  in  mitiga- 
tion of  the  offence.  The  redress  now  afforded  by  the  laws  to  inferiors 
is  not,  however,  sufficient ;  for  doubtful  questions  of  the  construction  of 
statutes,  instead  of  being  referred  to  the  Federal  courts  of  law  for  their 
true  exposition,  have  received  variable  expositions  from  the  executive, 
and  left  the  army  in  an  unfortunate  state  of  uncertainty  as  to  the  true 
meaning  of  certain  laws,  and  this  uncertainty  has  been  most  unfavorable 
to  discipline. 

Again,  while  the  punishment  of  death  is  meted  to  officers  and  sol- 
diers for  disobedience  of  lawful  commands,  the  law  does  not  protect  offi- 
cers and  soldiers  for  obeying  unlawful  commands.  Instances  have  oc- 
curred in  our  country,  where  officers  and  soldiers  have  been  subjected 
to  vexatious  prosecutions,  simply  for  obeying  orders,  according  to  their 
oath  of  office.  Would  it  not  be  just  if  the  law,  instead  of  requiring  offi- 
cers and  soldiers  thus  nicely  to  steer  between  Scylla  and  Charybdis, 
should  hold  the  superior  who  gives  an  illegal  order,  alone  responsible 
for  its  execution  1 

By  superior  officer  in  Article  9,  and  every  other  Article  of  War,  is 
meant  an  officer  who  has  the  right  to  command  his  inferiors  in  the  mil- 
itary hierarchy.  The  word  superior,  therefore,  embraces,  within  their 
appropriate  circle  of  command,  commanding  generals,  superior  regi- 
mental and  company  officers,  superior  officers  of  corps  or  departments, 
and  the  commanding  officer  on  guards,  marches,  or  in  quarters  of  what- 
ever corps  of  the  line  of  the  army,  marine  corps  or  militia  authorized  to 
command  the  whole  by  the  62d  Article  of  War,  whenever  different 
corps  come  together.  This  construction  of  the  wrords  "  officers  ap- 
pointed over  me,  according  to  the  Rules  and  Articles  of  War,"  is  mani- 
fest by  an  attentive  examination  of  those  articles  : — 

See,  for  example,  ART.  27,  which  gives  authority  to  "  all  officers  of 
what  condition  soever  to  part  and  quell  all  quarrels,  frays,  and  disor- 
ders, though  the  persons  concerned  should  belong  to  another  regiment, 
troop,  or  company."  Here  it  is  seen  that  the  ordinary  subordination, 
by  grades,  is  found  only  in  the  same  "  regiment,  troop,  or  company."  The 
power  to  part  and  quell  quarrels,  is,  however,  made  an  exceptional 


OBS.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  431 

case,  in  favoi  not  only  of  officers  of  different  regiments,  but  the  power 
is  even  extended  to  those  of  an  "  inferior  rank."  In  a  company,  regi- 
ment, or  corps,  subordination  by  grades  is  established  by  the  terms  of 
the  commission  held  in  such  regiment  or  corps.  So  also,  where  officers 
hold  commissions  in  the  army  at  large,  their  right  to  command  when 
on  duty  is  co-extensive  with  their  commissions,  except  that  the  61st 
Article  of  War  makes  such  higher  commissions  inoperative  within  the 
regiment  in  which  an  officer  is  mustered.  Within  regiments  and  corps 
the  muster-roll,  then,  at  once  determines  the  question  of  superiority  of 
officers  on  duty.  But  when  mixed  corps  come  together,  as  commissions 
belowr  the  rank  of  general,  excepting  commissions  for  gallant  or  merito- 
rious services,  are  only  given  in  regiments  and  corps,  and  as  such  regi- 
mental commissions  would  not  otherwise  entitle  their  holders  to  com- 
mand beyond  their  particular  regiments,  or  the  holders  of  commissions 
in  the  line  of  the  army,  marine  corps,  or  militia,  beyond  the  body  in 
which  they  hold  commissions^,  the  62d  Article  of  War  has  provided  that 
the  officer  highest  in  rank  of  the  line  of  the  army,  marine  corps,  or  mi- 
lithi,  shall  command  the  whole,  and  he  likewise  is  thus  consecrated  the 
superior  officer  for  the  time  being.  (See  BREVET  ;  LINE  ;  RANK.) 

OBLIQUE.  In  tactics,  oblique  indicates  a  direction  which  is  neither 
parallel  nor  perpendicular  to  the  front,  but  more  or  less  diagonal.  It  is 
a  command  of  warning  in  the  tactics.  It  is  used  to  indicate  oblique 
alignments,  attacks,  orders  of  battle,  squares  against  cavalry,  changes  of 
front,  fires,  &c. 

OBSERVATION.  Army  of  observation  ;  detached  party  of  ob- 
servation, &c. 

OBSTACLES.  The  obstacles  used  in  field^fortification  are  of  sev- 
eral kinds.  Their  object  is  to  render  access  to  works  more  difficult. 

Common  harrows,  picketed  to  the  ground,  with 
the  spikes  uppermost,  form  excellent  temporary 
obstacles.  Crows'-feet,  (Fig.  155,)  consisting  of  four 
iron  spikes  arranged  at  equal  angles  with  each 
other,  so  that  in  any  position  one  spike  must  be 
pointing  vertically  upwards,  may  be  scattered  about 
in  front  of  salients  or  other  weak  points,  and  will  render  approach 
difficult,  and  for  cavalry  impracticable. 

Roads  or  breaches,  and  sometimes  even  the  restricted  front  of  a  po- 
sition, my  be  barred  by  chevaux-de-frize,  two  forms  of  which  are  exhib- 
ited in  the  annexed  diagrams,  (Figs.  156  and  157.)  Chevaux-de-frize 
may  be  formed  of  stout  square  or  hexagonal  beams,  with  iron  spikes  or 
sword  blades,  or  even  stout  pointed  stakes  let  into  and  standing  perpen- 


432 


MILITARY  DICTIONARY. 


[Ons. 


dicularly  from  the  faces ;  or,  like  Fig.  157,  of  stout  palisades,  pointed, 
and  furnished  with  legs  to  support  them,  with  the  points  towards  the 
enemy. 

FIG.  156.  FIG.  157. 


FIG.  158. 


XMXDKIXI 


X1XXX 


XIXIXIXIX! 


When  used  to  close  a  space  of  any  extent — indeed,  where  more 
than  one  length  is  necessary,  they  should  be  secured  to  each  other  by 
cftains,  to  prevent  their  removal  by  an  enemy. 

Trous-de-loup,  or  trap-holes,  (Fig.  158,) 
are  rows  of  pits  in  the  form  of  inverted 
cones  or  pyramids,  with  a  strong  palisade 
or  stake  in  the  centre  of  each.  They 
should  be  either  too  deep  or  too  shallow 
to  be  used  by  riflemen,  and  they  are,  there- 
fore, generally  8  or  2£  feet  deep. 

Trap-holes,  whether  round  or  square, 
should  always  be  arranged  checker  wise, 
to  prevent  an  enemy  passing  them  easily. 
The  earth  from  them  should  be  formed 
into  a  glacis  in  front,  rather  than  heaped 
up  between  them ;  as,  in  the  latter  case, 
they  might  be  easily  filled  up  again.  Trous- 
de-loup  of  even  two  or  three  feet  deep 

may  be  usefully  employed  in  rendering  impassable  shallow,  wet  ditches, 
inundations,  and  fords ;  and,  like  abatis,  they  may  be  advantageously 
placed  on  the  salients  of  works,  on  the  weak  points  of  lines,  or  in 
their  intervals.  They  may  thus  compel  the  enemy  to  attack  the  strong- 
est parts.  The  ardor  of  infantry  may  be  much  checked  by  unexpected 
obstacles  within  point-blank  musket  shot  of  the  place  attacked.  (See 
ABATIS;  PALISADES.) 

OBSTRUCTION  OF  LAWS.  In  ordinary  cases  of  obstruction  to 
the  laws  of  the  United  States,  the  powers  vested  in  marshals  are  to  be 
exercised  to  secure  their  due  execution.  It  is  only  when  such  obstruc- 
tions are  too  formidable  to  be  suppressed  by  the  ordinary  course  of 
judicial  procedure  or  by  the  powers  vested  in  the  marshals,  that  the 
President  of  the  United  States  is  authorized  to  use  military  force.  And 


XXXXDK 


ORD.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  433 

whenever  such  force  is  employed  by  him,  he  must  first,  by  proclama- 
tion, command  insurgents  to  disperse,  and  retire  peaceably  to  their 
respective  abodes  within  a  limited  time ;  (Acts  of  Feb.  28,  1795,  and 
Act  March  3,  1807.  See  CALLING  FORTH  MILITIA  ;  MARSHAL  ;  POSSE 

COMITATUS.) 

OCCUPY.     To  take  or  hold  possession  of  a  post  or  district. 

OFFENCES.  (See  CRIMES  ;  DISORDERS  ;  NEGLECTS  ;  ARTICLES  OF 
WAR  ;  JURISDICTION.) 

OFFICERS.  Whenever  the  word  officer  is  used  in  the  Articles 
of  War,  commissioned  officer  is  understood. 

OPERATIONS.  Field  operations  ;  offensive  and  defensive  opera- 
tions ;  under-ground  operations  ;  siege  operations,  &c. 

ORDER.  This  term,  considered  in  its  relation  to  the  army,  em- 
braces divers  subjects.  It  gives  an  idea  of  harmony  in  the  accomplishment 
of  DUTIES  ;  a  classification  of  corps  or  men ;  injunctions  emanating  from 
AUTHORITY  ;  measures  which  regulate  service,  and  many  tactical  details. 

In  tactics,  the  natural  order  is  when  troops  coming  upon  ordinary 
ground  are  ranged  in  line  of  battle  by  the  prescribed  tactical  means, 
and  when  they  are  formed  in  column  right  in  front. 

The  oblique  order  is  contradistinguished  from  the  parallel,  and  in 
general  means  every  tactical  combination  the  aim  of  which  is  to  pro- 
duce an  effect  upon  two  points  of  an  enemy's  line  by  bringing  a  supe- 
rior force  to  bear  down  on  those  two  points.  Such  combinations  con- 
stitute the  oblique  order,  whatever  manoeuvres  may  be  used  to  accom- 
plish the  object. 

The  parallel  order  operates  on  the  contrary  against  the  whole  front 
of  the  enemy.  Turenne  and  Conde  fought  habitually  in  parallel  order, 
although  they  sometimes  made  a  skilful  use  of  oblique  attacks.  Giu- 
bert  well  says  that  a  contiguous  and  regular  parallel  order  can  be  of 
no  use  in  war. 

ORDERLIES.  Non-commissioned  officers  and  soldiers  appointed 
to  wait  upon  generals  and  other  officers,  to  communicate  orders,  and 
carry  messages. 

ORDERLY  SERGEANTS.  The  first  sergeant  of  a  company  is 
so  called.  On  hearing  the  drum  beat  for  orders,  orderly  sergeants 
repair  to  the  adjutant's  office,  and,  having  taken  down  the  orders  in 
writing,  they  are  immediately  to  show  them  to  the  officers  of  their 
company,  and  to  warn  the  men  for  duty. 

ORDERLY  BOOK.     A  book  for  the  sergeants  to  insert  the  gen- 
eral and  regimental  orders,  which  are  issued  from  time  to  time,  is  some- 
times called  an  orderly  book. 
28 


434  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [ORD. 

ORDERS.  The  principle  upon  which  orders  are  to  be  issued  is 
established  by  the  62d  Article  of  War,  which  gives  to  the  immediate 
commander  of  the  troops  "  by  commission  there  on  duty,  or  in  quar- 
ters," authority  to  "give  orders  for  what  is  needful  to  the  service,  unless 
otherwise  specially  directed  by  the  President  of  the  United  States,  ac- 
cording to  the  nature  of  the  case." 

The  President  of  the  United  States  and  commanding  officers  are, 
however,  limited  to  issuing  such  orders  as  may  be  "  according  to  the 
Rules  and  Articles  of  War ;  "  (Act  March  16,  1802.)  The  determina- 
tion of  what  orders  are,  and  what  are  not,  contrary  to  the  Rules  and 
Articles  of  War  established  by  Congress,  is  a  very  nice  question,  and  it 
is  much  to  be  regretted  that  Congress  has  not  long  since  accurately  de- 
fined the  functions,  rights,  and  duties  of  all  officers  and  soldiers,  and  also 
given  them  some  means  of  obtaining  redress  against  unsound  exposi- 
tions of  law  made  by  the  executive  and  military  authorities.  (See  AR- 
MY ;  REMEDY.) 

In  article  INJURIES  it  has  been  shown  how  officers  become  answerable 
at  law  for  their  own  acts  or  defaults  occurring  in  the  course  of  profes- 
sional duty  ;  but  commanding  9 officers  are  not  legally  liable  for  the  acts 
of  subordinates  in  the  execution  of  the  services  confided  to  them. 

By  the  general  law,  masters  and  employers  of  every  kind  are  an- 
swerable for  the  acts  or  neglects  of  their  servants  or  subordinate  agents ; 
but  the  principle  of  this  rule  is,  that  private  individuals  have  the  power 
of  appointing  and  selecting  such  agents  or  servants  as  they  may  think 
proper,  and  are  consequently  bound  to  employ  only  those  who  are  of 
competent  skill,  diligence,  and  ability.  But  this  principle  has  no  appli- 
cation as  between  superior  and  subordinate  officers  in  the  army,  for  the 
obvious  reason  that  the  former  do  not  choose  the  latter.  The  rule  as  to 
military  officers  therefore  is,  that  the  wrong-doer  alone  is  personally 
liable  for  the  damages  or  injury  resulting  from  his  conduct,  and  the 
wrong-doer  is  he  who  issued  the  order,  or  otherwise  gave  direct  occasion 
to  the  act  or  omission  which  led  to  the  mischief. 

When  an  officer,  therefore,  is  employed  upon  a  particular  service, 
the  execution  of  which  is  left  to  his  own  skill  and  uncontrolled  judg- 
ment, the  superior  officer  from  whom  he  receives  his  orders  incurs  no 
legal  responsibility  for  injuries  occasioned  to  the  persons  or  property 
of  third  parties  by  the  conduct  of  the  junior  in  executing  the  duty  con- 
fided to  him.  For  the  senior  officer  has  no  power  of  appointing  his 
subordinate  officers ;  he  is  not  even  himself  to  be  deemed  a  volunteer 
in  that  particular  station  merely  by  having  voluntarily  entered  the 
army,  and  has  no  choice  whether  or  not  he  will  serve  with  the  junior 


ORD.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  435 

officers  placed  under  his  orders,  but  is  bound  to  take  such  as  he  finds 
there,  and  make  the  best  of  them.  He  is  a  servant  of  the  State,  doing 
duty  with  others  appointed  and  stationed  in  like  manner,  and  by  the 
same  authority. 

But  the  case  is  altered  when  the  senior  officer  not  only  orders  an- 
other to  perform  a  particular  service,  but  likewise  prescribes  the  speci- 
fic mode  of  execution.  For  the  subordinate  officer  is  then  deprived  of 
all  exercise  of  his  own  judgment  and  discretion ;  his  acts  are  the  direct 
acts  of  his  senior  officer  ;  and  the  latter  becomes  as  thoroughly  respon- 
sible, in  a  legal  point  of  view,  as  if  he  had  been  personally  present  and 
assisting  in  the  performance  of  the  duty  in  question. 

It  frequently  happens  in  suits  at  law  respecting  private  wrongs,  that 
the  officer  against  whom  the  action  is  brought  is  the  only  person  ac- 
quainted with  some  of  the  material  facts  which  it  may  be  necessary  to 
prove  against  him  :  and  though,  in  cases  of  mere  debt  or  contract,  a  de- 
fendant is  compellable  to  make  a  disclosure,  on  oath,  of  such  facts  as  lie 
within  his  own  knowledge,  that  rule  does  not  apply  to  actions  respect- 
ing private  wrongs  or  injuries.  An  attempt,  however,  was  made  in 
Sir  William  Houston's  case,  by  means  of  proceedings  in  the  Court  of 
Chancery,  to  compel  that  officer  to  produce  certain  military  and  other 
orders,  reports,  books,  letters,  and  documents,  from  which  the  truth  of 
the  charge  against  him  would  appear.  But  the  Master  of  the  Rolls  re- 
fused to  make  any  order  for  the  production  ;  (PRENDERGAST.) 

ORDNANCE  DEPARTMENT.  The  Ordnance  Department  con- 
sists of  one  colonel,  one  lieut.-colonel,  four  majors,  twelve  captains, 
twelve  first  lieutenants,  and  six  second  lieutenants ;  master  carriage- 
makers,  master  blacksmiths,  master  armorers,  &c.,  &c.,  limited  only  by 
the  judgment  of  the  colonel  of  Ordnance  and  Secretary  of  War. 

It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  colonel  of  the  Ordnance  Department  to 
direct  the  inspection  and  proving  of  all  pieces  of  ordnance,  cannon-balls, 
shot,  shells,  small-arms,  and  side-arms  and  equipments,  procured  for 
the  use  of  the  armies  of  the  United  States ;  and  to  direct  the  construc- 
tion of  all  cannon  and  carriages,  and  every  implement  and  apparatus 
for  ordnance,  and  all  ammunition-wagons,  travelling-forges,  and  artifi- 
cers' wagons  ;  the  inspection  and  proving  of  powder,  and  the  prepara- 
tion of  all  kinds  of  ammunition  and  ordnance  stores.  And  it  shall  also 
be  the  duty  of  the  colonel  or  senior  officer  of  the  Ordnance  Department 
to  furnish  estimates,  and,  under  the  direction  of  the  Secretary  for  the 
Department  of  War,  to  make  contracts  and  purchases  for  procuring  the 
necessary  supplies  of  arms,  equipments,  ordnance,  and  ordnance  stores  ; 
(Act  Feb.  8,  1815.) 


436  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [ORD. 

The  colonel  of  the  Ordnance  Department  shall  organize  and  attach 
to  regiments,  corps,  or  garrisons,  such  number  of  artificers,  with  proper 
tools,  carriages,  and  apparatus,  under  such  regulations  and  restrictions 
relative  to  their  government  and  number  as,  in  his  judgment,  with 
the  approbation  of  the  Secretary  for  the  Department  of  War,  may  be 
considered  necessary  ;  (Act  Feb.  8,  1815.) 

The  colonel  of  the  Ordnance  Department,  or  the  senior  officer  of 
that  department  of  any  district,  shall  execute  all  orders  of  the  Secretary 
for  the  Department  of  War,  and,  in  time  of  war,  the  orders  of  any 
general,  or  field-officer,  commanding  any  army,  garrison,  or  detach- 
ment, for  the  supply  of  all  arms,  ordnance,  ammunition,  carriages, 
forges  and  apparatus,  for  garrison,  field,  or  siege  service ;  (Act  Feb. 
8,  1815.) 

The  costs  of  repairs  and  damages  done  to  arms,  equipments,  or  im- 
plements in  the  use  of  the  armies  of  the  United  States,  shall  be  deducted 
from  the  pay  of  any  officer  or  soldier  in  whose  care  or  use  the  said  arms, 
equipments,  or  implements  were,  when  the  said  damages  occurred ; 
provided,  the  said  damages  were  occasioned  by  the  abuse  or  negligence 
of  the  said  officer  or  soldier.  And  it  is  hereby  made  the  duty  of  every 
officer  commanding  the  regiments,  corps,  garrisons,  or  detachments,  to 
make,  once  every  two  months,  or  oftener  if  so  directed,  a  \vritten  report 
to  the  colonel  of  the  Ordnance  Department,  stating  all  damages  to  arms, 
equipments,  and  implements  belonging  to  his  command,  noting  those 
occasioned  by  negligence  or  abuse,  and  naming  the  officer  or  soldier  by 
whose  negligence  or  abuse  the  said  damages  were  occasioned ;  (Act 
Feb.  8,  1815.) 

The  colonel  of  the  Ordnance  Department,  under  the  direction  of  the 
Secretary  of  War,  is  hereby  authorized  to  draw  up  a  system  of  regula- 
tions for  the  government  of  the  Ordnance  Department ;  forms  of 
returns  and  reports ;  and  for  the  uniformity  of  manufacture  of  all 
arms,  ordnance,  ordnance  stores,  implements,  and  apparatus,  and  for 
the  repairing  and  better  preservation  of  the  same  ;  (Act  Feb. 
8,  1815.) 

Regulations  for  the  government  of  the  Ordnance  Department,  &c., 
have  been  drawn  up  in  conformity  with  the  authority  conferred  by  the 
act  of  1815.  (Consult  Ordnance  Regulations,  1852.)  Officers  and  en- 
listed men  of  the  Ordnance  Department  subject  to  the  Rules  and  Arti- 
cles of  War ;  (Act  April  5,  1832.) 

ORDNANCE  AND  ORDNANCE  STORES— comprehend  all 
cannon,  howitzers,  mortars,  cannon-balls,  shot,  and  shells,  for  land  ser- 
vice ;  all  gun-carriages,  mortar  beds,  caissons,  and  travelling  forges, 


ORD.] 


MILITARY  DICTIONARY. 


437 


with  their  equipments ;  and  all  other  apparatus  and  machines  required 
for  the  service  and  manoeuvres  of  artillery,  in  garrisons,  at  sieges,  or  in 
the  field  ;  together  with  the  materials  for  their  construction,  preserva- 
tion, and  repair.  Also,  all  small-arms,  side-arms,  and  accoutrements, 
for  the  artillery,  cavalry,  infantry,  and  riflemen ;  all  ammunition  for 
ordnance  and  small-arms  ;  and  all  stores  of  expenditure  for  the  service 
of  the  various  arms  ;  materials  for  the  construction  and  repair  of  ord- 
nance buildings  ;  utensils  and  stores  for  laboratories,  including  standard 
weights,  gauges,  and  measures ;  and  all  other  tools  and  utensils  required 
for  the  performance  of  ordnance  duty.  The  ordinary  articles  of  camp 
equipage  and  pioneers'  tools,  such  as  axes,  spades,  shovels,  mattocks, 
&c.,  are  not  embraced  as  ordnance  supplies.  Wagons,  &c.,  for  the 
transport  service  of  the  army,  and  horse  equipments,  are  also  furnished 
by  the  Ordnance  Department  when  practicable.  Ordnance  supplies  are 
provided  by  open  purchase,  fabrication,  or  by  contract. 

The  following  are  the  kinds  and  calibres  of  cannon  used  in  the  land 
service  of  the  United  States  :  * 


KIND    < 

)P   ORDNANCE. 

CALIBRE. 

MATERIAL. 

WEIGHT. 

f  Field...,                ...  -S 

6-pounder... 

>•  Bronze  

Ibs. 

884 

1 

( 

12-pounder... 
12-pounder... 

1,757 
3,590 

GUNS  ^ 

Siege  and  garrison  •] 

18-pounder... 

4  913 

24-pounder 

Iron 

5  790 

«                               ( 

32-pounder... 

7  200 

Sea-coast  j 

::::::::::::::: 

8  465 

12-pounder... 

i  

2°0 

HOWITZERS....- 

Field  j 

12-pounder... 
24-pounder... 
32-pounder... 

8-inch   

V  Bronze  

788 
1,318 
1,920 

2  614 

Siege  and  garrison 

24-pounder 

1  476 

8-inch  

5,740 

9  500 

COLUMBIADS  .... 

8-inch  

•  Iron  

9,240 

10-inch  
8-inch  

15,400 
930 

Light  -j 

10-inch   .  .. 

1  852 

TTnntr-rr                                               \ 

10-inch  

5,775 

MORTARS  -\ 

] 
1 

Stone  mortar  
Coehorn  

13-inch  
16-inch  

J  
(•  Bronze  

11,500 

1,500 
164 

Eprouvette  

24-pounder 

Iron 

220 

438 


MILITARY  DICTIONARY. 


[ORD. 


A  12-inch  columbiad,  of  cast  iron,  has  also  been  made  for  trial ;  and 
recently  Captain  Rodman's  15-inch  gun,  now  at  Fort  Monroe,  was  cast 
at  Pittsburg,  Pa.  It  weighs  49,100  Ibs.  (See  COLUMBIAD.)  For  sev- 
eral pieces  of  ordnance  see  articles  COLUMBIAD  ;  MORTAR  ;  MOUNTAIN 
ARTILLERY  ;  RIFLED  ORDNANCE.  The  Caisson,  Travelling  Forge,  Sea- 
coast  Carriage,  and  24-pdr.  Siege  Carriage,  are  shown  in  Figs.  159, 
160,  161,  and  162. 

Cannon  made  of  bronze  are  commonly  called  brass  cannon. 

The  cascable  is  the  part  of  the  gun  in  rear  of  the  base-ring ;  it  is 
composed  generally  of  the  following  parts :  the  knob,  the  neck,  the 
fillet,  and  the  base  of  the  breech. 

FIG.  159. 


The  Caisson  h  composed  of  a  body  and  a  limber. 

1.  Two  side  rails  of  body.  8.  Axle-tree  of  limber. 

2.  Stock  of  body.  9.  A  pole. 

8.  Axle-tree.  10.  The  prop. 

4,  5.  Two  Ammunition  chests.  11.  A  fork. 

6.  Spare  wheel.  12.  Pintle-hook. 

7.  Spare  pole.  13.  Ammunition  chest 

The  base  of  the  breech  is  a  frustum  of  a  cone,  or  a  spherical  segment, 
in  rear  of  the  breech. 

The  base-ring  is  a  projecting  band  of  metal  adjoining  the  base  of  the 
breech,  and  connected  with  the  body  of  the  gun  by  a  concave  moulding. 


Fio.  160. 


TRAVELLING  FOBOB. 

The  body  is  composed  of— 

1.  Two  rails ; 

2.  A  stock ; 

8.  An  axle-tree; 

4.  Thc>  bellows-room : 

5.  The  inner  room  of  bellows-house; 

6.  The  coal  box ; 

7.  The  fireplace ; 

8.  Air-pipe ; 

9.  The  vice ; 
10.  The  prop. 


The  breech  is  the  mass  of  solid  metal  behind  the  bottom  of  the  bore, 
extending  to  the  rear  of  the  base-ring. 


ORD.] 


MILITARY  DICTIONARY. 


439 


The  reinforce  is  the  thickest  part  of  the  body  of  the  gun,  in  front  of 
the  base- ring;  if  there  is  more  than  one  reinforce,  that  which  is  next  to 
the  base-ring  is  called  the  first  reinforce  ;  the  other,  the  second  rein- 
force. In  some  howitzers,  instead  of  a  reinforce,  there  is  a  recess  in  the 
metal  around  the  chamber  next  to  the  base-ring. 

The  reinforce  band  is  at  the  junction  of  the  first  and  second  reinforces 
in  the  heavy  howitzers  and  columbiads. 

The  chase  is  the  conical  part  of  the  gun  in  front  of  the  reinforce. 

FIG.  161. 


SEA-COAST  CARRIAGE.  N 

1.  Gun-carriage,  composed  of  two  iron  cheeks.        5.  Elevating  screw. 

2.  Chassis.  6,  6.  Traverse  wheels. 
8.  Iron  transom  straps.  7,  7.  Hurters. 

4.  Manoeuvring  wheels.  8.  Elevating  arc. 

I.  Pintle  or  fixed  centre. 

The  astragal  and  fillets  in  field-guns,  and  the  chase-ring  in  other 
pieces,  are  the  mouldings  at  the  front  end  of  the  chase. 

The  neck  is  the  smallest  part  of  the  piece  in  front  of  the  astragal  or 
the  chase-ring. 

The  swell  of  the  muzzle  is  the  largest  part  of  the  gun  in  front  of  the 
neck.  It  is  terminated  by  the  muzzle  mouldings,  which  in  field  and  siege 
guns  consist  of  the  lip  and  the  fillet.  In  the  sea-coast  guns  and  heavy 
howitzers  and  columbiads  there  is  no  fillet.  In  field  and  siege  howitzers 
and  in  mortars  a  muzzle  band  takes  the  place  of  the  swell  of  the  muzzle. 

The  face  of  the  piece  is  the  terminating  plane  perpendicular  to  the 
axis  of  the  bore. 

The  trunnions  are  cylinders,  the  axes  of  which  are  in  a  line  perpen- 
dicular to  the  axis  of  the  bore,  and  in  the  same  plane  with  that  axis. 

The  rimbases  are  short  cylinders,  uniting  the  trunnions  with  the 
body  of  the  gun.  The  ends  of  the  rimbases,  or  the  shoulders  of  the 
trunnions,  are  planes  perpendicular  to  the  axis  of  the  trunnions. 

The  bore  of  the  piece  includes  all  the  part  bored  out,  viz. :  the  cylin- 
der, the  chamber,  (if  there  is  one,)  and  the  conical  or  spherical  surface 
connecting  them. 

The  chamber,  in  howitzers,  columbiads,  and  mortars,  is  the  smaller 


440 


MILITARY  DICTIONARY. 


[ORD. 


part  of  the  bore,  which  contains  the  charge  of  powder.  In  howitzers 
and  columbiads  the  chamber  is  cylindrical ;  it  is  united  with  the  large 
cylinder  of  the  bore  by  a  conical  surface  ;  the  angles  of  intersection  of 
this  conical  surface  with  the  cylinders  of  the  bore  and  chamber  are 
rounded  (in  profile)  by  arcs  of  circles.  In  the  8-inch  siege  howitzer,  the 

chamber  is  united  with  the  cyl- 
inder of  the  bore  by  a  spher- 
ical surface,  in  order  that  the 
shell  may,  when  necessary,  be 
inserted  without  a  sabot.  A 
conical  chamber  which  is  join- 
ed to  the  cylinder  of  the  bore 
by  a  portion  of  a  spherical  sur- 
face, (as  in  the  8-inch  and  10- 
inch  light  mortars,)  is  called  a 
Cromer  chamber. 

The  bottom  of  the  bore  is  a 
plane  perpendicular  to  the  axis, 
united  with  the  sides  (in  profile) 
by  an  arc  of  a  circle,  the  radius 
of  which  is  one-fourth  of  the 
diameter  of  the  bore  at  the 
bottom.  In  the  columbiads, 
the  heavy  sea-coast  mortars, 
the  stone  mortar,  and  the 
eprouvette,  the  bottom  of  the 
kore  is  hemispherical. 

The  muzzle,  or  mouth  of 
the  bore,  is  chamfered  to  a 
depth  of  0.15  inch  to  0.5  inch, 
(varying  with  the  size  of  the 
bore,)  in  order  to  prevent  abra- 
sion, and  to  facilitate  loading. 
The  true  windage  is  the 
difference  between  the  true  di- 
ameters of  the  bore  and  of 
the  ball. 

The  axis  of  the  vent  is  in  a 
plane  passing  through  the  axis  of  the  bore,  perpendicular  to  the  axis 
of  the  trunnions.  In  guns,  and  in  howitzers  having  cylindrical  cham- 
bers, the  vent  is  placed  at  an  angle  of  80°  with  the  axis  of  the  bore,  and 


ORD.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  441 

it  enters  the  bore  at  a  distance  from  the  bottom  equal  to  one-fourth  the 
diameter  of  the  bore.  The  diameter  of  the  vent  is  two-tenths  of  an 
inch,  in,  all  pieces  except  the  eprouvette,  in  which  it  is  one-tenth.  The 
vents  of  brass  guns  are  bored  in  vent  pieces,  of  wrought  copper,  which 
are  screwed  into  the  gun. 

The  lock  piece  is  a  block  of  metal  at  the  outer  opening  of  the  vent, 
in  some  pieces  of  ordnance,  to  facilitate  attaching  a  lock  to  the  cannon. 

The  natural  line  of  sight  is  a  line  drawn  in  a  vertical  plane  through 
the  axis  of  the  piece,  from  the  highest  point  of  the  base-ring  to  the  high- 
est point  in  the  swell  of  the  muzzle,  or  to  the  top  of  the  sight,  if  there 
is  one. 

The  natural  angle  of  sight  is  the  angle  which  the  natural  line  of  sight 
makes  with  the  axis  of  the  piece. 

The  dispart  is  the  difference  of  the  semi-diameters  of  the  base-ring 
and  the  swell  of  the  muzzle,  or  the  muzzle  band.  It  is  therefore  the 
tangent  of  the  natural  angle  of  sight,  to  a  radius  equal  to  the  distance 
from  the  rear  of  the  base-ring  to  the  highest  point  of  the  swell  of  the 
muzzle,  the  sight,  or  the  front  of  the  muzzle  band,  as  the  case  may  be. 

The  preponderance  of  the  breech  of  the  gun  is  the  excess  of  weight 
of  the  part  in  rear  of  the  trunnions  over  that  in  front :  it  is  measured 
by  the  weight  which  it  is  necessary  to  apply  in  the  plane  of  the  muzzle 
to  balance  the  gun  when  suspended  freely  on  the  axis  of  the  trunnions. 

The  handles  of  the  gun  are  placed  with  their  centres  over  the  centre 
of  gravity  of  the  piece.  The  6-pounder  gun  and  the  12-pounder  howit- 
zer have  no  handles.  The  handle  of  a  heavy  mortar  consists  of  a  clevis, 
which  is  attached  by  a  bolt  to  the  ear  of  the  mortar. 

The  eprouvette  mortar  is  cast  with  a  sole,  which  fits  into  a  cast-iron 
bed-plate,  bolted  to  the  platform. 

To  designate  a  piece  of  ordnance. — State  the  kind,  the  calibre,  (in 
inches  if  it  be  foreign  ordnance,)  the  material,  the  weight,  the  inspector's 
initials,  the  number,  the  country  in  which  it  was  made,  the  date,  the 
place  of  fabrication,  the  founder's  name,  the  name  inscribed  on  it,  its 
condition  for  service,  the  kind  of  chamber,  if  any  ;  whether  it  has  a 
vent  piece,  a  lock  piece,  handles ;  the  ornaments,  and  any  particular 
marks  which  may  serve  to  identify  it. 

There  are  two  national  armories  :  the  Springfield  Armory,  Spring- 
field, Mass.,  and  the  Harper's  Ferry  Armory,  Harper's  Ferry,  Va. 
Their  principal  business  is  the  manufacture  of  the  rifle  musket  and  rifle ; 
making  components,  and  altering  other  arms.  The  armory  of  James  J. 
Ames,  Chickopee,  Mass.,  furnishes  swords,  sabres,  and  field-artillery  ; 
that  of  Samuel  Colt,  Hartford,  Conn.,  Colt's  revolving  pistols,  rifles,  and 


442  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [Orj>. 

carbines ;  Sharp's  Manufacturing  Company,  Hartford,  Conn.,  Sharp's 
carbines  and  rifles ;  Charles  Jackson,  Providence,  R.  I.,  Burnsidds  car- 
bines ;  and  Maynard's  Arms  Company,  Washington,  D.  C.,  Maynard's 
rifles  and  carbines.  The  arms  of  the  foregoing  manufactories  have  been 
tried  more  or  less  in  service  and  by  boards,  and  are  considered  good 
cavalry  arms.  The  best  arms  for  infantry,  however,  are  the  United 
States  rifle  musket  and  rifle.  The  foundries  for  cannon  are  the  South 
Boston,  C.  Alger  &  Co.,  Boston,  Mass. ;  the  West  Point,  R.  P.  Parrott, 
Cold  Spring,  N.  Y. ;  the  Tredegar,  J.  R.  Anderson  &  Co.,  Richmond, 
Va. ;  the  Bellona,  J.  L.  Archer,  Black  Heath,  Va.,  and  the  Pennsylvania, 
Knap,  Rudd  &  Co.,  Pittsburg,  Pa.  The  following  are  the  arsenals  for 
construction  of  carriages,  &c.,  or  repair :  Kennebec  Arsenal,  Augusta, 
Maine ;  Watertown  Arsenal,  Watertown,  Mass. ;  Champlain  Arsenal, 
Vergennes,  Vt. ;  Watervliet  Arsenal,  West  Troy,  N.  Y. ;  New  York 
Arsenal,  New  York  ;  Alleghany  Arsenal,  Pittsburg,  Pa. ;  Frankford 
Arsenal,  Bridesburg,  Pa. ;  Pikesville  Arsenal,  Pikesville,  Md. ; 
Washington  Arsenal,  Washington,  D.  C. ;  Fort  Monroe  Arsenal,  Old 
Point  Comfort,  Va. ;  N.  C.  Arsenal,  Fayetteville,  N.  C. ;  Charleston 
Arsenal,  Charleston,  S.  C. ;  Augusta  Arsenal,  Augusta,  Ga. ;  Mount 
Vernon  Arsenal,  Mount  Vernon,  Ala. ;  Appalachicola  Arsenal,  Chatta- 
hooche,  Florida ;  Baton  Rouge  Arsenal,  Baton  Rouge,  La. ;  Little  Rock 
Arsenal,  Little  Rock,  Ark. ;  St.  Louis  Arsenal,  St.  Louis,  Mo. ;  De- 
troit Arsenal,  Dearbornville,  Mich. ;  Benicia  Arsenal,  Benicia,  Cal. ; 
Texas  Arsenal,  San  Antonio,  Texas. 

The  principal  articles  furnished  by  the  Ordnance  Department  by 
fabrication  at  armories  and  arsenals  and  by  purchase  from  foundries, 
and  manufacturing  establishments,  are  in  inventories  classed  as  follows  : 

PART  I. 

ARTILLERY,    SMALL-ARMS,    AMMUNITION,  AND    OTHER    ORDNANCE    STORES. 

CLASS  1.  Cannon. — The  mean  weight  of  each  kind  of  ordnance,  as 
well  as  the  number  of  pieces,  should  be  entered  in  the  inventory. 

CLASS  2.  Artillery  Carriages  include  mortar  beds,  different  gun- 
carriages,  battery  wagons,  forges,  &c.  "  The  field-carriage  complete"  in- 
cludes the  limber  and  ammunition  chest,  but  no  implements.  The  "  case- 
mate, or  barbette  carriage  complete"  includes  the  upper  or  gun-carriage, 
and  the  chassis,  with  all  the  wheels,  but  no  implements.  It  is  better, 
however,  to  enter  the  gun-carriages  and  the  chassis  separately,  as  above. 

CLASS  3.  Artillery  Implements  and  Equipments  include  all  im- 
plements and  equipments  used  by  artillerists.  A  set  of  harness  for  two 
horses  includes  every  thing  required  for  them  except  whips  and  nose- 
bags, which  are  reported  separately. 


OBD.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  t  443 

CLASS  4.  Artillery  Projectiles  and  their  Appendages  unprepared  for 
Service. 

CLASS  5.  Artillery  Projectiles  with  their  Appendages  prepared  for 
Service. 

A  round  of  fixed  ammunition  is  used  to  indicate  the  projectile  with 
its  cartridge  prepared  for  use,  although  in  some  cases  they  are  not 
actually  connected  together.  A  shot  strapped,  or  a  canister,  stand  of 
grape,  <frc.,  indicate  the  projectile  prepared  for  making  fixed  ammuni- 
tion, or  for  service. 

CLASS  6.  Small-arms  include  muskets,  rifles,  carbines,  pistols, 
swords,  sabres. 

CLASS  7.  Accoutrements,  Implements,  and  Equipments  for  Small- 
arms,  and  Horse  Equipments  for  Cavalry. 

CLASS  8.     Powder,  Ammunition  for  Small-arms  and  Materials. 

CLASS  9.  Parts  or  Incomplete  Sets  of  any  of  the  Articles  inserted 
in  the  preceding  classes. 

CLASS  10.  Miscellaneous  includes  gins,  sling-carts,  hand-carts, 
trucks,  handspikes,  rollers,  &c.,  for  mechanical  manoeuvres,  eprouvettes 
and  beds,  gauges,  callipers,  &c. 

PART  II. 

TOOLS  AND    MATERIALS,  CLOTHS,  ROPES,  THREAD,  ETC.,  FORAGE,  IRON- 
MONGERY,   LABORATOR^    STORES. 

Lumber  includes  gun-carriage  timber,  and  building  materials.  The 
number  of  pieces  of  timber  for  each  part  of  a  gun-carriage  to  be  stated 
separately.  Other  plank,  &c.,  to  be  stated  in  board  measure. 

LEATHER    AND    MATERIALS    FOR    HARNESS-WORK,    PAINTS,  OILS,  GLASS,  ETC., 
STATIONERY,    TOOLS,    MISCELLANEOUS    ARTICLES. 

To  prevent  the  rapid  decay  of  the  wooden  material  of  which  sea- 
coast  and  garrison  carriages  are  mainly  composed,  experiments  have 
been  successfully  made  by  the  Ordnance  Department  to  ascertain 
whether  suitable  iron-carriages  might  not  be  substituted.  Such  car- 
riages have  been  devised  and  fabricated  even  more  convenient  for  ser- 
vice than  those  of  wood,  and,  at  the  same  time,  fully  as  cheap  in  first 
cost,  and  of  far  greater  durability ;  and  more  easily  moved  and  stored. 
With  the  aid  of  the  practical  experience  of  officers  of  the  different 
mounted  corps,  a  new  uniform  model  for  horse  equipments  has  also 
been  adopted.  The  attention  of  the  Ordnance  Department  has  been 
given  to  the  subject  of  "  rifle  cannon "  and  projectiles  for  the  same. 
Many  varieties  of  such  cannon  and  projectiles  have  been  devised  and 
brought  to'  the  notice  of  the  department  for  examination.  Actual 


444  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [ORD. 

experiment  is  necessary  for  a  comparison  of  the  relative  merits  of  the 
different  devices,  and  the  selection  of  the  best.  Such  experiments  have 
been  commenced  under  the  direction  and  supervision  of  a  board  of 
artillery  and  ordnance  officers,  who  have  reported  their  opinion  "  that 
the  era  of  smooth-bore  field  artillery  has  passed  away,  and  that  the 
period  of  the  adoption  of  rifle  cannon  for  siege  and  garrison  service  is 
not  remote.  The  superiority  of  elongated  projectiles,  whether  solid  or 
hollow,  with  the  rifle  rotation,  as  regards  economy  of  ammunition,  ex- 
tent of  range,  and  uniformity  and  accuracy  of  effect,  over  the  present 
system  is  decided  and  unquestionable."  Attention  has  been  given 
also  to  experiments  and  tests  of  gunpowder  with  a  view  to  ascertain  the 
composition  and  manufacture  of  a  powder  which  will  impart  a  given 
velocity  and  range  to  a  projectile,  with  the  least  strain  or  injury  to  the 
gun.  (See  GUNPOWDER.)  Varieties  of  the  breech-loading  carbines  are 
now  on  actual  trial  in  service,  either  of  which  is  probably  an  effective 
arm  for  cavalry.  Uniformity  of  armament  for  the  same  kind  of  service 
is,  however,  essential  both  for  tactical  instruction  and  for  adaptation  to 
ammunition  in  depot,  and  the  one  arm  to  be  adopted  must  be  not  only 
an  effective,  but  the  most  effective  of  the  kind.  Further  trials,  and 
more  extended  experience,  will  be  requisite  for  the  selection  which 
may  yet  fall  on  an  arm  not  now  invented.  (See  ARMS  ;  ARTILLERY  ; 
CARBINES  ;  FIRING  ;  RIFLED  ORDNANCE.) 

ORDNANCE  SERGEANTS.  The  Secretary  of  War  may  select 
from  the  sergeants  of  the  line  of  the  army,  who  shall  have  faithfully 
served  eight  years  in  the  service,  four  years  of  which  in  the  grade  of 
non-commissioned  officer,  as  many  ordnance  sergeants  as  the  service 
may  require,  not  to  exceed  one  for  each  military  post ;  whose  duty  it 
shall  be  to  receive  and  preserve  the  ordnance,  arms,  ammunition  and 
other  military  stores,  at  the  post,  under  the  direction  of  the  command- 
ing officer  of  the  same,  and  under  such  regulations  as  shall  be  prescribed 
by  the  Secretary  of  War,  and  who  shall  receive  for  their  services  five 
dollars  per  month,  in  addition  to  their  pay  in  the  line ;  (Act  April  5, 1832.) 

ORGANIZING.  "  Congress  shall  have  power  to  provide  for  or- 
ganizing, arming  and  disciplining  the  militia."  (See  CONSTITUTION.) 

ORILLON — is  a  projecting  tower  at  the  shoulder  angle  of  a  bastion, 
covering  the  flank  from  exterior  view,  frequently  found  in  old  fortresses. 

ORPHANS — of  officers  who  may  die  by  reason  of  wounds  received 
in  service,  to  receive  half  pay  for  five  years.  (See  PENSION.) 

OUTLINE  OR  TRACING— is  the  succession  of  lines  that  show 
the  figure  of  the  works,  and  indicate  the  direction  in  which  the  defensive 
masses  are  laid  out,  in  order  to  obtain  a  proper  defence. 


OUT.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  445 

OUTPOSTS — should  not  only  secure  an  army  against  surprise,  but 
also  be  so  arranged  as  to  enable  the  outposts  to  avoid  an  engagement  and 
not  be  enveloped  by  an  enemy.  Marshal  Bugeaud  has  elaborated  a  sys- 
tem for  outposts  well  worth  attention.  Its  principal  feature  is  the  occu- 
pation at  night  of  all  avenues  of  approach  (front,  flank,  and  rear)  to  the 
position  occupied  by  the  detached  corps,  by  squads  of  men  instructed  in 
concerted  signals.  These  little  squads  do  not  form  a  continuous  chain, 
and  are  each  independent.  It  is  not  necessary  that  they  should  be  large, 
for  their  duty  is  to  warn.  The  service  exacted  from  them  is  explained 
with  clearness  and  precision — the  signals  by  which  the  commanding 
officer  corresponds  with  the  posts  and  the  posts  with  him,  are  given. 
These  signals  should  be  made  by  petards  of  one  or  two  pounds  of 
powder.  About  a  dozen  petards  in  all  will  be  necessary.  The  posts 
will  be  made  to  understand  what  the  different  reports  of  the  petard  indi- 
cate, and  these  signals  must  be  few  in  number.  The  little  posts  should 
be  on  the  circumference  of  a  circle  having  the  village  occupied  by  the 
detached  corps  as  its  centre,  and  at  such  a  distance  as  would  prevent 
an  enemy,  without  warning  from  the  night  posts,  from  enveloping  the 
village. 

A  corps  detached  at  one  or  more  leagues  from  the  main  body  ought 
not  only  to  be  able  to  avoid  a  surprise,  but  also  to  prevent  an  enemy 
from  cutting  off  its  retreat.  Marshal  Bugeaud  accordingly  recommends 
that  the  chief  of  a  detachment  that  is  to  establish  itself  for  many  days, 
should,  on  arriving  in  position,  lose  no  time ;  but,  without  waiting  to 
rest,  occupy  himself  in  reconnoitring  the  ground  in  his  neighborhood, 
within  a  radius  of  one  or  two  leagues.  He  should  take  with  him  the 
officers  intrusted  with  the  care  of  the  camp  for  the  night,  some  horse- 
men, and  a  few  intelligent  inhabitants ;  scan  the  course  of  the  roads 
and  pathways  crossed  in  making  his  rounds,  and  take  notes.  This 
reconnoissance  finished,  he  will  be  able  to  judge  what  will  be  the  circle 
that  an  enemy  would  probably  make  around  his  post,  in  order  to  en- 
velop it  without  their  expectation  of  meeting  any  men  in  observation. 
This  circle  Marshal  Bugeaud  calls  the  supposed  circle,  and  beyond  this 
line  he  advises  little  posts  during  the  night  only,  drawn  from  the  posts 
occupied  during  the  day.  These  little  posts  must  be  without  fire  or 
animals,  and  sometimes  on  the  right  and  sometimes  on  the  left  of  the 
pathways,  and  their  position  should  be  constantly  varied.  In  the  plan, 
(Fig.  163,)  the  village  X  is  occupied  by  two  battalions  detached  three 
leagues  distant  from  the  army.  Upon  arriving  at  the  post,  the  chief  of 
the  detachment  establishes  the  usual  chain  marked  by  the  inner  circle. 
This  circle  is  about  800  metres  in  diameter,  or  2,400  in  circumference. 


446 


MILITARY  DICTIONARY. 


[OUT. 


OUT.] 


MILITARY  DICTIONARY. 


447 


After  rcoonnoissance,  little  posts  for  the  night  are  sent  to  the  points 
H  I  L  M  N  O  P  Q  KG.  The  enemy  is  signalled  at  H  IG.  Immediately 
the  chief  of  the  two  battalions  announces,  by  reports  of  the  petard,  that 


FIG.  164. 


the  different  posts  must  occupy  the  place  of  assembly  in  rear  of  O. 
The  order  is  given  to  rally,  and  the  route  followed  is  designated  on  the 
plan  thus Having  re-united  his  men,  the  chief  of  the  detach- 
ment may,  according  to  circumstances,  await  daylight  or  continue  his 
retreat. 

Ordinary  arrangement  of  Outposts  composed  of  both  Infantry  and 


448 


MILITARY  DICTIONARY. 


[OUT. 


Cavalry. — The  best  line  of  observation  in  this  example,  (Fig.  1G4,) 
is  from  the  lake  N  and  the  height  O,  on  the  right  flank  on  the  road  L. 
The  advanced  guard  A,  consisting  of  a  brigade  of  cavalry  and  a  division 
of  infantry,  is  placed  behind  the  village  B,  and  outposts  are  to  be  posted 
to  guard  against  an  attack  by  the  enemy  arriving  from  the  direction 


FIG.  165. 


of  the  village  C ;  4  companies  of  cavalry,  2  regiments  of  infantry,  and  2 
pieces  of  foot  artillery  are  detailed  to  furnish  the  outposts  and  reserve. 

D  is  the  reserve,  consisting  of  1£  companies  of  cavalry,  11  com- 
panies of  infantry,  and  2  pieces  of  foot  artillery. 

E  is  a  mainguard  of  3  companies  of  infantry,  which  furnishes  the 
two  pickets  F,  each  of  which  posts  5  pairs  of  sentinels. 


OVE.J 


MILITARY  DICTIONARY. 


449 


E'  is  an  infantry  main  guard  of  3  companies,  which  supports  the 
two  cavalry  pickets  H,  each  of  whictfcconsists  of  a  platoon,  and  posts  3 
pair  of  videttes.  E"  is  an  infantry  main  guard  of  two  companies,  to  sup- 
port the  cavalry  picket  H',  which  posts  4  videttes,  and  H",  which  posts 
1  vidette.  E'"  is  an  infantry  main  guard  of  2  companies,  which  holds 
the  cemetery  and  supports  the  cavalry  picket  H'",  posting  3  videttes. 

Ordinary  arrangement  of  Outposts  composed  of  Cavalry  alone. — In 
this  example,  (Fig.  165,)  the  most  advantageous  line  of  observation  is 
that  proceeding  from  the  village  L,  through  the  villages  M  and  N, 
thence  following  the  ridge  O  to  the  lake  P.  The  extent  of  this  line  is  a 
little  more  than  5  miles.  The  advanced  guard  A,  composed  of  a  bri- 
gade of  cavalry  and  a  division  of  infantry,  is  in  the  village  A,  and  it 
is  necessary  to  post  outposts  to  guard  it  against  the  enemy,  expected 
by  the  roads  B  ;  10  companies  of  cavalry  and  2  pieces  of  horse  artillery 
are  detailed  for  the  outposts  and  reserve.  C  is  the  reserve,  consisting 
of  4  companies  and  2  guns.  D,  D',  and  D"  are  the  main  guards,  con- 
sisting of  one  company  each.  E,  E,  E',  E',  E",  E'",  are  the  pickets, 
of  a  platoon  each.  II  is  an  independent  picket  of  one  platoon,  observ- 
ing the  road  K.  (Consult  BUGEAUD  and  MCCLELLAN.) 

OUTWORKS — are  such  works  as  are  constructed  between  the 
enceinte  and  the  glacis,  of  whatever  kind. 

OVEN.  Ovens  are  always 
provided  in  garrisons,  so  that 
the  troops  may  bake  their  own 
bread.  A  large  saving  of  flour 
is  thus  made,  which  is  the  most 
considerable  element  of  the 
post  fund.  A  brick  oven,  3m. 
33  in  breadth,  4m.  50  in  depth, 
and  Om.  75  in  height,  contains 
500  rations.  It  may  be  con- 
structed in  less  than  24  hours. 
The  cylindrical  form  is  greatly 
to  be  preferred,  as  it  is  more 
easily  made  and  requires  less 
material  than  the  ordinary 
form.  The  want  of  brick  for 
the  arch  and  fireplace  of  ovens 
may  be  supplied  in  the  field 
by  two  gabions  of  semi-cir- 
cular or  semi-elliptical  form 
29 


FIG.  166. 


BEICK  OVEN,  DIMENSIONS  IN  METRES. 
FIG.  167. 


OVEN  OF  GABIONS,  DIMENSIONS  IN  METRES. 


450 


MILITARY  DICTIONARY. 


[OVE. 


1m.  44  in  diameter ;  the  basket  work  is  not  so  close  as  the  ordinary 
gabion,  and  is  1m.  32  in  height.*  The  two  gabions,  resting  one  over 
the  other  upon  the  flat  side,  make  a  cradle  2m.  64  long,  1m.  44 
broad,  and  Om.  72  high.  The  interior  and  exterior  is  then  plastered 
with  clay,  which  must  penetrate  the  interstices  of  the  basket  work. 
The  front  and  back  part  is  shut  in  the  same  manner,  or  with  sods. 
The  cradle  is  then  covered  with  earth  to  retain  the  heat,  and  in  order 
that  the  superincumbent  weight  may  not  cause  it  to  give  way.  Withes 
are  attached  to  the  top  of  the  basket  work,  and  passed  vertically 
through  the  embankment,  and  then  fastened  to  the  longitudinal  beam  of 
a  wooden  horse  straddled  against  the  exterior  curve.  Eight  of  these 
furnaces  may  be  made  in  24  hours.  Ovens  may  also  be  made  of  wood  or 
of  earth. 

The  wooden  oven  (Fig.  168)  is  made  by  digging  an  excavation  of 
3m.  20  in  length  by  2m.  40  in  breadth,  and  Om.  50  in  depth,  making  the 
fireplace  slightly  descending  towards  the  mouth.  This  trench  is  cov- 
ered with  pieces  of  wood  of  Om.  15  to  Om.  25  square,  placed  close  to- 


Fio.  169. 


OVEN   OF  WOOD. 


OVEN   OF   EARTH 


gether ;  the  wood  is  covered  with  earth  carefully  packed,  the  chimney- 
place  is  sodded.  The  fireplace  is  dried  by  heating  for  7  or  8  hours, 
and  subsequent  heatings  require  two  hours.  Such  ovens  resist  very 
well  five  or  six  bakings.  They  require  only  two  hours  for  construction 
with  prepared  wood,  and  if  the  wood  should  burn,  the  fire  may  be  ex- 
tinguished by  closing  the  chimney  and  mouth,  and  in  half  an  hour  the 
wood  may  be  replaced,  if  consumed.  To  construct  rapidly  an  earthen 
oven  dig  a  slope  with  a  step,  and  on  its  prolongation,  dig  the  length  of 
the  oven  in  a  trench  separated  from  the  step  by  a  mass  of  earth  to  be 
pierced  later  as  the  mouth  of  the  oven.  The  trench,  when  finished,  to 
be  Om.  80  in  depth,  Om.  40  in  breadth,  and  2m.  40  in  length.  Then 
dig  laterally  portions  of  an  elliptical  arch  in  such  a  manner  as  to  make 


PAL.] 


MILITARY  DICTIONARY. 


451 


the  arch  1m.  70  in  breadth.  This  work  finished,  pierce  the  mouth  and 
cover  the  trench  with  from  three  to  five  sods  as  arch  stones,  leaving  a 
chimney -place  to  the  bottom.  Ovens  for  from  100  to  250  rations  may 
be  thus  made.  Dough  is  kneaded  with  6  parts  of  wheat,  4  of  water, 
and  a  little  salt,  a  half  part  to  the  hundred  parts.  (Consult  Memorial 
des  Officiers  d? Infanterie  et  de  Cavalerie.) 

OVER.     Authority  ;  command  ;  above.    (See  OATH  OF  OFFICE.) 


PACES.  The  length  of  each  pace  of  the  infantry  soldier  is  28 
inches  from  heel  to  heel ;  which  he  must  be  trained  to  take  in  proper 
cadence  and  in  perfect  steadiness. 

PALISADES — are  strong  palings  six  or  seven  inches  broad  on 
each  side,  having  about  one  foot  of  their  summits  sharpened  in  a  py- 
ramidal form.  They  are  frequently  placed  at  the  foot  of  slopes,  as  an 
obstacle  to  the  enemy.  A  large  beam  or  lintel,  sunk  about  2  or  3  feet, 
is  often  used  to  unite  them  more  firmly.  Their  tops  should  be  a  foot 
above  the  crest  of  the  parapet  behind  which  they  stand,  and  in  field-for- 
tifications they  form  a  very  good  obstruction,  if  protected  from  artil- 
lery. An  expeditious  mode  of  planting  them,  is  to  sink  a  small  ditch, 
about  2  feet  6  inches  deep,  and  the  same  breadth,  and  to  nail  the  ends 
of  the  palisades  to  a  piece  of  timber,  or  the  trunk  of  a  tree,  laid  on  the 
bottom  of  it,  and  then  fill  in  the  earth,  and  ram  it  well.  (Fig.  170.) 

The  palisades  should  be  9  or  10  feet  long,  so  that  when  finished,  the 
ends  shall  be  at  least  7  feet  above  the  ground.  They  may  be  made 
out  of  the  stems  of  young  trees  of  6  or  8  inches  diameter ;  but  stout 
rails,  gates  with  the  ends  knocked  off,  planks  split  in  half,  cart  shafts, 
ladders,  and  a  variety  of  such  things,  will  come  into  play,  where  more 
regular  palisades  are  not  to  be  had.  If  the  materials  are  weak,  a  cross- 
piece  must  be  nailed  to  them  near  the  top,  to  prevent  their  being  broken 
down,  and  they  must  not  be  placed  so  close  together  as  to  cover  an 
enemy.  (Fig.  171.) 


FIG.  171. 


FIG.  170. 


452  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [PAR. 

PARADE.  An  assemblage  of  troops  in  a  regular  and  prescribed 
manner,  for  guard-mounting,  field-exercises,  or  dress  parade. 

PARADOS — is  a  traverse,  covering  the  interior  of  a  work  from 
reverse  fire. 

PARALLELS — in  the  attack  of  a  place,  are  wide  trenches,  which 
afford  the  besieged  troops  a  free  covered  communication  between  their 
various  batteries  and  approaches,  and  a  secure  position  for  the  guards 
of  the  trenches.  (See  SIEGE.) 

PARAPET.  (See  FORTIFICATION.)  In  field  works,  while  the 
height  is  fixed  at  about  seven  feet,  the  thickness  of  the  parapet  varies 
according  to  the  kind  of  fire  it  is  intended  to  resist.  Should  the  ground 
in  front  be  inaccessible  to  artillery  at  800  yards,  the  parapet  is  con- 
structed of  dimensions  sufficient  only  to  resist  musketry,  or  from  two! 
to  two  and  a  half  feet  thick.  To  resist  field-artillery,  a  thickness  of 
from  six  to  ten  feet  is  required. 

PARBUCKLES — are  4-inch  ropes,  12  feet  long,  with  a  hook  at  one 
end  and  a  loop  at  the  other.  To  parbuckle  a  gun,  is  to  roll  it  in  either 
direction  from  the  spot  in  which  it  rests.  To  do  this,  place  the  gun  on 
skids,  and  if  it  is  to  be  moved  up  or  down  a  slope,  two  4|-inch  ropes 
are  made  fast  to  some  place  on  the  upper  part  of  the  slope,  the  ends  are 
carried  under  the  chase  and  breech  of  the  gun  respectively  round  it,  and 
up  the  slope.  If  the  running  ends  of  these  ropes  are  hauled  upon,  the 
gun  ascends ;  if  eased  off,  it  descends.  If  the  ground  is  horizontal, 
handspikes  only  are  necessary  to  move  the  gun. 

PARDON.  Every  officer  authorized  to  order  a  general  court-mar- 
tial, shall  have  power  to  pardon  or  mitigate  any  punishment  ordered 
by  such  court,  except  the  sentence  of  death ;  or  of  cashiering  an  officer, 
which,  in  cases  where  he  has  no  authority  (by  ART.  65)  to  carry  them 
into  execution,  he  may  suspend,  until  the  pleasure  of  the  President  of 
the  United  States  can  be  known,  which  suspension,  together  with  copies 
of  the  proceedings  of  the  court-martial,  the  said  officer  shall  immediately 
transmit  to  the  President  for  his  determination.  And  the  colonel  or 
commanding  officer  of  the  regiment  or  garrison  where  any  regimental 
or  garrison  court-martial  shall  be  held,  may  pardon  or  mitigate  any 
punishment  ordered  by  such  court  to  be  inflicted  ;  (ART.  89.) 

PARK — is  literally  an  inclosed  space.  In  military  language  it 
means  the  space  occupied  by  the  animals,  wagons,  pontoons,  and  mate- 
rial of  all  kinds,  whether  of  powder,  ordnance  stores,  hospital  stores, 
and  provisions  when  parked.  The  meaning  is  also  extended  to  embrace 
not  only  the  space  occupied,  but  also  the  whole  of  the  objects  occupying, 


PAY.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  453 

the  space.  We  say  park  of  wagons,  park  of  artillery  ;  reserve  park  ; 
division  park,  &c. ;  camp  park  ;  engineer  park. 

PAROLE.  Word  distinguished  from  the  countersign.  The  latter 
is  given  to  all  sentinels ;  the  former  only  to  officers  of  the  guard,  and 
those  authorized  to  inspect  guards  or  give  orders  to  guards.  Giving  a 
different  parole  from  that  received  punishable  with  death,  or  according 
to  the  discretion  of  a  court-martial ;  (ART.  53.) 

Parqle  is  also  a  pledge  of  honor  required  of  prisoners  when  they  are 
liberated  on  parole. 

PARTISAN.  The  name  given  to  small  corps  detached  from  the 
main  body  of  an  army,  and  acting  independently  against  the  enemy. 
In  partisan  warfare,  much  liberty  is  allowed  to  partisans.  Continually 
annoying  the  flanks  and  rear  of  columns,  they  intercept  convoys,  cut  of? 
communications,  attack  detachments,  and  endeavor  to  spread  terror  every- 
where. This  kind  of  warfare  is  advantageously  pursued  only  in  moun- 
tainous or  thickly- wooded  districts.  In  an  open  country,  cavalry  very 
readily  destroys  partisans.  The  Spanish  race  make  active  partisans. 
The  party  is  called  a  guerilla,  the  partisan  a  guerillero. 

PASS.  A  straight,  difficult,  and  narrow  passage,  which,  well  de- 
fended, shuts  up  the  entrance  to  a  country.  A  short  permission  to  be 
absent  given  to  a  soldier. 

PASSAGE  OF  RIVERS.  The  passage  is  effected  by  surprise  or 
by  main  force,  and  detachments  are  thrown  by  one  means  or  the  other 
upon  the  enemy's  bank  of  the  river  before  proceeding  to  the  construc- 
tion of  bridges.  The  passage  by  force  ought  always  to  be  favored  by 
diversions  upon  other  points.  Infantry  cross  bridges  without  keeping 
step.  Cavalry  dismount  in  crossing,  leading  their  horses.  Wagons, 
heavily  loaded,  pass  at  a  gallop.  (^BRIDGE;  DEFILE;  DISTANCES;  FORDS.) 

PASSAGES — are  openings  cut  in  the  parapet  of  the  covered  way, 
close  to  the  traverses,  in  order  to  continue  the  communication  through 
all  parts  of  the  covered  way.  (See  TRAVERSE.) 

PASSPORTS.  Foreigners  going  into  the  Indian  territory  without 
passports  subject  to  a  penalty  of  $1,000.  (See  INDIAN  ;  WAR.) 

PATROL.  A  small  party  detached  from  a  guard  to  gain  infor- 
mation from  a  neighboring  post,  to  scour  a  village  or  wood,  or  to  sup- 
ply the  place  of  an  insufficiency  of  sentinels  by  making  constant 
rounds. 

PAWL.  The  click  or  detent  which  falls  into  the  teeth  of  a  ratchet- 
wheel  to  prevent  its  motion  backward. 

PAY. 


454 


MILITARY  DICTIONARY. 


RANK  AND  CLASSIFICATION  OF  OFFICERS. 

PAY. 

SUBSIST- 
ENCE. 

FORAGE. 

SERVANTS. 

TOTAL  MONTHLY  PAY. 

30  centi  por 

Act,  Feb.  21, 
1857,  Sect  L 

8  00  per  mo. 
for  each  horse 
Act,  April 
24,  1816, 
Sect,  li 

e**'i 
ingo 
Tates< 
Act,  i 
1816, 

h 

11 

S5 

ubiist 
t  cloth- 
fapri- 
Idier.  - 
Lpril24, 
S^c.  12. 

1 

1 

2 

1 

* 

INo.  of  hones 
allowed. 

* 

GENERAL  OFFICERS. 

$270 
80 
90 
220 
80 
24 
124 
20 

110 
95 

80 
70 
80 

110 

124 
110 

95 
80   • 
70 

110 
95 
80 
70 
20 

40 
5 
5 
15 
4 
1 
12 

6 
5 

4 
4 
4 

6 

12 
6 
5 
4 
4 

6 
5 
4 
4 

$360 
45 
45 
135 
36 
9 
108 

54 
45 
36 
36 
36 

51 

108 
54 
45 
36 
36 

54 
45 
36 
36 

S 
3 
3 
3 
1 
3 

3 
3 
3 

1 
3 

3 

3 
3 
3 
3 
1 

3 
3 
3 
1 

$50 
24 
24 
24 
24 
8 
24 
8 

24 
24 
24 
S 
24 

24 

24 
24 

24 

24 
8 

24 
24 
24 
8 

4 

2 
2 
4 
2 

'it 

2 

2 
2 

1 
2 

2 

3 

2 
2 
2 
1 

2 
2 
2 

1 

$78  00 
45  00 
45  00 
78  00 
41  00 

58'  50 

41  00 
41  00 
41  00 
20  50 
41  00 

41  00 

58  50 
41  00 
41  00 
41  00 
20  50 

41  00 
41  00 
41  00 
20  50 

e-:;>s  oo 

194  00 
19!  00 
457  00 
181  00 
41  00 
314  50 
23  00 

2:9  oo 

20.')  00 
181  00 
134  50 
205  00 

22900 

314  50 
22900 
205  00 
181  00 
134  50 

229  00 
205  00 
181  00 
134  50 
2000 

228  33 
20.r>  00 
181  00 

228  33 
217  00 
181  00 
170  50 
134  50 
117  83 

22900 
205  00 
181  00 
134  50 
117  83 
117  83 
117  83 

2'29  00 
205  00 
181  00 
134  50 
125  83 
125  83 
125  83 
10  00 

212  00 

188  00 
169  00 
115  50 
105  50 
100  50 
100  50 
18  00 

124  16 
86  66 

4    .    ,           J                            * 

Secretary  

Major-general  
Senior  Aid-de-camp  to  General-in-chief  
Aid-de-camp,  in  addition  to  pay,  &c.,  of  Lieut  

Aid-de-camp,  in  addition  to  pay,  &c.,  of  Lieut  
ADJUTANT-GENERAL  s  DEPARTMENT. 

Assistant     <  ju          o                      J 

Assistant  A  ljutant  gene               p 

INSPECTOR-GENERAL'S  DEPARTMENT. 

QUARTERMASTER'S  DEPARTMENT. 
Quartermaster-general—  Brigadier-general  

Deputy  Quartermaster-general  —  Lieut.-colonel  

A     "          f  On    rt  Tiii'iHTr     Paotain 

SUBSISTENCE  DEPARTMENT. 
Commissary  general  of  Subsistence  —  Colonel  
Ass't  Commissary-general  of  Subsistence  —  Lieut.-col...  . 
Commissary  of  Subsistence—  Major  

Commissary  of  Subsistence—  Captain  
Assistant  Commissary  of  Subsistence,  in  addition  to  > 

PAY  DEPARTMENT. 

95 
80 

5 

4 

45 
36 

72 
36 
72 
36 
36 

54 
45 
36 
36 
36 
36 
36 

54 
45 
36 
36 
36 
36 
36 

3 
3 

3 
8 

3 
2 
2 
2 
2 

24 
24 

14 

24 
8 
8 
8 

24 
24 
24 
8 
8 
8 
8 

24 
24 
24 
16 
16 
16 
16 

2 
2 

2 
2 

1 

I 

41  00 
41  00 

ii  66 

41  00 
20  50 
20  50 
20  50 

41  00 

41  00 
41  00 
20  50 
20  50 
20  50 
20  50 

41  00 
41  00 
41  00 
20  50 
20  50 
20  50 
20  50 

MEDICAL  DEPARTMENT. 
Surgeon-general,  $2,740  per  annum  

Surgeons  of  ten  years'  service  
Surgeons  of  less  than  ten  years'  service  

80 
80 
70 
70 
53  33 

110 
95 
80 
70 
53  33 
53  33 
53  33 

110 
95 
80 
70 
53  33 
53  33 
53  33 
1000 

95 
80 
70 
60 
50 
45 
45 
10 

8 

4 
8 
4 
4 

6 
5 
4 
4 
4 
4 
4 

6 
5 
4 

4 
4 
4 
4 

Assistant  Surgeons  of  five  years'  service  
Assistant  Surgeons  of  less  than  five  years'  service  

OFFICERS  OF  THE  CORPS  OF  ENGINEERS,  CORPS  OF 
TOPOG.  ENG.,  AND  ORDNANCE  DEPARTMENT. 

Major 

OFFICERS  OF  MOUNTED  DRAGOONS,  CAYALRY, 
RIFLEMEN,  AND  LIGHT  ARTILLERY. 

Lieutenant-colonel  
Major  

Captain  , 
First  Lieutenant     .  . 

Adjutant  and  Regimental  Quartermaster,  in  addition  > 

OFFICERS  OF  ARTILLERY  AND  INFANTRY. 
Colonel  

6 
5 

4 
4 
4 
4 

4 

54 
45 
36 
36 
36 
36 
36 

3 
3 
3 

1 

24 
24 
24 

8 

2 
2 

3900 
39  00 
39  00 
19  50 
19  50 
19  50 
19  50 

Lieutenant-colonel  
Major  

First  Lieutenant  

Brevet  Second  Lieutenant  

Adjutant  and  Regimental  Quartermaster,  in  addition  > 

MILITARY  STOREKEEPERS. 
Attached  to  the  Quartermaster's  Department,  at  ar-"\ 
mories,  and  at  arsenals  of  construction;  the  store-  1 
keeper  at  Watertown  Arsenal,  and  storekeepers  of  V 
ordnance  serving  in  Oregon,  California,  and  New 

.. 

At  all  other  arsenals,  $1,040  per  annum  

MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  455 


DATES  OF  THE  ACTS  OF  CONGRESS  ESTABLISHING  THE  PRESENT  GATES  or  PAY,  ETC. 


Act  of  May  23, 1793,  Sec.  5— Feb.  15, 1355— Feb.  21, 1857— March  3, 1859. 

"    Jan.  11, 1812,  Sec.  6— Mar.  30,  1814,  Sec.  9— April  24, 1816,  Sec.  9  &  12— Mar.  3,  1845,  Sec.  1— Feb.  21,  1857,  Sec.  1. 
"    Sept.  26,  1850,  Sec.  2— March  3,  1845,  Sec.  1— Feb.  21,  1857,  Sec.  1. 

"    Jan.  11,  1812,  S  c.  6— April  24,  1816,  Sec.  9  &  12— March  3,  1845,  Sec.  1— Feb  21   1857  Sec.  1. 
«,  April  12, 1808,  Sec.  4— Mar.  30,  1814,  Sec.  9— Apr.  24,  1816,  Sec.  9&  12— Mar.  3,  1845,  Sec.  1— Feb.  21, 1857,  Sec.  1. 
»  «  6— April  24, 1816,  Sec.  9  &  12— March  3, 184.5,  Sec.  1— Feb.  21, 1857,  Sec.  1. 

Act  of  March  3, 1813,  Sec.  3— March  30, 1814,  Sec.  9— March  3, 1845,  Sec.  1— Feb.  21, 1857,  Sec.  1. 

1347,  Sec.  2— March  3,  1845,  Bee.  1— Feb.  21,  1857,  Sec.  1. 

"  "        1813,  Sec.  3— April  24,  1316,  Sec.  9  &  12— March  3,  1345,  Sec.  1— Feb.  21,  1857,  Sec.  1. 

41    July  5,  1838,  Sec.  7— March  3,  1845,  Sec.  1— Feb.  21,  1857,  Sec.  1. 
"    Mar.  2, 1849,  Sec.  4— Mar.  3, 1813,  Sec.  3— Apr.  24, 1816,  Sec.  9  &  12— Mar.  3, 1815,  Sec.  1— Feb.  21, 1857,  Sec.  1. 

Act  of  April  14, 1318,  Sec.  5— March  3, 1845,  Sec.  1— Feb.  21, 1857,  Sec.  1. 

Act  of  Mar.  28, 1812,  Sec.  2— Mar.  30, 1841,  Sec.  9— Apr.  24, 1816,  Sec.  9  &  12— Mar.  3, 1845,  Sec.  1— Feb.  21. 1857,  Sec.  1. 
"    July  5,  1838,  Sec.  9— March  3,  1845,  Sec.  1— Feb.  21,  1857,  Sec.  1. 


March  2, 1851,  Sec.  7—  " 
July  5,  1333,  Sec.  9—     « 


Act  of  April  14, 1313,  Sec.  6— July  5, 1833,  Sec.  13-  March  3, 1845,  Sec.  1— Feb.  21, 1857,  Sec.  1. 
"    July  5,  1838,  sec.  11— March  3, 1845,  Sec.  1— Feb.  21,  1857,  Sec.  1. 
"    March  2,  1829,  Sec.  2-     " 
"    July  5,  1838,  Sec.  11—     »  «  «  «  «  « 

"    March  2, 1821,  Sec.  8—    "  "  "  "  "  " 

Act  of  April  24, 1816,  Pec.  3— Feb.  21, 1357,  Sec.  1. 

"    March  3,  1847,  Sec.  13— March  3,  1845,  Sec.  1— Feb.  21, 1857,  Sec.  1. 

"    April  24, 1816,  Sec.  3— July  5, 1838,  Sec.  24— March  3, 1845,  Sec.  1— Feb.  21, 1857,  Seo.  1. 

Act  of  April  14, 1818,  Sec.  2— Feb.  21, 1857.  Sec.  1. 

||    June  30, 1834,  Sec.  2  &  3-July  5, 1838,  Sec.  24— March  3, 1345,  Sec.  1— Feb.  21, 1357,  Sec.  1. 

«       «  «         "     2  &  3—    "         "  "  "  "  "         "  «  « 


Act  of  July  5, 1838,  Sec.  2,  5  &  13-March  3, 1845,  Sec.  1-Feb.  21, 1857,  Seo.  1. 


April  29, 1812,  Sec.  4— Feb.  21, 1857,  Sec.  1. 


Act  of  April  12, 1803,  Sec.  4— March  30, 1814,  Sec.  9-March  3, 1845,  Sec.  1— Feb.  21, 1857,  Sec.  1. 
Apr.  24,  1816,  Sec.  94  12- ' '  «  •• 


irch  2, 1827,  Sec.  1— March  3, 1845,  Sec.  1— Feb.  21, 1S57,  Sec.  1. 
Feb.  21, 1857,  Sec.  1. 


"    April  29, 1812,  Sec.  4— Feb.  21,  1857,  Sec.  1. 
(    "    April  12.  1808,  Sec.  4. 
I    «    May  30, 1796,  Sec.  12-Feb.  11, 1847,  Sec.  4-Feb.  21, 1857,  Sec.  1. 

Act  of  Mar.  16, 1802,  Sec.  4,  5-Mar.  30, 1814,  Sec.  9— Apr.  24, 1816,  Sec.  9, 12-Mar.  3, 1845,  Sec.  1— Feb.  21, 1857,  Sec.  1. 
April  24,  1816,  Sec.  9,  12— Feb.  21, 1857,  Sec.  1. 

||          March  2, 1827,  Sec.  1-Feb.  21, 1857,  Sec.  1. 

"    April  29,  1812,  Sec.  4-Feb.  21,  1857,  Sec.  1. 

C    "    March  16,  1802,  Sec.  4— April  24,  1816,  Sec.  9. 12— March  3,  1345.  Sec.  1. 
I    "    May  30, 1796,  bee.  12-Feb.  11, 1847,  Sec.  4-Feb.  21, 1857,  Sec.  1. 


Act  of  August  23, 1842,  Sec.  2— March  3, 1849,  Sec.  2-March  3, 1853,  Seo.  1— Feb.  21, 1857,  Seo.  1. 
Act  of  August  23, 1842,  Sec.  2— Feb.  21, 1857,  Sec.  1. 


456  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [PAY. 

1.  The   officer   in   command   of  a   company  is   allowed  $10  per 
month  for  the  responsibility  of  clothing,  arms,  and   accoutrements ; 
(Act  March  2,  1827  ;  Sec.  2.) 

2.  Subaltern  officers,  employed  on  the  General  Staff,  and  receiving 
increased  pay  therefor,  are  not  entitled  to  the  additional  or  fourth  ra* 
tion  provided  by  the  Act  of  March  2,  1827  ;  Sec.  2. 

3.  Additional  rations  allowed  to  officers  while  commanding  separate 
armies,  divisions,  departments,  posts,  armories,  and   arsenals ;    (Act 
March  3,  1797,  Sec.  4;  Act  March  1G,  1802,  Sec.  5  ;  Act  August  23, 
1842,  Sec.  6 ;  Act  March  3,  1849,  Sec.  1.) 

4.  Every  commissioned  officer  of  the  line  or  staff,  exclusive  of 
general  officers,  receives  an  additional  ration  per  diem  for  every  five 
years'  service  ;  (Acts  July  5,  1838  ;  July  7,  1838.) 

5.  The  allowances  for  forage  and  servants  are  contingent. 

6.  The  following  is  the  monthly  pay  of  non-commissioned  officers  and 
soldiers  :  Each  ordnance-sergeant,  twenty-two  dollars,  and  each  sergeant- 
major,  quarter-master  sergeant,  and  chief  musician,  twenty-one  dollars ; 
to  each  first  sergeant  of  a  company,  twenty  dollars  ;  to  all  other  sergeants, 
seventeen  dollars  ;  to  each  artificer,  fifteen  dollars  ;  to  each  corporal,  thir- 
teen dollars  ;  to  each  musician  and  private  of  artillery  or  infantry,  eleven 
dollars — one  dollar  per  month  of  each  private's  pay  being  retained  to 
the  expiration  of  his  term  of  service;  (Acts  July  7  and  8,  1838,  and 
Act  Aug.  4,  1854.) 

SEC.  2.  And  be  it  further  enacted,  That  every  soldier,  who,  having 
been  honorably  discharged  from  the  service  of  the  United  States,  shall, 
within  one  month  thereafter,  re-enlist,  shall  be  entitled  to  two  dollars 
per  month  in  addition  to  the  ordinary  pay  of  his  grade,  for  the  first  pe 
riod  of  five  years  after  the  expiration  of  his  previous  enlistment,  and  a 
further  sum  of  one  dftllar  per  month  for  each  successive  period  of  five 
years,  so  long  as  he  shall  remain  continuously  in  the  army  ;  and  that 
soldiers  now  in  the  army,  who  have  served  one  or  more  enlistments, 
and  been  honorably  discharged,  shall  be  entitled  to  the  benefits  herein 
provided  for  a  second  enlistment. 

SEC.  3.  And  be  it  further  enacted,  That  soldiers  who  served  in  the 
war  with  Mexico,  and  received  a  certificate  of  merit  for  distinguished 
services,  as  well  those  now  in  the  army  as  those  that  may  hereafter  en- 
list, shall  receive  the  two  dollars  per  month  to  which  that  certificate 
would  have  entitled  them,  had  they  remained  continuously  in  the  service. 

SEC.  4.  And  be  it  further  enacted,  That  non-commmissioned  officers, 
who,  under  the  authority  of  the  seventeenth  section  of  the  act  approved 
March  third,  eighteen  hundred  and  forty-seven,  were  recommended  for 


PAY.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  457 

promotion  by  brevet  to  the  lowest  grade  of  commissioned  officer,  but  did 
not  receive  the  benefit  of  that  provision,  shall  be  entitled,  under  the  condi- 
tion recited  in  the  foregoing  section,  to  the  additional  pay  authorized  to  be 
given  to  such  privates  as  received  certificates  of  merit ;  (Act  Aug.  4, 1854.) 

Non-commissioned  officers,  musicians,  and  privates  are  also  allowed 
one  ration  per  day,  and  an  allowance  of  clothing,  both  to  be  prescribed 
by  the  President  of  the  United  States ;  (Act  April  24,  1816,  and  Act 
April  14,  1818.) 

Troops  shall  be  paid  in  such  manner  that  the  arrears  shall,  at  no 
time,  exceed  two  months,  unless  the  circumstances  of  the  case  shall  ren- 
der it  unavoidable ;  (Act  March  16,  1802,  and  March  3,  1815.) 

No  assignment  of  pay  made  by  a  non-commissioned  officer  or  pri- 
vate shall  be  valid ;  (Act  May  8,  1792.) 

Brevet  officers  shall  be  entitled  to,  and  receive,  pay  aud  emoluments 
according  to  their  brevet  rank  "  when  on  duty,  and  having  a  command  ac- 
cording to  their  brevet  rank,  and  at  no  other  time ; "  (Act  April  1 6, 1818.) 

No  money  shall  be  paid  to  any  person  for  his  compensation,  who 
is  in  arrears  to  the  United  States,  until  such  person  shall  have  accounted 
for,  and  paid  into  the  treasury,  all  sums  for  which  he  may  be  liable. 
Provided,  however,  that  the  officers  of  the  treasury  shall,  upon  demand 
of  the  party,  forthwith  report  the  balance  due,  and  it  shall  be  the  duty 
of  the  solicitor  of  the  treasury  within  sixty  days  thereafter  to  order 
suit  to  be  commenced  against  such  delinquent;  (Acts  Jan.  15,  1828, 
and  May  29,  1830.) 

PAY  DEPARTMENT.  (See  ARMY  for  its  organization.)  It  k 
the  duty  of  paymasters  to  pay  all  the  regular  and  other  troops  in 
the  service  of  the  United  States  ;  and,  to  insure  punctuality  and 
responsibility,  correct  reports  shall  be  made  to  the  paymaster-general 
once  in  two  months,  showing  the  disposition  of  the  funds  previously 
transmitted,  with  accurate  estimates  for  the  next  payment  of  such  regi- 
ment, garrison,  or  department,  as  may  be  assigned  to  each  ;  and  when- 
ever any  paymaster  shall  fail  to  transmit  such  estimate,  or  neglect  to 
render  his  vouchers  to  the  paymaster-general  for  settlement  of  his  ac- 
counts, more  than  six  months  after  receiving  funds,  he  shall  be  recalled 
and  another  appointed  in  his  place ;  (Acts  April  24,  1816,  and  July 
14,  1832.)  (See  ACCOUNTABILITY  ;  DISBURSING  OFFICERS.) 

When  volunteers  or  militia  are  called  into  service,  so  that  the  pay- 
masters authorized  by  law  shall  not  be  deemed  sufficient  to  enable  them 
to  pay  the  troops  with  proper  punctuality,  the  President  may  assign 
to  any  officer  of  the  army  the  duty  of  paymaster,  who  shall  perform 
the  same  duty,  give  the  same  bond,  and  receive  the  same  pay  and 


458  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [PAY. 

emoluments  as  are  provided  for  the  paymasters  of  the  army  ;  but'  the 
number  of  officers  so  assigned  shall  not  exceed  one  for  every  two  regi- 
ments of  militia  or  volunteers  ;  (Act  July  4,  1836.) 

PAYMASTER-GENERAL.  Under  the  direction  of  the  Secre- 
tary of  War,  the  paymaster-general  assigns  paymasters  to  districts ; 
(Act  April  24,  1816.)  He  receives  "  from  the  treasurer  all  the  moneys 
which  shall  be  intrusted  to  him  for  the  purpose  of  paying  the  pay,  the 
arrears  of  pay,  subsistence,  or  forage  due  to  the  troops  of  the  United 
States  ;  he  shall  receive  the  pay  abstracts  of  the  paymasters  of  the 
several  regiments  or  corps,  and  compare  the  same  with  the  returns  or 
muster-rolls,  which  shall  accompany  the  said  pay  abstracts.  He  shall 
certify  accurately  to  the  commanding  officer  the  sunis  due  to  the  respec- 
tive corps,  which  shall  have  been  examined  as  aforesaid,  who  shall 
thereupon  issue  his  warrant  on  the  said  deputy  paymaster  for  the  pay- 
ment accordingly  ;  (Act  May  8,  1792.) 

The  paymaster-general  may,  in  his  discretion,  allow  to  any  pay- 
master's clerk,  in  lieu  of  the  pay  now  allowed  by  law,  an  annual  salary 
of  $700.  The  paymaster-general  shall  have  the  rank  of  colonel ;  the 
deputy  paymaster-general  the  rank  of  lieutenant-colonel,  and  in  addi- 
tion to  paying  troops,  shall  superintend  the  payment  of  armies  in- 
the  field.  Paymasters  have  the  rank  of  major  ;  but  it  is  provided  that 
paymasters,  in  virtue  of  such  rank,  shall  not  be  entitled  to  command  in 
the  line  or  other  staff  departments  of  the  army  ;  (Act  March  3,  1847.) 

PENDULUM.  The  times  of  vibration  of  pendulums  are  propor- 
tional to  the  square  roots  of  their  lengths. 

T=7T   V— 

9 
Therefore,  if  /  be  the  length  of  a  pendulum  vibrating  seconds,  and  V 

the  length  of  any  other  simple  pendulum,  or  the  distance  from  the  point 
of  suspension  to  the  centre  of  oscillation  of  a  compound  pendulum,  vi- 
brating in  the  time  t  at  the  same  place,  then  :  I'  —  /  f 

The  length  of  a  pendulum  vibrating  seconds  is  in  a  constant  ratio 
to  the  force  of  gravity  : 

-j-  =  9.8696044. 

Length  of  a  pendulum  vibrating^  seconds  at  the  level  of  the  sea,  in  various  latitudes. 

At  the  Equator          .      A     •  .         .         .         .     39.0152  inches.  " 

Washington,  Lat.  38°  53'  23"  .         .         .         39.0958      " 

New  York,     Lat.  40°  42' 40"        .         .         .     39.1017      " 

London,          Lat.  51°  31'          ...         39.1393      " 

Lat.  45° 39.1270      " 

Lat.  L.  •      39.1270  in.— 0.09982  cos.  2  L 


PEN.] 


MILITARY  DICTIONARY. 


PENDULUM  HAUSSE— is  a  tangent-scale,  the  graduations  of 
which  are  the  tangents  of  each  quarter  of  a  degree  of  elevation,  to  a 
radius  equal  to  the  distance  between  the  muzzle-sight  of  the  piece,  and 
the  axis  of  vibration  of  the  hausse,  which  is  one  inch  in  rear  of  the  base- 
ring.  At  the  lower  end  of  the  scale  is  a  brass  bulb  filled  with  lead. 
The  slider  which  marks  the  divisions  on  the  scale  is  of  thin  brass,  and 
is  clamped  at  any  desired  division  on  the  scale  by  means  of  a  screw. 
The  scale  passes  through  a  slit  in  a  piece  of  steel,  with  which  it  is  con- 
nected by  a  screw,  forming  a  pivot  on  which  the  scale  can  vibrate  lat-- 
erally.  This  piece  of  steel  terminates  in  pivots,  by  means  of  which  the 
pendulum  is  supported  on  the  seat  attached  to  the  gun,  and  is  at  liberty 
to  vibrate  in  the  direction  of  the  axis  of  the  piece.  The  seat  is  of 
metal,  and  is  fastened  to  the  base  of  the  breech  by  screws,  so  that  the 
centres  of  the  steel  pivots  of  vibration  shall  be  at  a  distance  from  the 
axis  of  the  piece  equal  to  the  radius  of  the  base-ring. 

A  MUZZLE-SIGHT  of  iron  is  screwed  into  the  swell  of  the  muzzle  of 
guns,  or  into  the  middle  of  the  muzzle-ring  of  howitzers.  The  height 
of  this  sight  is  equal  to  the  dispart  of  the  piece,  so  that  a  line  joining 
the  muzzle-sight  and  the  pivot  of  the  tangent-scale  is  parallel  to  the 
axis  of  the  piece. 

PENETRATION.  The  penetration  of  a  solid  shot,  other  circum- 
stances being  the  same,  varies  with  its  diameter,  and  with  the  distance 
and  material  of  the  substance  penetrated. 

In  the  subjoined  table  are  given  the  penetrations  of  a  24-pounder 
shot,  whence  a  tolerably  accurate  estimate  may  be  formed  of  the  pen- 
etrations of  shot  of  other  calibres. 


RANGE. 

Substance  penetrated. 

100  yards. 

400  yards. 

1,200  yards. 

2    ft. 

li  ft. 

f  ft. 

5 

Oak  

4     " 

3      " 

H" 

\i 

Firm  Earth  

64-  " 

5     " 

94-   " 

£4 

Fresh  dug  Earth  

12     " 

9     " 

4-J-   " 

a 
« 

m 

Sand,  sandy  earth  mixed  with  gravel,  small  stones,  chalk  and  tufa 
resist  shot  better  than  the  productive  earths.  Shells  may  be  consid- 
ered as  round  shot  of  a.  lower  specific  gravity,  and  their  penetrations 
are  therefore  proportionately  less.  A  bank  of  earth,  to  afford  a  secure 
cover  from  heavy  guns,  will  require  a  thickness  from  18  to  24  feet. 
In  guns  below  18-pounders,  if  the  number  of  the  feet  in  thickness  of  the 
bank  be  made  equal  to  the  number  of  Ibs.  in  the  weight  of  the  shot  by 


460  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [PEN. 

which  it  is  to  be  assailed,  the  requisite  protection  will  be  obtained. 
Earth  possesses  advantages  over  every  other  material.  It  is  easily 
obtained,  regains  its  position  after  displacement,  and  the  injury  done 
to  an  earthen  battery  by  day  can  be  readily  repaired  at  night.  Where 
masonry  is  liable  to  be  breached,  it  should  be  covered  with  earth. 
Wrought-iron  plates  4k  inches  in  thickness  will  withstand  the  effects 
of  32-pound  shots,  and  of  all  inferior  calibres  at  short  ranges  as  400 
yards.  Plates  of  this  thickness,  however,  are  soon  destroyed  by  68- 
pound  shots,  and  afford  little  protection  from  the  elongated  shots  of  the 
new  rifled  ordnance.  (See  IRON  PLATES.) 

To  resist  successfully  the  fall  of  heavy  shells,  buildings  must  be 
covered  with  arches  of  good  masonry,  not  less  than  3  feet  thick,  having 
bearings  not  greater  than  25  feet,  and  these  must  be  again  protected  by 
a  covering  of  several  feet  of  earth.  Iron  plates  half  an  inch  thick,  oak 
planks  4  inches  thick,  or  a  nine-inch  brick  wall,  are  proof  against  mus- 
ketry or  canister  at  a  range  of  100  yards.  Iron  plates  1  inch  thick, 
oak  from  8  to  10  inches  thick,  a  good  wall  a  foot  thick,  or  a  firm  bank 
of  earth  4  feet  thick,  will  afford  secure  cover  from  grape  shot,  from  any 
but  the  largest  guns  at  short  ranges.  The  common  musket  will  drive 
its  bullet  about  a  foot  and  a  half  into  well-rammed  earth,  or  it  will 
penetrate  from  6  to  10  half-inch  elm  boards  placed  at  intervals  of  an 
inch.  The  penetration  of  the  rifled  musket  is  about  twice  that  of  the 
common  musket.  A  rope  matting  or  mantlet  3£  inches  thick  is  found 
to  resist  small-arm  projectiles  at  all  distances ;  it  may  therefore  be 
employed  as  a  screen  against  riflemen. 

Experiments  were  made  in  1848  at  Portsmouth  against  the  "  Le- 
viathan," to  ascertain  whether  a  round  shot  fired  at  a  depression  into  the 
water  close  to  a  ship  would  continue  its  course,  and  passing  through 
the  water,  can  maintain  force  sufficient  to  penetrate  into  the  ship  con- 
siderably below  the  water-line ;  for  this  a  32-pounder  gun  of  56  cwt., 
with  a  charge  of  10  Ibs.,  was  fired  at  a  depression  of  7  degrees  from  a 
dockyard  "  lump,"  16  yards  distant  from  the  "  Leviathan."  The  shot 
struck  the  water  4  feet  from  the  ship's  side,  rose  immediately,  passed 
through  the  orlop,  and  was  found  on  the  lower  deck.  Another  shot, 
fired  under  the  same  circumstances,  only  indented  the  wood  18  inches 
below  the  water  line.  But  elongated  rifle-shot  fired  into  the  water  have 
the  faculty  of  entering  and  passing  through  the  fluid  in  the  direction  of 
their  axes,  and,  after  passing  through  many  feet  of  water,  retain 
force  sufficient  to  penetrate  any  ship's  side  below  the  water-line.  This 
was  proved  by  firing  Whitworth's  hexagonal  shot  under  circumstances 
nearly  similar  to  the  preceding  experiments  against  the  "  Leviathan," 


PEN.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  461 

when  a  flat-headed  hexagonal  shot  fired  from  a  24-pounder  passed  through 
33  feet  of  water,  and  then  penetrated  into  the  ship  through  12  or  14 
inches  of  oak  and  planking ;  (Sir  HOWARD  DOUGLAS  ;  HYDE  and  BEX 
TON.)  (See  RIFLED  ORDNANCE.) 

PENSION.  No  person  in  the  army,  navy,  or  marine  corps,  shall 
be  allowed  to  draw  both  a  pension  as  an  invalid  and  the  pay  of  his  rank 
or  station  in  the  service,  unless  the  alleged  disability  for  which  the 
pension  was  granted,  be  such  as  to  have  occasioned  his  employment 
in  a  lower  grade,  or  in  some  civil  branch  of  the  service ;  (Act  April 
30,  1844.)  Any  officer,  non-commissioned  officer,  or  soldier  of  the 
army,  including  militia  rangers,  sea-fencibles  and  volunteers,  disabled 
by  wounds  or  otherwise,  while  in  the  line  of  his  duty  in  public  ser- 
vice, shall  be  placed  on  the  list  of  invalids  of  the  United  States,  at 
the  following  rates  of  pay  :  No  officer  shall  receive  more  than  the  half 
pay  of  a  lieutenant-colonel ;  half  the  monthly  pay  of  inferior  grades ; 
or,  for  a  first  lieutenant,  seventeen  dollars ;  a  second  lieutenant,  fifteen 
dollars,  a  third  lieutenant  fourteen  dollars,  an  ensign  thirteen  dollars ; 
and  a  non-commissioned  officer,  musician,  or  private,  eight  dollars  per 
month  for  the  highest  disability,  and  for  less  disabilities  a  sum  propor- 
tionably  less  ;  (Act  March  16,  1802,  and  April  24,  1816.) 

The  widow  of  an  officer  dying  of  wounds  received  in  military  ser- 
vice, or  if  the  officer  have  no  widow,  any  child  or  children  left  by  the 
officer,  is  entitled  to  his  half  pay  for  five  years ;  provided  that  the  pension 
to  the  widow  shall  cease  upon  her  death  or  intermarriage,  and  shall  also 
cease  upon  the  death  of  such  child  or  children  ;  (Act  March  16,  1802.) 

In  an  elaborate  opinion  given  by  Mr.  Attorney-general  Gushing, 
published  by  the  War  Department  in  General  Orders,  No.  11  of  1855, 
he  draws  the  conclusion  that  "  the  phrase  '  line  of  duty '  is  an  apt  one, 
to  denote  that  an  act  of  duty  performed  must  have  relation  of  causation, 
mediate  or  immediate,  to  the  wound,  the  casualty,  the  injury,  or  the 
disease  producing  disability  or  death."  "  Every  person  "  (says  Mr. 
Gushing)  who  enters  the  military  service  of  the  country— officer,  sol- 
dier, sailor,  or  marine — takes  upon  himself  certain  moral  and  legal  en- 
gagements of  duty,  which  constitute  his  official  or  professional  obliga- 
tions. While  in  the  performance  of  those  things  which  the  law  requires 
of  him  as  military  duty,  he  is  in  the  line  of  his  duty  But  at  the  same 
time,  though  a  soldier  or  sailor,  he  is  not  the  less  a  man  and  a  citizen, 
with  private  rights  to  exercise  and  duties  to  perform  ;  and  while  at- 
tending to  these  things  he  is  not  in  the  line  of  his  public  duty.  In 
addition  to  this,  a  soldier  or  sailor,  like  any  other  man,  has  the  physical 
faculty  of  doing  many  things  which  are  in  violation  of  duties  either 


462  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [PER. 

general  or  special ;  and  in  doing  these  things  he  is  not  acting  in  the 
line  of  his  duty.  Around  all  those  acts  of  the  soldier  or  sailor  which 
are  official  in  their  nature  the  pension  laws  draw  a  legislative  line,  and 
then  they  say  to  the  soldier  or  sailor :  If,  while  performing  acts  which 
are  within  that  line,  you  thereby  incur  disability  or  death,  you  or  your 
widow  or  children,  as  the  case  may  be,  shall  receive  pension  or  allow- 
ance ;  but  not  if  the  disability  or  death  arise  from  acts  performed  out- 
side of  that  line ;  that  is,  absolutely  disconnected  from,  and  wholly  in- 
.  dependent  of,  the  performance  of  duty.  Was  the  cause  of  disability  or 
death  a  cause  within  the  line  of  duty  or  outside  of  it  ?  Was  that  cause 
appertaining  to,  dependent  upon,  or  otherwise  necessarily  and  essentially 
connected  with,  duty  within  the  line ;  or  was  it  unappertinent,  inde- 
pendent, and  not  of  necessary  and  essential  connection  1  That,  in  my 
judgment,  is  the  true  test-criterion  of  the  class  of  pension  cases  under 
consideration." 

PERCUSSION.  Twelve  percussion  caps  are  issued  to  ten  car- 
tridges. (See  ARMS  and  ACCOUTREMENTS.) 

PERCUSSION  BULLETS— are  made  oy  placing  a  small  quan- 
tity of  percussion  powder,  inclosed  in  a  copper  envelope,  in  the  point 
of  an  ordinary  rifle  musket  bullet.  The  impact  of  the  bullet  against  a 
substance  no  harder  than  wood  is  found  to  ignite  the  percussion  charge, 
and  produce  an  effective  explosion.  These  projectiles  can  be  used  to 
blow  up  caissons  and  boxes  containing  ammunition  at  very  long  dis- 
tances ;  (BENTON.) 

PETARD.  An  engine  made  of  gun-metal,  fixed  upon  a  board,  and 
containing  about  nine  pounds  of  powder.  Sometimes  attached  to  gates, 
&c.,  to  burst  them  open.  In  an  attack  upon  a  fortification,  leathern 
bags  containing  fifty  pounds  of  powder  have  been  found  more  useful. 

PICKER.  A  small  pointed  brass  wire,  which  is  supplied  to  every 
infantry  soldier  for  the  purpose  of  cleaning  the  vent  of  his  musket. 

PICKET.  Sharp  stakes  used  for  securing  the  fascines  of  a  bat- 
tery. To  picket  horses  in  carnp.  STOCKADES,  which  see,  are  also  some- 
times called  picket  works. 

Also  a  detachment  composed  of  cavalry  or  infantry,  whose 
principal  duty  is  to  guard  an  army  from  surprise,  and  oppose  such 
small  parties  as  the  enemy  may  push  forward  for  the  purpose  of  re- 
connoitring. (See  OUTPOSTS,) 

PIECE — designates  any  gun,  large  or  small. 

PIERRIER — was  a  term  originally  applied  to  an  engine  for  cast- 
ing stones  ;  then  to  a  small  kind  of  cannon  ;  now  to  a  mortar  for  dis- 
"harging  stones,  &c. 


PLA.]        |  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  403 

PIERS.     The  columns  upon  which  a  bridge  is  erected. 

PIKE.  A  military  weapon  formerly  used  as  a  bayonet.  The  pike 
had  a  shaft  from  ten  to  fourteen  feet  long,  with  a  flat  pointed  steel 
head  called  the  spear. 

PILE.  A  beam  of  wood  driven  into  the  ground  to  form  a  solid 
foundation  for  building.  Also  a  heap,  as  a  pile  of  balls.  To  pile 
arms,  is  to  stack  arms  in  the  prescribed  manner,  that  they  may  remain 
steady  on  the  ground.  Balls  are  piled  according  to  kind  and  calibre, 
under  cover  if  practicable,  in  a  place  where  there  is  a  free  circulation, 
of  air,  to  facilitate  which  the  piles  should  be  made  narrow  if  the  locality 
permits ;  the  width  of  the  bottom  tier  may  be  from  12  to  14  balls,  ac- 
cording to  the  calibre.  Prepare  the  ground  for  the  base  of  the  pile 
by  raising  it  above  the  surrounding  ground  so  as  to  throw  off  the 
water;  level  it,  ram  it  well,  and  cover  it  with  a  layer  of  screened  sand. 
Make  the  bottom  of  the  pile  with  a  tier  of  unserviceable  balls  buried 
about  two-thirds  of  their  diameter  in  the  sand ;  this  base  may  be  made 
permanent :  clean  the  base  well  and  form  the  pile,  putting  the  fuze 
holes  of  shells  downwards,  in  the  intervals,  and  not  resting  on  the  shells 
below.  Each  pile  is  marked  with  the  number  of  serviceable  balls  it  con- 
tains. The  base  may  be  made  of  bricks,  concrete,  stone,  or  with  bor- 
ders and  braces  of  iron.  Grape  and  canister  shot  should  be  oiled  or 
lackered,  put  in  piles,  or  in  strong  boxes,  on  the  ground  floor,  or  in  dry 
cellars ;  each  parcel  marked  with  its  kind,  calibre,  and  number. 

PILLAGE.      (See  PLUNDER.) 

PIONEERS.  Soldiers  sometimes  detailed  from  the  different  com- 
panies of  a  regiment  and  formed  under  a  non-commissioned  officer, 
furnished  with  saws,  felling  axes,  spades,  mattocks^  pickaxes,  and  bill- 
hooks. Their  services  are  very  important,  and  no  regiment  is  well 
fitted  for  service  without  pioneers  completely  equipped. 

PISTOL.  Horsemen  have  one  or  two  pistols  furnished  them. 
General,  field  and  staff  officers  also  carry  pistols  in  their  holsters. 
Colt's  pistol  is  a  revolver  composed  of  a  cylinder  containing  six  charges, 
a  rifled  barrel,  and  a  handle  or  stock.  The  length  of  bore  (navy)  9  in. ; 
weight  2.40  Ibs. ;  weight  of  projectile  125  grs. ;  weight  of  powder 
14  grs. ;  initial  velocity  760  feet.  (See  ARMS  for  Pistol-Carbine.) 

PIVOT.  That  officer  or  soldier  upon  whom  the  company  wheels. 
The  pivot  flank  in  a  column  is  that  which,  when  wheeled  up,  preserves 
the  proper  front  of  divisions  of  the  line  in  their  natural  order.  The 
opposite  flank  of  the  column  is  called  the  reverse  flank. 

PLACE.  Town  or  city  is  but  little  used  in  military  parlance.  A 
strong  place  is  a  fortified  citv. 


464  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [Pn. 

PLACES  OF  ARMS — are  enlargements  in  the  covered-way,  at  the 
re-entering  and  salient  angles  of  the  counterscarp  ;  hence  the  terms  re 
entering  places  of  arms,  and  salient  places  of  arms ;  the  latter  spaco 
is  formed  simply  by  rounding  the  counterscarp  ;  and  the  former  by 
setting  off  demi-gorg'es  of  thirty  yards,  (more  or  less,)  and  making  the 
faces  form  angles  of  100°  with  the  adjoining  branches  of  the  covered-way. 

PLAN.  A  plan  of  campaign  (says  Napoleon)  should  anticipate  all 
that  an  enemy  may  do,  and  combine  within  itself  the  means  necessary 
to  baffle  him.  Plans  of  campaign  are  modified  by  circumstances,  the 
genius  of  the  chief,  the  nature  of  the  troops,  and  topography.  There 
are  good  and  bad  plans  of  campaign,  but  sometimes  the  good  fail  from 
misfortune  or  mismanagement,  while  the  bad  succeed  by  caprices  of 
fortune. 

PLAN  OF  A  WORK.  A  plan  shows  the  tracing ;  also  the  hor- 
izontal lengths  and  breadths  of  the  works ;  the  thickness  of  the  ram- 
parts and  parapets ;  the  width  of  the  ditches,  &c.  :  it  exhibits  the 
extent,  division,  and  distribution  of  the  works ;  but  the  depth  of  the 
ditches  and  the  height  of  the  works  are  not  represented  in  a  plan. 

PLANE  OF  COMPARISON— is  a  plan  of  a  fortress,  and  of  the 
surrounding  country,  on  which  are  expressed  the  distances  of  the  prin- 
cipal points  from  a  horizontal  plane,  imagined  to  pass  through  the  high- 
est or  lowest  points  of  ground,  in  the  survey  This  imaginary  plane  is 
called  a  plane  of  comparison. 

PLANE  OF  DEFILADE— is  a  plane  supposed  to  pass  through 
the  summit  or  crest  of  a  work,  and  parallel  to  the 'plane  of  site. 

PLANE  OF  SITE.  The  general  level  of  the  ground,  or  ground 
line,  upon  which  the  works  are  constructed,  is  called  the  plane  of  site, 
whether  that  plane  be  horizontal  or  oblique  to  the  horizon. 

PLATFORM.  There  are  six  sleepers,  18  deck  planks,  72  dowels, 
and  12  iron  eye-bolts,  used  for  the  platform  of  siege  mortars.  The 
weight  of  the  platform  made  of  yellow  pine  is  837  Ibs. 

PLATOON.     The  half  of  a  company. 

PLONGEE.  The  dip  or  declension  of  the  superior  slope  of  the 
parapet,  is  called  the  plongee.  The  amount  of  it  is  regulated  by  the 
distance  of  the  nearest  spot,  to  which  the  fire  -  of  musketry  is  to  be 
directed ;  that  %,  generally,  the  exterior  edge  of  the  ditch  in  front 
of  it. 

PLUMMET.  A  leaden  or  iron  weight  suspended  by  a  string,  used 
by  artificers  to  sound  the  depth  of  water,  or  to  regulate  the  perpen- 
dicular direction  of  any  building.  Pendulums,  called  also  plummets, 
which  vibrate  the  required  times  of  march  in  a  minute,  are  of  great 


POL.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  465 

utility ;  they  must  be  in  the  possession  of,  and  be  constantly  referred 
to  by,  each  instructor  of  a  squad.     (See  PENDULUM.) 

PLUNDER.  Every  officer  or  soldier,  who  shall  quit  his  post  or 
colors  to  plunder  and  pillage,  shall  suffer  death  or  such  other  punish- 
ment as  may  be  ordered  by  a  general  court-martial ;  (ART.  52.) 

POINT-BLANK.  The  point-blank  is  the  second  point  at  which 
the  line  of  sight  intersects  the  trajectory  of  the  projectile.  The  natural 
point-blank  is  when  the  natural  line  of  sight  is  horizontal.  The  point- 
blank  made  by  the  use  of  the  hausse,  is  called  an  artificial  point-blank. 

In  the  British  service,  the  point-blank  distance  is  the  distance  at 
which  the  projectile  strikes  the  level  ground  on  which  the  carriage 
stands,  the  axis  of  the  piece  being  horizontal.  This  definition  conveys 
a  better  idea  of  the  power  of  the  piece  than  the  French  and  American 
definition.  For  the  same  piece,  the  point-blank  distance  increases  with 
the  charge  of  powder ;  for  the  same  initial  velocity,  a  large  projectile 
has  a  greater  point-blank  distance  than  a  small  one ;  a  solid  shot  than 
a  hollow  one ;  and  an  oblong  projectile  than  a  round  one.  (See  FIRING.) 

POINTING-.  To  point  a  gun  is  to  give  it  such  direction,  and  ele- 
vation or  depression,  that  the  shot  may  strike  the  object.  The  general 
rule  is,  first  give  the  direction,  and  then  the  elevation  or  depression. 
In  pointing  mortars,  the  elevation  is  first  given  and  then  the  direction. 
The  direction  of  a  gun  or  howitzer  is  given  by  directing  the  line  of 
metal  upon  the  object.  The  elevation  or  depression  depends  upon  the 
charge,  the  distance  and  the  position  of  the  object  above  or  below  the 
battery,  and  it  is  ascertained  by  reference  to  tables  of  fire,  or  by  ex- 
periment ;  and  the  proper  angle  is  given  by  means  of  instruments — the 
gunner's  quadrant  or  tangent-scales.  In  the  absence  of  tangent-scales 
or  quadrant,  the  gunner  may  point  his  gun  by  placing  one  or  more 
fingers  of  the  left  hand  upon  the  base-ring  perpendicularly  to  the  axis, 
and  using  them  as  a  breech-sight. 

In  pointing  a  mortar,  the  elevation  is  given  by  applying  the  quad- 
rant to  the  face  of  the  piece,  and  adjusting  the  quoin  until  the  required 
number  of  degrees  is  indicated.  The  directiotl  is  given  by  determining 
practically  two  fixed  points  which  shall  be  in  a  line  with  the  piece  and 
object,  and  sufficiently  near  to  be  readily  distinguished  by  the  eye. 
These  points  being  covered  by  the  plummet,  determine  a  vertical  plane 
which,  when  including  the  line  of  metal,  becomes  the  plane  of  fire. 
Various  methods  are  given  for  the  accomplishment  of  this  object  in 
Roberts's  Handbook  of  Artillery.  (Consult  Instructions  for  Field  and 
Heavy  Artillery,  published  by  the  War  Department.) 

POLYGON  OF  FORTIFICATION.     Every  piece  of  ground  to 
30 


466  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [POK. 

be  fortified,  is  surrounded  by  a  polygon,  either  square,  pentagonal, 
hexagonal,  &c.,  according  to  the  number  of  its  sides,  which  are  called 
exterior  sides  ;  upon  these  the  fronts  of  fortifications  are  constructed. 

PONTONIERS.     (See  SAPPERS.) 

PONTOON.  Vulcanized  India  rubber  pontoons,  consisting  of  three 
cylinders  connected  together,  have  been  made  in  the  United  States.  The 
three  cylinders  weigh  260  Ibs.,  and  with  their  flooring  of  three  chesses 
can  be  packed  in  a  box  5  feet  X  3£  feet  X  1  foot.  The  India  rubber 
pontoons  are  made  of  India  rubber  cloth,  and  consist  each  of  three 
tangent  cylinders,  peaked  at  Both  extremities  like  the  ends  of  a  canoe ; 
the  ends  are  firmly  united  together  by  two  strong  India  rubber  liga- 
ments which  extend  along  their  lines  of  contact  and  widen  into  a  con- 
necting web  towards  the  ends  in  proportion  as  these  diminish,  the  three 
thus  forming  a  single  boat  20  feet  long  by  3  feet  broad,  of  great  buoyancy 
and  stability,  and  from  its  form  and  lightness  presenting  but  trifling 
resistance  to  the  water.  Each  cylinder,  including  its  peaked  extremi- 
ties, is  20  inches  in  diameter,  and  is  divided  into  three  distinct  air-tight 
compartments,  each  of  which  has  its  own  inflating  nozzle.  The  middle 
compartment  occupies  the  whole  width  of  the  roadway  of  the  bridge. 
The  inflating  nozzles  are  made  of  brass,  with  stopple  and  tube,  the 
former  screwing  into  the  latter  to  open  or  close  the  nozzle.  The  frame 
lies  on  the  top  of  the  pontoon  to  which  it  is  lashed,  and  serves  as  a 
means  of  attaching  the  baulks  to  the  pontoon  and  preventing  their 
chafing  it:  the  baulks  are  of  white  pine  or  spruce  19  feet  long;  the 
chesses  are  also  of  white  pine  or  spruce  13  feet  9  inches  long.  The 
equipment  and  management  of  these  pontoons  are  nearly  similar  to  the 
means  employed  for  bridges  of  a  different  kind.  The  floating  portion 
constitutes  the  essential  difference,  and  this,  being  light  and  compact 
when  folded  up,  may  be  easily  transported.  (Consult  Papers  published 
by  United  States  Engineers  in  1849.) 

The  chief  engineer,  with  the  approbation  of  the  Secretary  of  War, 
regulates  and  determines  the  number,  quality,  forms,  dimensions,  &c., 
of  the  necessary  vehicles*,  pontoons,  tools,  implements,  and  other  sup- 
plies for  the  use  of  the  company  of  sappers,  miners,  and  pontoniers ; 
(Act  May  15,  1846.) 

PORT-FIRE.  A  composition  of  nitre,  sulphur,  and  mealed  pow- 
der driven  into  a  case  of  strong  paper  used  to  fire  guns  previous  to 
the  introduction  of  the  friction  primer. 

POSSE  COMITATUS.  A  sheriff  Or  marshal,  for  the  purpose  of 
keeping  the  peace  and  pursuing  felons,  may  command  all  the  people  of 
his  county  above  15  years  old  to  attend  him,  which  is  called  the  posse 
comitatus,  or  power  of  the  county  ;  (BLACKSTONE.) 


PRK.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  467 

Can  United  States  troops  stationed  in  any  county  be  employed  as 
a  posse  comitatus?  Their  service  does  not  give  them  residence  where 
they  arc  employed,  and  moreover  the  Acts  of  Congress  of  1795,  and 
March  3,  1807,  restrict  the  employment  of  the  United  States  military 
forces  in  civil  commotions  to  clearly  defined  cases,  and  then  authorize 
the  President  of  the  United  States  alone  to  use  such  force  after  he  shall 
have  by  proclamation  commanded  the  insurgents  to  disperse  and  retire 
peaceably  to  their  homes  within  a  reasonable  time.  (See  CALLING 
FORTH  MILITIA  ;  OBSTRUCTION  OF  LAW.) 

These  enactments  of  Congress  would  Seem  to  make  inapplicable  to 
United  States  troops  the  doctrine  of  English  judges,  that  the  soldier,  being 
still  a  citizen,  acts  only  in  preservation  of  the  public  peace  as  another 
citizen  is  bound  to  do.  See  EXECUTION  OF  LAWS,  for  the  learning  on 
the  subject  of  using  troops  in  civil  commotions  where  the  common  law 
is  not  changed  by  legislation. 

POST.  It  is  synonymous  with  position.  Thus  a  post  is  said  to  be 
good  or  not  tenable.  Post  is  also  the  walk  or  position  of  a  sentinel. 
Any  officer  or  soldier,  who  shall  shamefully  abandon  any  fort,  post,  or 
guard  which  he  may  be  commanded  to  defend,  or  speak  words  inducing 
others  to  do  the  like,  shall  suffer  death  or  such  other  punishment  as  a 
court-martial  may  direct ;  (ART.  52.) 

Any  sentinel,  who  shall  be  found  sleeping  upon  his  post,  or  shall  leave 
it  before  he  shall  be  regularly  relieved,  shall  suffer  death  or  such  other 
punishment  as  shall  be  inflicted  by  a  court-martial ;  (ART.  66.)  (See  PAY.) 

POSTERN  OR  SALLY-PORT— is  a  passage  usually  vaulted, 
and  constructed  under  the  rampart,  to  afford  a  communication  from  the 
interior  into  the  ditch.  The  passages  from  the  covered  way  into  the 
country,  are  likewise  called  sally-ports ;  as  they  afford  free  egress  and 
ingress  to  troops,  engaged  in  making  a  sally  or  sortie. 

POWDER.     (See  GUNPOWDER.) 

PRESIDENT.  The  President  of  the  United  States  is  commander- 
in-chief  of  the  army,  navy,  and  militia,  called  into  service.  His  func- 
tions as  such  are  assigned  by  Congress,  but  embrace  of  course  whatever 
authority  may  be  assigned  to  any  military  commander,  on  the  principle 
that  the  authority  of  the  greater  includes  that  of  the  less.  For  the  com- 
mand, government,  and  regulation  of  the  army,  however,  (Congress  has 
created  a  military  hierarchy  or  range  of  subordination  in  the  army  with 
rights  and  duties  regulated  by  Congress,  and  the  commander-in-chief 
cannot  make  use  of  any  other  agents  in  exercising  his  command ;  and  all 
orders  issued  by  him  must  be  according  to  the  rules  and  articles  made 
by  Congress  for  the  government  of  the  army.  In  his  capacity  of  chief- 
magistrate  of  the  Union,  Congress  has  also  invested  the  President  with 


468  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [PRE. 

many  administrative  functions  relating  to  military  affairs;  and  for  the 
performance  of  the  latter  duties  the  Secretary  of  the  Department  of 
War  has  been  made  his  minister,  upon  matters  connected  with  materiel, 
accounts,  returns,  the  support  of  troops,  and  the  raising  of  troops.  (See 
ARMY  REGULATIONS  ;  CONGRESS  ;  DEPARTMENT  OF  WAR  ;  ORDERS  ; 
REGULATIONS  ;  SECRETARY  OF  WAR.) 

PRESIDENT,  (COURT-MARTIAL.)  The  President  of  a  court-martial 
is  the  senior  member.  He  preserves  order  in  court ;  administers  the 
oath  taken  by  the  judge-advocate,  and  the  proceedings  of  the  court  are 
authenticated  by  his  signature  and  that  of  the  judge-advocate. 

PRINTING-.  The  following  explanation  of  the  marks  which  are 
in  general  use  by  printers  for  correcting  proofs,  with  the  annexed  speci- 
men, will  enable  an  officer,  who  has  to  superintend  a  work  through  the 
press,  to  correct  the  proof  sheets  in  a  way  that  will  be  clearly  under- 
stood by  the  printer,  and  thus  promote  its  accuracy. 

If  it  is  desired  to  change  any  word  to  capitals,  small  capitals,  Roman  text,  (the  ordinary 
letter,)  or  italics,  draw  a  line  beneath  it,  and  write  in  the  margin,  Caps.,  S.  cop.s.,  Rom., 
or  Ital.,  as  the  case  may  be.  See  corrections  1,  2,  14,  and  8,  on  the  proof-sheet. 

When  it  is  necessary  to  expunge  a  letter  or  word,  draw  a  line  through  it,  and  place 
in  the  margin  a  character  resembling  a  d  of  current  hand,  which  stands  for  the  Latin 
word  dele  (erase) ;  as  in  No.  3. 

When  a  wrong  letter  or  word  occurs  in  the  proof-sheet,  draw  a  line  through  it,  and 
place  what  must  be  substituted  for  it  in  the  margin,  with  a  vertical  line  at  the  right ; 
as  in  the  corrections  marked  4. 

Attention  is  drawn  to  an  inverted  letter  by  underscoring  it,  and  writing  opposite  the 
character  used  in  No.  5. 

An  omitted  word,  letter,  comma,  semicolon,  colon,  exclamation-point,  or  interroga- 
tion-point, as  well  as  brackets  and  parentheses,  are  written  in  the  margin  with  a  verti- 
cal line  at  the  right ;  as  in  the  various  corrections  marked  6  :  a  caret  shows  where  to 
introduce  what  is  thus  marked  in.  When  there  is  so  much  omitted  that  there  is  not 
room  for  it  in  the  margin,  it  is  written  at  the  top  or  bottom  of  the  page,  and  a  line  is 
used  to  show  where  it  is  to  be  introduced  ;  as  at  the  bottom  of  the  proof-sheet. 

A  period  is  marked  in  by  placing  it  in  the  margin  inside  of  a  circle,  as  in  No.  9. 

Apostrophes  and  quotation -points  are  introduced  in  a  character  resembling  a  V, 
and  a  caret  is  placed  in  the  text  to  show  where  they  are  to  be  inserted.  This  is  illus- 
trated in  No.  11. 

No.  22  shows  how  the  dash  and  hyphen  are  introduced. 

When  a  letter  or  word  should  be  transposed,  a  line  is  drawn  around  it  and  carried 
to  the  place  where  it  should  stand,  and  the  letters  tr.  are  placed  opposite,  as  in  No.  7. 

No.  10  shows  how  to  mark  out  a  quadrat  or  space  which  improperly  appears. 

If  a  broken  or  imperfect  letter  is  used,  draw  a  line  through  or  beneath  it,  and 
make  an  inclined  cross  in  the  margin,  as  in  No.  12. 

Sometimes  a  letter  of  the  wrong  size  will  be  used  by  mistake ;  in  such  a  case,  under- 
line it  and  place  the  letters  w.  f.  (throng  font}  in  the  margin  as  in  13. 

If  the  letters  of  a  word  stand  apart  from  each  other,  draw  a  curved  line  beneath  the 
space  which  separates  them,  and  two  curves  in  the  margin,  as  in  15.  If  the  proper 
space  is  wanting  between  two  contiguous  words,  place  a  caret  where  the  space  should 
be,  and  opposite  to  them  make  a  character  like  a  music  sharp,  as  shown  in  No.  16. 

Two  parallel  horizontal  lines,  as  in  No.  17,  are  used  when  the  letters  of  a  word  are  not 
all  in  the  same  level,  and  a  horizontal  line  is  also  drawn  under  such  as  are  out  of  place. 

When  a  new  paragraph  has  been  improperly  begun,  a  line  is  drawn  from  its  com- 
mencement to  the  end  of  the  previous  paragraph,  and  the  words  no  break  are  written 
in  the  margin;  see  No.  18.  When  it  is  desired  to  commence  a  new  paragraph,  the 
paragraph  mark  (^[)  is  introduced  at  the  place,  and  also  in  the  margin. 


PRI.] 


MILITARY  DICTIONARY. 


469 


"When  letters  at  the  commencement  of  a  line  are  out  of  the  proper  level,  a  horizon- 
tal line  should  be  drawn  beneath  them,  and  a  similar  one  placed  in  the  margin  ;  as  in 
No.  21.  When  any  portion  of  a  paragraph  projects  laterally  beyond  the  rest,  a  vertical 
line  should  be  drawn  beside  it,  and  a  similar  one  must  stand  opposite  to  it  in  the  mar- 
gin ;  see  No.  23. 

When  a  lead  has  been  improperly  omitted,  the  word  Lead  is  written  at  the  side  of 
the  page,  and  a  horizontal  line  shows  where  it  is  to  be  introduced,  as  in  No.  25.  If  a 
lead  too  many  has  been  introduced,  the  error  is  corrected,  as  in  24. 

When  uneven  spaces  are  left  betweOT.  words,  a  line  is  drawn  beneath,  and  space 
better  is  written  opposite  ;  see  26. 

If  it  is  desired  to  retain  a  word  which  has  been  marked  out,  dots  are  placed  beneath 
it,  and  the  word  stet  (let  it  stand)  is  written  in  the  margin  ;  as  in  27. 

MAEKS    USED  IN    COEEECTING    PEOOF-SHEET. 


9| 


25 


WILLIAM    FALCONER. 


William  Falconer  was  the  son  of  a  i  barber  in     C^\3 
4  a/    Edinburgh,  ^nd  was  born  in  1730.     He  had  vary  few          o)5 

^/       avantages  of  education,  and  (went  to  sea  (in  early  life)  tt. 

A  A 

in  the  merchant  service.    He  afterwards  became  mate 

i 

>a*/    of  a  vessel  that  wrecked  in  the  Levant  and  was  saved  oTtoE,8       Jy/  6 
O      with  only  two  of  his  crew:  Xhis  catastrophe  formed      3°/4       T1(i 
the  subject  of  his  poem  entitled  "  The  Shipwreck,  on  tyu 

which  his  reputation  as  a  writer  chiefly  rests.     Early 


12 


4  . 


27 


11 


in  17G9,  his  "Marine  Dictionary"  appeared,  which 

hasbeen  highly  BJ 
A 

mating  its  merits, 
(in  this 


hasbeen  highly  spoken  of  by  those  capable  of  esti- 


seam-  year,  he  embarked  ou  the  AURORA  but      E.  o. 

-  A 

the  vessel  was  never  heard  of  after  she  passed  the 
Capej^  the  poet_of__the  Shipwreck  is  therefore  sup- 
posed  to  have  perisl/d  by  the  same  disaster  he  had 
"frirasQlf  so  graphically  described.  If  The  subject  of 
the  "Shipwreck"  and  its  authors  fate  demand  our 


_1T       i 

^eoi18 

19          .  / 


interest  and  sympathy.     If  we  pay  respect  to   the 

ingenious  scholar  who  can  produce  agreeable  verses  \l 4 

in  leisure  and  retirement,  how  much  more  interest  ^ 

must  we  take  in  the  "  shipboy  on  the  high  and  giddy  I  -  /  22 
mast'   chcrishing^the  hour  which  he  may   casually 

snatch  from  I  danger  and  fatigue.  |  /  6 

<•*/' 


Wn 
[  —  /  22 


470  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [Psi. 

PRISONER  OF  WAR.  Agreements  are  made  between  govern- 
ments at  war ;  or,  when  governments  do  not  make  such  agreements, 
opposite  commanding  generals,  during  a  campaign,  regulate  mutual  ex- 
changes of  prisoners,  and  also  determine  the  allowances  to  be  made  to 
prisoners  while  they  are  held  in  captivity. 

PRISONERS.  Whenever  a*y  officer  shall  be  charged  with  a 
crime,  he  shall  be  arrested  and  deprived  of  his  sword  by  the  command- 
ing officer ;  (ART.  77.)  Non-commissioned  officers  and  soldiers  charged 
with  crimes  shall  be  confined  until  tried  by  a  court-martial,  or  released 
by  proper  authority  ;  (ART.  78.)  (See  PROVOST-MARSHAL  ;  REFUSAL.) 
When  brought  into  court,  a  prisoner  should  be  without  irons  or  any 
manner  of  shackles  or  bands ;  unless  there  is  danger  of  an  escape,  and 
then  he  may  be  secured  with  irons ;  (BLACKSTONE.)  (See  ARREST  ; 
COUNSEL  ;  JUDGE-ADVOCATE.) 

PRIVATE.     The  term  applied  to  the  rank  of  a  common  soldier. 

PRIZE  MONEY.     (See  BOOTY.) 

PROCEEDINGS.  The  proceedings  of  courts-martial  of  the  pre- 
vious day  are  usually  read  over  each  day  by  the  judge-advocate.  Much 
time  is  lost  by  adopting  this  measure,  and  there  is  no  rule  directing  the 
court  to  read  them;  (HOUGH'S  Military  Law  Authorities.)  (See  PRES- 
IDENT.) 

PROJECTILES.  The  projectiles  for  unrifled  ordnance  are  solid 
shot  and  shells.  (See  CANISTER  ;  CARCASSES  ;  GRAPE  ;  GRENADES  ; 
*  LIGHT  and  FIRE  BALLS;  SHELLS;  SPHERICAL  CASE;  STONES.) 

PROJECTILES,  (CYLINDRO-CONOIDAL.)  Sir  Isaac  Newton  has 
given,  in  the  "  Principia,"  (lib.  ii.,  schol.  to  prop.  34,)  an  indication  of  the 
form  of  a  solid  body  which,  in  passing  through  a  fluid,  would  experience 
less  resistance  than  a  body  of  equal  magnitude  and  of  any  other  form. 
He  imagined  that  this  might  be  of  use  in  ship-building,  and  it  is  evident 
that  the  principle  is  equally  applicable  in  the  theory  of  projectiles. 
Investigations  of  the  differential  equations  of  the  curve  may  be  seen  in 
the  writings  of  mathematicians.  The  body  is  a  solid  of  revolution, 
and  the  differential  equation  is — 

Fro.  172.  dy*dx 

in  which  C  is  a  constant.  The  form  of 
a  section  through  the  axis  of  the  solid 
is  given  in  the  annexed  diagram,  (Fig. 
172.)  A  B  is  the  axis,  and  in  the  direc- 
tion of  that  line  the  solid  is  to  move ;  y 
is  any  ordinate,  as  D  C ;  and  dx,  dy,  dz, 


PRO.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  47 1 

are  elementary  portions,  E  F,  E  D,  D  F,  respectively.  The  end  B, 
as  well  as  A,  of  the  solid  is  a  plane  surface ;  for  the  numerator  of  the 
fraction  in  the  above  equation  will  evidently  be  always  greater  than 
the  denominator,  and  therefore  ?/,  the  ordinate  to  the  curve,  can  never  be 
zero.  It  is  plain,  however,  that  the  minimum  of  resistance  would  not  be 
obtained  with  a  shot  of  an  elongated  form,  when  discharged  from  a  musket 
or  piece  of  ordnance,  unless  the  axis  A  B  can  be  kept  in  the  direction  of 
the  trajectory.  This  may  be  accomplished  if  the  shot  be  caused  to  have  a 
rotatory  motion  on  that  axis  by  being  discharged  from  a  rifled  bore;  and 
without  such  rotation,  not  only  will  the  axis  perpetually  deviate  from 
the  direction  of  the  path,  but  the  projectile  will  even  turn  over.  The 
advantages  of  this  form  of  shot  are,  that  when  rotating  on  their  longi- 
tudinal axes,  and  moving  with  their  smaller  extremities  in  front,  they 
experience  less  resistance  from  the  air  than  spherical  projectiles  of  the 
same  diameter.  To  this  form  alone  are  to  be  referred  the  long  range 
with  the  great  momentum  and  penetrating  power  of  the  projectiles  for 
rifle-muskets  and  other  rifled  ordnance  now  used ;  (Sir  HOWARD 
DOUGLAS.)  The  elongated  bullet  was  first  experimented  upon  by  M. 
Tamisier.  It  had  a  groove  around  the  bottom  or  cylindrical  part 
designed  to  attach  the  cartridge.  A  change  having  been  made  in  the 
manner  of  attaching  the  cartridge  to  the  projectile  this  groove  was 
omitted  as  useless.  The  accuracy  of  the  fire  was  there-  FM  17g 

upon  diminished.  The  groove  being  replaced,  it  was 
found  that  the  slightest  change  in  its  shape  or  position 
had  much  influence  on  the  accuracy  of  fire.  M.  Tamisier 
made  experiments  with  a  ball,  the  point  of  which,  instead 
of  being  curved,  was  a  cone  and  the  rest  a  cylinder ; 
he  varied  the  length  of  each  part,  and  determined  that 
these  variations  always  produced  variations  in  the  ac- 
curacy of  fire.  These  researches  brought.him  to  results 
of  the  greatest  importance,  and  led,  with  the  idea  of 
M.  Minie  of  causing  the  ball  to  expand  by  the  explo- 
sion of  the  charge,  to  the  adoption  of  the  Minie  projec- 
tiles now  used,  which  however  are  not  identical  in  different  countries. 
(See  RIFLED  ORDNANCE.) 

PROLONGE — is  a  stout  hempen  rope,  sometimes  used  to  connect 
the  lunette  of  a  field-carriage  with  the  limber  when  the  piece  is  fired ; 
it  has  a  hook  at  one  end  and  a  toggle  at  the  other,  with  two  intermediate 
rings,  into  which  the  hook  and  toggle  are  fastened  to  shorten  the  dis- 
tance between  the  limber  and  carriage. 

PROMOTION.     "  Congress  may  fix  the  rules  for  promotions  and 


472  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [Pso. 

appointments  ;  and,  in  the  reduction  of  the  army  and  navy,  deter- 
mine from  whom  such  promotions  and  appointments  shall  be  made. 
Every  promotion  is  a  new  appointment,  to  be  confirmed  by  the  Sen- 
ate ;"  (Report  of  Committee  of  Senate,  April  25,  1822.)  (See  CONSTI- 
TUTIONAL.) 

"  Promotions  may  be  made  through  the  whole  army  in  its  several 
lines  of  light  artillery,  light  dragoons,  artillery,  infantry,  and  riflemen, 
respectively  ;  "  (Act  March  30,  1814)  "  Promotions  by  brevet  may 
be  conferred  for  gallant  actions  or  meritorious  conduct ;  "  (Act  July  6, 
1812.)  "  All  promotions  in  the  staff  departments  or  corps  shall  be 
made  as  in  other  corps  of  the  army  ;  "  (Act  March  3,  1851.) 

The  French  army  has  the  most  democratic  organization  of  any 
army  in  the  world.  The  following  rules  regulate  promotions  in  that 
army  ;  (Law  of  April  14,  1832  ;  and  Law  of  March  16,  1838.) 

ART.  1.  No  person  can  be  corporal,  until  he  has  served  at  least  six 
months  as  a  private  soldier  in  some  one  of  the  corps  of  the  army. 

2.  No  one  can  be  sergeant  until  he  has  served  at  least  six  months 
as  corporal.     All  vacancies  of  corporal  or  sergeant  on  campaign,  in  any 
battalion,  belong  exclusively  to  those  present  in  the  field  where  the 
vacancies  occur. 

3.  No  one  can  be  sows-lieutenant,  unless  he  is  at  least  18  years  of 
age,  and  has  either  served  at  least  two  years  as  a  non-commissioned 
officer  in  one  of  the  corps  of  the  army  ;  or  has  been  two  years  a  pupil 
of  a  military  school,  arid  has  passed  a  satisfactory  examination  upon 
leaving  the  school.     The  first  vacancy  occurring  on  campaign,  is  given 
to  some  sergeant  present.    The  2d  and  3d  from  those  eligible,  according 
to  a  fixed  rule  adopted  at  the  beginning  of  the  year.     But  when  a  non- 
commissioned officer  has  merited,  for  distinguished  conduct  mentioned 
in  the  orders  of  the  army,  a  nomination  for  the  grade  of  sows-lieutenant, 
and  no  vacancy  exists  in  his  regiment  for  the   promotion  of  a  non- 
commissioned officer,  he  is  named  for  promotion,  either  in  his  own  corps 
or  in  other  regiments  of  his  arm,  to  a  vacancy  belonging  to  the  2d  and 
3d  classes. 

4.  All  soldiers  of  the  army,  until  the  age  of  25,  may  be  received  to 
undergo  an  examination  for  the  polytechnique  school. 

5.  No  one  can  be  lieutenant,  unless  he  has  served  two  years  as  sous- 
lieutenant. 

6.  No  one  can  be  captain,  unless  he  has  served  two  years  in  the 
grade  of  lieutenant. 

7.  No  one  can  be  chief  of  battalion,  chief  of  squadron,  or  major  until 
he  has  served  four  years  as  captain. 


PEG.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  473 

8.  No  one  can  be  lieutenant-colonel,  until  he  has  served  three  years 
the  grades  of  chief  of  battalion,  chief  of  squadron,  or  major. 

9.  No  one  can  be  colonel,  until  he  has  served  two  years  in  the  grade 
of  lieut.-colonel. 

10.  No  one  can  be  promoted  to  a  grade  superior  to  that  of  colonel, 
until  he  has  served  three  years  in  the  grade  immediately  inferior. 

11.  One-third  of  the  vacancies  in  the  grade  of  sows-lieutenant  of  the 
different  corps  of  troops  of  the  army,  shall  be  given  to  the  non-com- 
missioned officers  of  the  respective  corps  in  which  the  vacancies  occur. 
(See  ART.  3.) 

12.  Two-thirds  of  the  grades  of  lieutenant  and  captain  shall  be  given 
by  seniority,  to  wit :  in  the  infantry  and  cavalry,  to  the  officers  of  the 
respective  regiments  ;  in  the  staff  corps,  to  the  officers  of  the  corps  ;  in 
the  artillery  and  engineers,  to  the  officers  among  themselves  who  stand 
in  competition.     Promotions  to  the  grades  of  lieutenant  and  captain  are- 
made  as  follows  :  Half  of  the  vacancies  in  the  battalions,  squadrons,  or 
detachments  which  form  an  active  army,  and  two-thirds  of  those  occurring 
elsewhere,  are  given  to  sows-lieutenants,  and  lieutenants  by  seniority  in 
their  respective  corps.     All  officers,  whether  with  that  portion  of  their 
corps  in  campaign  or  not,  may  be  selected  to  fill  vacancies  in  their  corps 
belonging  to  the  class  of  selections.     But  when,  from  distinguished  con- 
duct duly  mentioned  in  army  orders,  a  sous-lieutenant  or  lieutenant 
merits  promotion  to  the  next  superior  grade,  and  there  is  no  vacancy 
among  the  class  of  selections  in  his  own  regiment,  he  may  be  promoted 
to  a  vacancy  in  some  other  regiment  of  his  arm.     When  so  many- 
vacancies  in  the  grades  of  lieutenant  and  captain  of  a  regiment  occur  in 
war,  that  there  is  not  a  sufficient  number  of  the  inferior  grade  with  the 
exacted  qualifications  to  fill  them,  they  will  be  filled  from  other  regi- 
ments of  the  same  arm. 

13.  Half  of  the  grades  of  chef-de-lataillon  and  chief  of  squadron 
will  be  given  by  seniority  of  grade,  as  follows :   In  the  infantry  and 
cavalry  and  staff  corps,  to  the  captains  of  each  arm  ;  in  the  artillery  and 
engineers  to  the  captains  among  themselves,  who  stand  in  competition. 
The  employment  of  major  (a  regimental  administrative  officer)  will  be 
given  by  selection  from  those  eligible. 

14.  All  the  grades  superior  to  that  of  chief  of  battalion,  chief  of 
squadron,  or  major,  will  be  by  selection  from  those  eligible. 

15.  Seniority  of  grade  will  be  determined  by  date  of  commission,  or 
in  cases  of  similar  date  by  the  date  of  the  commission  of  the  inferior 
grade. 

16.  When  an  officer  is  no  longer  borne  on  the  list  of  some  one  of 


474  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [PR0. 

the  active  corps  of  the  army,  the  time  that  he  thus  passes  out  of  service 
shall  be  deducted  from  his  seniority,  except  in  cases  of  mission,  disband- 
ment,  or  suppression  of  employment.  There  shall  also  be  deducted 
from  his  seniority  the  time  passed  in  a  foreign  service ;  but  not  the 
time  passed  upon  detached  service  in  the  national  guard,  in  the  navy,  or 
upon  a  diplomatic  mission.  Officers  who  cease  to  be  borne  on  the  list 
of  corps  of  the  army,  in  consequence  of  suppression  of  employment  or 
disbandment  of  regiments,  will  nevertheless  be  entitled  to  promotion 
in  the  regiments  of  the  same  arm  to  which  they  belong,  and  which  may 
be  retained  or  subsequently  created. 

17.  Officers,  prisoners  of  war,  will  retain  their  rights  of  seniority  for 
promotion ;  but  they  can  only  be  promoted  to  the  grade  immediately 
superior  to  that  which  they  had  when  made  prisoners. 

18.  The  term  of  service  exacted  for  passing  from  one  grade  to 
another,  may  be  reduced  one  half  by  service  in  war  or  in  colonies. 

19.  The  conditions  exacted  by  the  preceding  articles  for  passing  from 
one  grade  to  another,  can  be  departed  from  only  in  the  following  cases  : 
1st.  For  distinguished  conduct  duly  set  forth  and  published  in  the  gen- 
eral orders  of  the  day  to  the  army ;  and  2d,  when  it  is  not:  otherwise 
possible  to  fill  the  vacancies  of  corps  in  the  presence  of  the  enemy. 

20.  In  time  of  war,  and  in  corps  in  presence  of  the  enemy,  there 
shall  be  given  by  seniority  half  the  grades  of  lieutenant  and  captain. 
All  the  grades  of  chief  of  battalion  and  chief  of  squadron  shall  be  made 
by  selection  from  those  eligible. 

21.  In  no  case  shall  any  one  be  appointed  to  a  grade  without  com- 
mand, nor  be  granted  an  honorary  grade,  nor  shall  a  rank  be   given 
superior  to  that  of  actual  command. 

22.  All  promotions  of  officers  shall  be  immediately  made  public, 
with  an  indication  of  the  vacancy  filled,  and  the  cause  of  promotion, 
whether  by  seniority,  by  selection,  or  distinguished  action. 

23.  No  officer  admitted  to  the  retired  list  can  resume  his  position 
upon  the  active  list. 

24.  Command  is  distinct  from  grade.     No  officer  can  be  deprived 
of  his  grade,  except  in  the  cases  and  under  the  forms  determined  by 
law. 

25.  All  the  provisions  of  the  present  law  are  applicable  to  marines. 

26.  All  provisions  repugnant  to  the  present  law  are  abrogated. 
Selections  by  the  law  of  March  16,  1838,  are  made  as  follows  : — 

Recommendations  for  appointment  of  non-commissioned  officers  are 
to  be  made  to  the  colonel  of  the  regiment  by  captains,  accompanied  by  re- 
marks of  the  chiefs  of  battalions,  squadrons,  and  lieutenant-colonel.  The 


POL.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  475 

colonel  appoints  from  this  list  those  who  are  to  fill  vacancies.  Jle  may 
also,  besides  this  list,  select  from  those  distinguished  by  an  action  of 
eclat.  For  promotion  to  the  grades  of  sows-lieutenant,  lieutenant  and 
captain,  the  chief  of  the  corps  recommends,  after  taking  the  advice,  of  the 
chiefs  of  battalions  or  squadrons,  and  also  of  the  lieutenant-colonel,  when 
he  is  present.  For  promotion  to  the  grade  of  chief  of  battalion  or 
squadron,  the  general  of  brigade  recommends,  after  taking  the  advice  of 
the  chiefs  of  corps  of  his  brigade.  For  promotion  to  the  grade  of  lieu- 
tenant-colonel, the  general  of  division  recommends,  after  taking  the  advice 
of  the  chiefs  of  corps  and  that  of  the  generals  of  brigade.  For  promotion 
to  the  grades  of  colonel  or  general  of  brigade,  the  general  in  chief  recom- 
mends, after  taking  the  advice  of  the  generals  of  brigade  and  division  for 
the  promotion  of  a  colonel,  and  that  of  generals  of  division  for  the  pro- 
motion of  a  general  of  brigade.  These  propositions  for  the  different 
grades  of  officers  are  addressed  through  the  regular  channels  of  com- 
munication, and  transmitted  with  his  opinion  to  the  Minister  of  War. 
The  chiefs  of  corps  and  the  general  officers  to  whom  this  right  of  nomi- 
nation is  given,  designate  for  each  vacancy  three  candidates  taken  from 
among  the  non-commissioned  or  commissioned  officers  under  their 
orders,  who  have  been  presented  for  promotion  in  the  form  indicated. 
The  number  of  candidates  for  the  grades  of  lieut.-colonel,  colonel,  and 
general  of  brigade  may  be  reduced. 

PROMULGATION.     (See  COURT-MARTIAL.) 

PROOFS.     (See  PRINTING.) 

PROSECUTOR.  The  judge-advocate  is  the  prosecutor,  usually  ; 
but  if  an  officer  prefers  a  charge,  he  sometimes  appears  to  sustain  the 
prosecution.  No  person  can  appear  as  prosecutor  not  subject  to  the 
Articles  of  War,  except  the  judge-advocate  ;  (Houan.) 

PROVOST-MARSHAL.  An  officer  appointed  in  every  army  in 
the  field  to  secure  prisoners  confined  on  charges  of  a  general  nature. 
In  the  British  army  he  is  intrusted  with  authority  to  inflict  summary 
punishment  on  any  soldier,  follower,  or  retainer  of  the  camp,  whom  he 
sees  commit  the  act  for  which  summary  punishment  may  be  inflicted. 
(See  CONFINEMENT  ;  PRISONER  ;  REFUSAL  TO  RECEIVE  PRISONER.) 

PULLEY.  FIXED  PULLEY.  The  power  is  equal  to  the  weight. 
The  pressure  Q  on  the  axis  is  to  the  power  or  weight  as  the  chord  c 
of  the  arc  enveloped  by  the  rope  is  to  the  radius  r  of  the  pulley. 


MOVABLE  PULLEY.  —  The  power  is  to  the  weight,  as  the  radius  of  the 


476  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  ^  [PUN. 

pulley  is  to  the  chord  of  the  arc  enveloped  by  the  rope.     The  pressure 
on  the  fixed  end  of  the  rope  is  equal  to  the  power :  P=  Q=  — . 

In  a  system  of  n  movable  pulleys,  the  power  is  to  the  weight,  as 
the  product  of  the  radii  of  the  pulleys  is  to  the  product  of  the  chords 

i  * 

of  the  arcs  enveloped  by  the  rope  :  P  —  w 


c  c'  c' 


If  the  ropes  are  parallel,  c  =  2  r,  and  P  =  — . 

PUNISHMENT.  It  is  often  necessary  to  punish  to  maintain  dis- 
cipline, and  the  Rules  and  Articles  of  War  provide  ample  means  of 
punishment,  but  not  sufficient  rewards  and  guards  against  errors  of  judg- 
ment. In  the  French  army  degrading  punishments  are  illegal,  but  sol- 
diers may  be  confined  to  quarters  or  deprived  of  the  liberty  of  leaving 
the  garrison ;  confined  in  the  guard-room,  in  prison,  or  in  dungeon ; 
required  to  walk  or  to  perform  hard  labor ;  and  officers  may  be  sub- 
jected to  simple  or  rigorous  arrests.  Every  officer  who  inflicts  a  punish- 
ment, must  account  for  it  to  his  superior,  who  approves  or  disapproves, 
confirms,  augments,  or  diminishes  it.  If  an  inferior  is  confined  to  the 
guard-room,  he  cannot  be  liberated  except  upon  application  to  a  superior. 
An  officer  who  has  been  subjected  to  punishment,  must,  when  relieved, 
make  a  visit  to  him  who  ordered  it.  The  French  code  has,  in  a  word, 
been  careful  to  provide  for  both  the  security  of  its  citizens,  and  the 
strength  of  authority.  The  punishments  established  by  law  or  custom 
for  U.  S.  soldiers  by  sentence  of  court-martial,  according  to  the  offence, 
and  the  jurisdiction  of  the  court,  are :  death  ;  stripes  for  desertion  only ; 
confinement ;  hard  labor ;  ball  and  chain  ;  forfeiture  of  pay  and  allow- 
ances ;  and  dishonorable  discharge  from  service,  with  or  without  mark- 
ing. It  is  regarded  as  inhuman  to  punish  by  solitary  confinement,  or 
confinement  on  bread  and  water  exceeding  14  days  at  a  time,  or  for 
more  than  84  days  in  a  year  at  intervals  of  14  days. 

PURCHASING — from  any  soldier  his  arms,  uniform,  clothing,  or 
any  part  thereof,  may  be  punished  by  any  civil  court  having  cognizance 
of  the  same  by  fine  in  any  sum  not  exceeding  three  hundred  dollars,  or 
by  imprisonment  not  exceeding  one  year  ;  (Act  March  16,  1802.) 

PURVEYOR.  A  person  employed  to  make  purchases,  or  to  pro- 
vide food,  medicines,  and  necessaries  for  the  sick. 

PYRAMID.  A  pyramid  is  a  solid  whose  base  is  any  right-lined 
plane  figure,  and  its  sides  are  triangles  having  all  their  vertices  or  tops 
meeting  together  in  one  point,  called  the  vertex  of  the  pyramid. 

PYROTECHNY.  Artificial  fire-works  and  fire-arms,  including  not 
only  those  used  in  war,  such  as  cannon,  shells,  grenades,  gunpowder, 


QUA.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  477 ' 

wildfire,  &c. ;  but  also  those  intended  for  amusement,  as  rockets,  St. 
Catherine's  wheels,  &c. 

Q 

QUARRELS.  All  officers  of  what  condition  soever  have  power 
to  part  and  quell  all  quarrels,  frays,  and  disorders,  though  the  persons 
concerned  should  belong  to  another  regiment,  troop,  or  company,  and 
either  to  order  officers  in  arrest,  or  non-commissioned  officers  or  sol- 
diers into  confinement,  until  their  proper  superior  officers  shall  be  ac- 
quainted therewith ;  and  whosoever  shall  refuse  to  obey  such  officer, 
(though  of  an  inferior  rank,  and  of  a  different  regiment,  troop,  or  com- 
pan^,)  or  shall  draw  his  sword  upon  him,  shall  be  punished  at  the  dis- 
cretion of  a  general  court-martial ;  (ART.  27.) 

QUARTERMASTER'S  DEPARTMENT.  (See  ARMY  for  its 
organization.)  This  department  provides  the  quarters  and  transporta- 
tion of  the  army,  except  that,  when  practicable,  wagons  and  their  equip- 
ment are  provided  by  the  Ordnance  Department ;  storage  and  trans- 
portation for  all  army  supplies ;  army  clothing ;  camp  and  garrison 
equipage ;  cavalry  and  artillery  horses ;  fuel ;  forage ;  straw  and  sta- 
tionery. The  incidental  expenses  of  the  army  (also  paid  through  the 
quartermaster's  department)  include  per  diem  to  extra  duty  men : 
postage  on  public  service ;  the  expenses  of  courts-martial ;  of  the  pur- 
suit and  apprehension  of  deserters  ;  of  the  burials  of  officers  and  soldiers ; 
of  hired  escorts,  of  expresses,  interpreters,  spies,  and  guides  ;  of  veter- 
inary surgeons  and  medicines  for  horses  ;  and  of  supplying  posts  with 
water ;  and,  generally,  the  proper  and  authorized  expenses  for  the 
movements  and  operations  of  an  army  not  expressly  assigned  to  any 
other  department.  (Consult  Regulations  of  the  War  Department 
for  the  Quartermaster's  Department.) 

These  regulations  derive  their  validity  from  the  following  acts  of 
Congress  :  "  It  shall  be  lawful  for  the  Secretary  of  War  to  cause  to  be 
provided,  in  each  and  every  year,  all  clothing,  camp  utensils  and  equi- 
page, medicines  and  hospital  stores,  necessary  for  the  troops  and  armies 
of  the  United  States  for  the  succeeding  year,  and  for  this  purpose  to 
make  purchases,  and  enter  or  cause  to  be  entered  into  all  necessary 
contracts  or  obligations  for  effecting  the  same ;  (Act  March  3,  1799.) 
The  Secretary  of  War  shall  be  authorized  and  directed  to  define  and 
prescribe  the  species,  as  well  as  the  amount  of  supplies  to  be  respec- 
tively purchased  by  the  commissary-general's  and  quartermaster-gen- 
eral's departments,  and  the  respective  duties  and  powers  of  the  said 
departments  respecting  such  purchases.  And  the  secretary  aforesaid 


478  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [QUA. 

is  also  authorized  to  fix  and  make  reasonable  allowances  for  the 
store  rent,  storage,  and  salary  of  storekeepers  necessary  for  the  safe 
keeping  of  all  military  stores  and  supplies  ;  (Act  March  3, 1813.)  The 
acts  of  March  3,  1813,  and  April  24,  1816,  make  it  also  the  duty  of  the 
Secretary  of  the  War  Department  to  prepare  general  regulations  better 
defining  and  prescribing  the  duties  and  powers  of  the  several  officers  of 
the  quartermaster's  department,  and  other  staff  officers  ;  which  regula- 
tions, when  approved  by  the  President  of  the  United  States,  shall  be 
respected  and  obeyed  until  altered  or  revoked  by  the  same  authority. 

An  essential  element,  in  all  services  of  supply,  is  the  means  of  trans- 
portation ;  and  its  formation,  maintenance,  and  management  call  for  the 
exercise  of  unremitting  intelligence  and  activity  on  the  part  of  the  quar- 
termaster. The  most  important  want  is  the  carriage  of  provisions,  to 
which  a  very  large  portion  of  all  military  transport  must  be  devoted.  The 
next  in  importance  is  the  hospital  transport  service.  (See  AMBULANCE.) 
The  carriage  of  ordnance  and  engineer  stores  requires  a  large  number 
of  wagons ;  and  the  conveyance  of  camp  equipage,  regimental  and  staff 
baggage,  as  also  of  reserve  small-arm  ammunition,  is  also  indispensable. 
In  most  foreign  armies  the  nucleus  of  a  trained  transport  corps  is  main- 
tained, in  times  of  peace,  organized  with  especial  view  to  its  easy  ex- 
tension for  the  purposes  of  war,  so  that  when  a  force  takes  the  field  it 
carries  with  it  the  means  of  conveying  its  most  essential  supplies ; 
while  whatever  transport  can  be  drawn  from  the  country  under  occu- 
pation, whether  by  hire  or  purchase,  by  requisition  or  by  seizure, 
can  at  once  be  united  to  the  trained  and  organized  corps,  and  brought 
under  the  influence  of  military  order  and  discipline.  In  our  own 
army  we  have  in  this,  as  in  other  respects,  too  much  neglected  to  pre- 
pare in  peace  for  the  exigencies  of  war.  Relying  upon  our  financial 
resources,  and  believing  that  while  money  abounds  the  materiel  of  war 
will  riot  be  wanting,  we  have  overlooked  the  necessity  which  exists  in 
every  branch  of  the  military  service  for  preliminary  practice  and  train- 
ing, in  order  to  turn  our  means  to  good  account.  Transport,  to  be 
effective,  must  be  organized  and  trained  to  a  systematic  performance 
of  duty,  and  this  cannot  be  the  work  of  a  day.  Whatever  the  nature 
or  organization  of  the  transport,  however,  a  quartermaster  should  de- 
vote his  best  exertions  to  maintaining  it  in  a  state  of  efficiency.  The 
men,  whether  soldiers  or  natives  of  the  scene  of  operations,  should  be 
as  much  as  possible  encouraged  to  attach  themselves  to  the  service. 
Exposed,  as  they  necessarily  are,  to  so  many  fatigues  and  hardships  in 
all  weathers,  they  should  be  suitably  clothed  and  well  fed,  and  be  ren- 
dered as  comfortable  when  off  duty  as  circumstances  may  allow.  In 


QUA.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  479 

the  case  of  native  drivers,  their  peculiar  habits  should  be  consulted  as 
far  as  may  be  practicable ;  and  while  a  strict  discipline  shoud  be  main- 
tained, and  misconduct  immediately  and  severely  punished,  good  be- 
havior, steadiness,  and  attention  to  duty  should  be  noticed  and  rewarded. 
JEsprit  du  corps  is  to  masses  of  men  what  self-respect  is  to  individuals, 
and  should  be  fostered  by  all  possible  means,  since  it  tends  to  impress 
men  in  every  position  with  a  sense  of  their  duty.  A  quartermaster, 
who  fully  understands  the  importance  of  his  functions,  will  not  find  it 
unworthy  of  his  attention  to  study  the  character  and  disposition  of  the 
most  humble  individual  under  his  orders,  with  the  view  of  developing 
his  good  qualities  and  abilities  to  the  greatest  advantage  of  the  public 
service.  In  dealing  with  people  of  different  nations  this  becomes  pe- 
culiarly necessary,  and  as  a  large  portion  of  the  personnel  belonging  to 
the  transport  of  armies  is  generally  drawn  from  the  local  population, 
care  should  be  taken  not  to  offend  unnecessarily  feelings  or  even  preju- 
dices which,  if  properly  directed,  may  be  used  to  our  advantage. 

Another  error  to  be  avoided  is  unnecessary  interference  in  the 
attempt  to  improve  indiscriminately  upon  local  practices  and  habits. 
Both  men  and  animals  will  work  best  in  the  way  they  have  been  ac- 
customed to,  and  even  the  most  obvious  improvements  should  be 
effected  gradually  and  cautiously,  lest  in  endeavoring  to  teach  a  new 
method  before  the  old  has  been  unlearnt,  only  the  worst  features  of 
each  should  be  the  result.  As  a  rule  the  practice  in  force,  however 
opposed  to  our  notions,  is  founded  upon  some  sufficiently  valid  reasons. 
In  this  respect  we  have  generally  more  to  learn  than  to  teach,  and  a 
little  careful  observation  will  probably  serve  to  convince'  us  that  prac- 
tices which  at  first  sight  we  are  disposed  to  deride  or  condemn  are, 
under  the  peculiar  circumstances  of  the  case,  preferable  to  any  thing  we 
could  substitute. 

But  while  unnecessary  interference  is  to  be  deprecated,  the  impor- 
tance of  attending  to  the  conditions  of  transport  animals  cannot  be  too 
strongly  insisted  upon.  A  quartermaster  in  charge  should  satisfy 
himself  by  frequent  personal  inspection  that  the  animals  are  properly 
stabled,  fed,  cleaned,  and  shod  ;  the  state  of  saddlery  and  harness  should 
be  carefully  attended  to,  and  on  the  march  no  halt  should  be  made 
without  the  wagons  being  examined,  and,  if  necessary,  repaired.  The 
break-down  of  a  single  wagon  may,  on  a  narrow  road,  seriously  ob- 
struct the  whole  line  of  march,  besides  causing  the  loss  of  its  load. 
Every  cart  or  wagon  should  be  required  to  carry  the  necessary  tools 
for  effecting  repairs,  as  also  the  means  of  greasing  the  wheels,  by  which 
the  draught  is  greatly  diminished,  and  much  wear  and  tear  saved. 


480  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [QUA 

These  are  trivial  details,  but  nothing  is  unimportant  that  tends  to  main- 
tain the  efficiency  of  army  transport. 

In  loading,  the  greatest  care  should  be  taken  to  adapt  the  weight  to 
the  capability  of  the  animal  or  vehicle,  and  full  allowance  must  be  made 
for  the  chances  of  heavy  roads  or  forced  marches.  Mules,  which  for 
mountainous  roads  are  by  far  the  best  pack  animals,  can  carry  con- 
tinuously 2  cwt.  for  long  marches  ;  they  are  moreover  more  hardy  and 
less  dainty  in  their  food  than  horses,  and,  with  common  care,  can  with- 
stand any  weather.  Mules  also  work  well  in  draught  when  no  great 
speed  is  required  ;  but  whenever  supplies  are  expected  to  keep  up  with 
cavalry  or  artillery,  light  wagons  with  two  horses  are  preferable  to  any 
other  kind  of  transport.  A  good  horse  should,  over  even  roads,  be  able 
to  draw  10  cwt.,  vehicle  included ;  but  over  mountainous  or  heavy 
roads  12  cwt.  (including  the  carriage)  is  more  than  a  full  load  for  a  pair 
of  horses.  For  the  baggage  and  supplies  required  to  accompany  armies 
en  masse  on  their  ordinary  marches,  common  country  wagons  drawn 
by  oxen  do  excellent  service  ;  they  are  slow,  but  can  carry  large  loads, 
and  the  beasts  get  through  a  great  deal  of  work  upon  small  quantities 
of  food.  A  well-organized  train  of  pack  animals,  though  a  greater 
number  is  requisite  than  would  suffice  for  draught,  is  the  most  man- 
ageable transport  that  can  be  devised,  and  for  rapid  marches  far  prefer- 
able to  any  other. 

The  transport  required  for  carriage  of  the  ordinary  material  of 
War,  and  for  hospital  purposes,  can  always  be  computed  with  tolerable 
accuracy,  since  its  extent  is  little  affected  by  local  circumstances.  But 
it  is  different  as  regards  consumable  stores.  In  a  country  rich  in  re- 
sources, and  with  a  friendly  population,  a  small  train  suffices  even  for 
continuous  marches  ;  but  if  the  scene  of  operations  yield  little  or  noth- 
ing, if  the  progress  of  the  army  be  through  a  wilderness  or  a  desert  of 
ruined  fields  and  burning  villages,  it  would  be  necessary  to  provide 
transport  for  the  carriage  of  provisions  and  forage,  and  perhaps  even 
wood  and  water,  for  the  full  number  of  days  that  the  march  is  calcu- 
lated to  last.  The  quartermaster  must  in  these  cases  exercise  his  own 
judgment,  in  concert  with  the  officer  commanding  the  expedition. 

It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  every  additional  transport  animal 
calls  for  a  corresponding  addition  of  supplies.  It  was  computed,  during 
the  organization  of  the  British  Land  Transport  in  the  Crimea,  that  it 
would  require  about  9,000  men  and  12,500  animals  to  carry  the  rations, 
ammunition,  and  hospital  establishments  for  58,000  men  and  30,000 
horses  for  three  days.  At  this  rate,  additional  provision  would  require 
to  be  made  for  one-third  as  much  forage  and  one-fifth  as  many  rations 


QUA.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  481 

as  may  be  requisite  for  the  actual  combatant  force  in  order  to  subsist 
the  transport  establishment.  In  other  words,  every  three  horses  would 
have  to  be  calculated  as  four,  and  every  five  soldiers  as  six,  to  cover 
the  additional  demands  of  the  transport  attached  to  the  force.  (See 
TRANSPORTATION.) 

In  most  foreign  armies,  ships  of  war  are  as  much  as  possible  used 
for  the  transport  of  troops ;  and  although  the  presence  of  soldiers  may, 
to  a  certain  extent,  interfere  with  the  economy  and  discipline  of  a  vessel — 
this  objection,  particularly  in  time  of  peace,  is  not  so  powerful  as  to 
justify  the  employment,  at  a  large  cost,  of  private  ships,  while  numbers 
of  our  own  are  making  objectless  cruises  over  all  the  oceans  of  the 
globe  or  lying  idle  in  harbor.  A  naval  officer  very  naturally  dislikes 
to  be  encumbered  with  some  hundreds  of  soldiers  with  their  wives  and 
children,  or  to  have  a  number  of  idle  officers  lounging  about  his  quarter- 
deck ;  but  there  are  interests  to  be  consulted  beyond  even  the  most 
praiseworthy  professional  amour  propre,  and  it  ought  to  be  cpnsidered 
whether  economy  and  good  policy  do  not  require  that  a  more  frequent 
use  should  be  made  of  ships  of  war  as  transports,  and  also  whether 
general  regulations  might  not  be  adopted  for  the  transportation  of  tho 
articles  of  supply  from  the  places  of  purchase  to  the  several  armies, 
garrisons,  posts,  and  recruiting  places,  and  for  the  safe  keeping  of  such 
articles,  and  for  the  distribution  of  an  adequate  and  timely  supply  of 
the  same  to  the  regimental  quartermasters,  and  such  other  officers  as 
may,  by  virtue  of  such  regulations,  be  intrusted  with  the  same.  (See 
ADMINISTRATION  ;  ARMY  REGULATIONS  ;  CAMP  ;  CLOTHING  ;  SUPPLIES  ; 
TRAIN;  WAGON.  Consult  FONBLANQUE.) 

QUARTERMASTER-GENERAL— has  the  rank,  pay,  and  emol- 
uments of  brigadier-general.  He  is  not  liable  for  any  money  or  property 
that  may  come  into  the  hands  of  subordinate  agents  of  the  department ; 
(Act  May  22,  1812.)  He  accounts  as  often  as  required,  and  at  least 
once  in  three  months,  with  the  Department  of  War,  in  such  manner  as 
shall  be  prescribed,  for  all  property  which  may  pass  through  his  hands, 
or  the  hands  of  the  subordinate  officers  in  his  department,  or  that  may 
be  in  his  or  their  possession,  and  for  all  moneys  which  he  or  they  may 
expend  in  discharging  their  respective  duties ;  he  shall  be  responsible 
for  the  regularity  and  correctness  of  all  returns  in  his  department,  and 
he,  his  deputies,  and  assistant  deputies,  before  .they  enter  on  the  execu- 
tion of  their  respective  offices,  shall  severally  take  an  oath  faithfully 
to  perform  the  duties  thereof ';  (Act  March  28,  1812.)  The  quarter- 
master-general is  authorized  to  frank  and  receive  letters  and  packets  by 
post,  free  of  postage  ;  (Act  March  2,  1827.) 
31 


482  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [QUA. 

Each  quartermaster-general  attached  to  any  separate  army,  com- 
mand, or  district  shall  be  authorized,  with  the  approbation  and  under 
the  direction  of  the  Secretary  of  War,  to  employ  as  many  artificers, 
mechanics,  and  laborers  as  the  public  service  may  require ;  (Act  March 
3,  1813.) 

QUARTERS.  "  No  soldier  shall,  in  time  of  peace,  be  quartered 
in  any  house,  without  the  consent  of  the  owner ;  nor  in  time  of  war, 
but  in  a  manner  to  be  prescribed  by  law ;  "  (Constitution,  3c?  Amend- 
ment.) The  law  not  having  made  any  provision  for  quartering  sol- 
diers in  time  of  war,  troops  of  the  United  States  at  home  would  be 
subjected  to  exorbitant  demands  for  the  hire  of  quarters.  (See  BAR- 
RACKS; BILLETS.) 

QUESTIONS.     (See  EVIDENCE  ;  TRIAL.) 

QUICK-MATCH.  It  is  made  of  threads  of  cotton  or  cotton  wick, 
steeped  in  gummed  brandy  or  whiskey,  then  soaked  in  a  paste  of  mealed 
powder  and  gummed  spirits,  and  afterwards  strewn  over  with  mealed 
powder.  It  is  used  to  fire  stone  and  heavy  mortars,  in  priming  all 
kinds  of  fireworks,  such  as  fire-balls,  light-balls,  carcasses,  priming 
tubes,  &c.  A  yard  burns  in  the  open  air  in  13  seconds. 

QUOINS.  In  gunnery,  a  quoin  is  a  \vedge  used  to  lay  under  the 
breech  of  a  gun  to  elevate  or  depress  it. 

R 

BACK-STICK  AND  LASHING-— consist  of  a  piece  of  two-inch 
rope,  about  6  feet  long,  fastened  to  a  picket  about  15  inches  long,  hav- 
ing a  hole  in  its  head  to  receive  the  rope.  Rack-lashings  are  used  for 
securing  the  planks  of  a  gun  or  mortar  platform,  between  the  ribbons 
and  the  sleepers. 

RAFT.     (See  BRIDGE.) 

RAFTERS.     (See  CARPENTRY.) 

RAISE.  To  raise  a  siege  is  to  abandon  a  siege.  Armies  are 
raised  in  two  ways :  either  by  voluntary  engagements,  or  by  lot  or 
conscription.  The  Greek  and  Roman  levies  were  the  result  of  a  rigid 
system  of  conscription.  The  Visigoths  practised  a  general  conscription ; 
poverty,  old  age,  and  sickness  were  the  only  reasons  admitted  for  ex- 
emption. "  Subsequently,  (says  Hallam,)  the  feudal  military  tenures 
had  superseded  that  earlier  system  of  public  defence,  which  called  upon 
every  man,  and  especially  upon  every  landholder,  to  protect  his  country. 
The  relations  of  a  vassal  came  in  place  of  those  of  a  subject  and  a  citi- 
zen. This  was  the  revolution  of  the  9th  century.  In  the  12th  and  13th 
another  innovation  rather  more  gradually  prevailed,  and  marks  the 


RAM.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  4S3 

third  period  in  the  military  history  of  Europe.  Mercenary  troops 
were  substituted  for  the  feudal  militia.  These  military  adventurers 
played  a  more  remarkable  part  in  Italy  than  in  France,  though  not  a 
little  troublesome  to  the  latter  country."  A  necessary  effect  of  the 
formation  of  mercenaries  was  the  centralization  of  authority.  Money 
became  the  sinews  of  war.  The  invention  of  fire-arms  caused  it  to  be 
acknowledged  that  skill  was  no  less  essential  for  warlike  operations 
than  strength  and  valor.  Towards  the  end  of  the  middle  ages,  the 
power  of  princes  was  calculated  by  the  number  and  quality  of  paid 
troops  they  could  support.  France  first  set  the  example  of  keeping 
troops  in  time  of  peace.  Charles  VII.,  foreseeing  the  danger  of  invasion, 
authorized  the  assemblage  of  armed  mercenaries  called  compagnies 
d'ordonnance.  Louis  XI.  dismissed  these  troops,  but  enrolled  new 
troops  composed  of  French,  Swiss,  and  Scotch.  Under  Charles  VIII., 
Germans  were  admitted  in  the  French  army,  and  the  highest  and  most 
illustrious  nobles  of  France  regarded  it  as  an  honor  to  serve  in  the 
gens  d'armes. 

Moral  qualifications  not  being  exacted  for  admission  to  the  ranks, 
the  restraints  of  a  barbarous  discipline  became  necessary,  and  this  dis- 
cipline divided  widely  the  soldier  from  the  people.  The  French  rev- 
olution overturned  this  system.  "  Now  (says  Decker)  mercenary 
troops  have  completely  disappeared  from  continental  Europe.  England 
only  now  raises  armies  by  the  system  of  recruiters.  The  last  wars 
of  Europe  have  been  wars  of  the  people,  and  have  been  fought  by 
nationalities.  After  peace  armies  remain  national,  for  their  elements 
are  taken  from  the  people,  and  are  returned  to  the  people  by  legal  lib- 
erations. The  institution  of  conscription  is  evidently  the  most  impor- 
tant of  modern  times.  Among  other  advantages,  it  has  bridged  the 
otherwise  impassable  gulf  between  the  citizen  and  soldier,  who,  children 
of  the  same  family,  are  now  united  in  defence  of  their  country.  Per- 
manent armies  have  ceased  to  be  the  personal  guard  of  kings,  but  their 
sympathies  are  always  with  the  people,  and  their  just  title  is  that  of 
skilful  warriors  maintained  as  a  nucleus  for  the  instruction  of  their 
countrymen  in  the  highest  school  of  art.  (See  CONSCRIPTION  ;  DEPOT  ; 
DEFENCE,  National ;  ENLISTMENT  ;  MILITIA  ;  RECRUITING  ;  RE-ENLIST- 
ING ;  VOLUNTEERS.)  ^ 

RALLY.     To  re-form  disordered  or  dispersed  troops. 

RAMP.  A  ramp  is  a  road  cut  obliquely  into  or  added  to  the  in- 
terior slope  of  the  rampart,  as  a  communication  from  the  town  to  the 
terre-plein. 

RAMPART.     A  broad  embankment  or  mass  of  earth  which  sur- 


484  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [RAM. 

rounds  a  fortified  place,  and  forms  the  enceinte  or  body  of  the  place. 
On  its  exterior  edge  the  parapet  is  placed,  while  towards  the  place  it  is 
terminated  by  the  interior  slope  of  the  rampart,  on  which  ramps  are 
made  for  the  easy  ascent  of  the  troops  and  material. 

RAMROD.  The  rod  of  iron  used  in  loading  a  piece  to  drive  home 
the  charge. 

RANGES.  The  extreme  ranges  of  smooth-bored  guns  firing  solid 
shot  may  be  considered  to  vary,  according  to  their  size,  from  2,000  to 
4,000  yards.  These  great  ranges  are  only  attained  by  firing  at  great 
elevations,  and  the  practice  at  such  distances  is  consequently  uncertain. 
Ranges  of  1,000  to  1,200  yards  for  field-guns  and  of  1,500  to  2,000 
yards  for  heavy  guns  are  as  great  as  can  be  secured  with  any  thing  like 
accuracy.  It  seems,  however,  more  than  probable,  that  smooth-bored 
guns  will,  before  long,  be  altogether  superseded  by  rifled  ordnance,  and 
reasoning  from  what  has  been  already  accomplished,  we  may  at  least 
expect  to  double  the  present  ranges,  and  greatly  to  increase  the  accu- 
racy of  fire.  The  ranges  of  grape-shot  are  equal  only  to  the  ranges 
of  the  individual  balls  of  which  the  grape-shot  is  composed ;  they  are, 
therefore,  subject  to  considerable  variation,  according  to  the  dimensions 
of  the  gun  from  which  the  grape  is  discharged.  The  most  effective 
ranges  for  grape-shot  may  be  considered  to  lie  between  800  and  600 
yards.  The  range  of  canister-shot  is  very  limited.  From  the  small 
size  of  the  bullets  they  rapidly  lose  their  initial  velocity.  At  ranges 
below  300  yards  canister-shot  against  bodies  of  troops  is  very  destruc- 
tive. Spherical-case  shot  is  effective  at  much  greater  ranges  than  canis- 
ter or  grape  shot.  It  may  be  employed  with  good  effect  at  any  distance 
between  600  and  1,500  or  even  1,800  yards.  The  ranges  of  shells  vary 
according  to  their  size  from  1,000  to  4,000  yards.  They  are  fired  either 
from  mortars  or  guns.  With  the  method  of  firing  them  from  mor- 
tars at  an  elevation  of  45°,  with  a  charge  of  powder  proportioned  to  the 
range  desired,  any  great  accuracy  of  practice  is  not  to  be  expected. 
(See  ARTILLERY  ;  COLUMBIAD  ;  FIRING  ;  RIFLED  ORDNANCE  ;  SPHERICAL 
CASE.) 

RANK.  A  range  of  subordination ;  a  degree  of  dignity.  Rank 
also  means  a  line  of  soldiers,  side  by  side.  Ranks  in  the  plural,  the 
order  of  common  soldiers.  Questions  as  to  the  positive  or  relative 
rank  of  officers  may  often  be  of  the  greatest  importance  at  law,  in  con- 
sequence  of  the  rule,  that  every  person  who  justifies  his  own  acts  on 
the  ground  of  obedience  to  superior  authority  must  establish,  by  clear 
evidence,  the  sufficiency  of  the  authority  on  which  he  so  relies.  There 
may  also  be  many  occasions  on  which  the  propriety  of  an  officer's 


RAN.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  485 

assumption  of  command,  or  his  exercise  of  particular  functions,  or  his 
right  to  share  with  a  particular  class  of  officers  in  prize-money,  bounties, 
grants,  and  other  allowances,  may  depend  on  the  correctness  of  the  view 
taken  by  himself  or  others  of  his  right  to  a  specific  rank  or  command ; 
and  an  error  in  this  respect  may  expose  him  to  personal  loss  and  dam- 
age in  suits  before  the  civil  tribunals. 

The  regulation  of  military  rank  is  vested  absolutely  in  Congress, 
which  confers  or  varies  it  at  pleasure.  The  will  of  Congress  in  this  re- 
spect is  signified  by  the  creation  of  different  grades  of  rank  ;  by  making 
rules  of  appointment  and  promotion ;  by  other  rules  of  government 
and  regulation  ;  or  is  by  fair  deduction  to  be  inferred  from  the  nature 
of  the  functions  assigned  to  each  officer ;  for  every  man  who  is  in- 
trusted with  an  employment,  is  presumed  to  be  invested  with  all  the 
powers  necessary  for  the  effective  discharge  of  the  duties  annexed  to 
his  office. 

Rank  and  Grade  are  synonymous,  and  in  their  military  acceptation 
indicate  rights,  powers,  and  duties  determined  by  laws  creating  the 
different  degrees  of  rank,  and  specifying  fixed  forms  for  passing  from 
grade  to  grade ;  and  when  rank  in  one  body  shall  give  command  in 
another  body ;  and  also  when  rank  in  the  army  at  large  shall  not  be 
exercised.  Rank  is  a  right  of  which  an  officer  cannot  be  deprived,  ex- 
cept through  forms  prescribed  by  law.  When  an  officer  is  on  DUTY, 
his  rank  itself  indicates  his  relative  position  to  other  officers  of  the 
body  in  which  it  is  created.  It  is  not,  however,  a  perpetual  right  to 
exercise  command,  because  the  President  may,  under  the  62d  Article 
of  War,  at  any  time  relieve  an  officer  from  duty  ;  or  an  officer  may  be 
so  relieved  by  arrest  duly  made  according  to  law  ;  or  by  inability  to 
perform  duty  from  sickness,  or  by  being  placed  by  competent  authority 
on  some  other  duty.  But  whenever  an  officer  is  on  duty  his  rank  indi- 
cates his  command. 

During  the  Mexican  war,  an  attempt  was  made  to  procure  the  pas- 
sage of  a  law  creating  the  rank  of  lieutenant-general,  in  order  that  Mr. 
Senator  Benton  might  be  placed  in  command  of  the  army  with  that 
rank.  Corgress,  however,  refused  to  create  the  rank.  The  President 
then  sought  to  obtain  t}ie  passage  of  a  law  authorizing  him  to  put  a 
junior  major-general  in  command  of  a  senior.  Congress  likewise  re- 
fused him  that  power.  On  the  9th  of  March,,  Mr.  President  Polk,  in 
a  letter  to  Mr.  Senator  Benton,  thus  writes  : 

"  Immediately  after  your  nomination  as  major-general  had  been  unan- 
imously confirmed  by  the  Senate,  I  carefully  examined  the  question, 
whether  I  possessed  the  power  to  designate  you,  a  junior  major-general, 


486  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [RAS. 

to  the  chief  command  of  the  army  in  the  field.  The  result  of  the 
examination  is,  I  am  constrained  to  say,  a  settled  conviction  in  my 
mind,  that  such  power  has  not  been  conferred  on  me  by  existing  laws." 

Struggle  as  commentators  may,  who  desire  to  subject  rank  to 
executive  caprice,  rather  than  have  its  powers  and  duties  defined  by 
law,  as  the  constitution  requires  in  giving  to  CONGRESS  the  power  to 
make  rules  for  the  government  and  regulation  of  the  army,  the  rights 
of  rank  cannot,  without  usurpation,  be  varied  at  the  will  of  the  Presi- 
dent. The  law  has  created  rank.  Rank  means  a  range  of  subordination 
in  the  particular  body  in  which  it  is  created.  It  is,  therefore,  effective 
in  that  body,  without  further  legislation,  and  its  effect,  when  the  officer 
is  present  for  duty,  is  extended  beyond  that  particular  portion  of  the 
army  in  which  the  officer  holds  rank,  or  its  exercise  is  restricted  within 
a  corps  only  by  legislation.  Executive  authority  cannot  make  rank 
vary  at  will,  but  whatever  authority  the  executive  has  over  rank  must 
be  determined  by  law.  A  reference  to  the  62d  Article  of  War  will 
show  that  the  President  is  given  the  authority  to  limit  the  discretion 
of  commanding  officers,  in  special  cases,  in  respect  to  what  is  needful 
for  the  service,  and  also  to  relieve  the  senior  officer  from  any  command, 
so  that  the  command  may  fall  upon  the  next  officer  in  the  line  of  the 
army,  marine  corps,  or  militia,  "  by  commission  there  on  duty  or  in 
quarters,"  or  assign  some  senior  to  duty  with  troops,  in  order  that  such 
officer  may  become  entitled  to  command  under  the  62d  Article  of  War. 
Any  power  of  assignment  claimed  for  the  President  beyond  this  is  not 
and  ought  not  to  be  sanctioned  by  law.  The  62d  Article  extends  the 
validity  of  commissions  in  any  part  of  the  line  of  the  army,  marine 
corps,  or  militia,  and  thus  enables  the  senior  officer  of  the  line  of  the 
army  present  for  duty  to  command  the  whole  when  different  corps 
come  together — while  the  61st  Article  provides  that  in  the  regiment, 
troop,  or  company,  to  which  officers  belong,  although  they  may  also 
hold  higher  commissions  in  the  army'  at  large,  they  shall  nevertheless 
do  duty  and  take  rank  both  in  courts-martial  and  on  detachments,  which 
shall  be  composed  only  of  their  own  corps,  according  to  the  commis- 
sions by  which  they  are  mustered  in  said  corps. 

The  legislation  on  the  subject  of  rank  is  thus  complete.  Officers, 
when  serving  only  with  their  own  regiment,  serve  according  to  their 
regimental  rank  ;  but  when  with  other  corps,  the  senior  by  commission 
in  the  line,  whether  by  brevet  or  otherwise,  is  entitled  to  command. 
(See  ASSIGNMENT.) 

RASANTE — is  a  French  term,  applied  to  a  style  of  fortification, 
in  which  the  command  of  the  works  over  each  other,  and  over  the 


MILITARY  DICTIONARY. 


48-3 


country,  is  kept  very  low,  in  order  that  the  shot  may  more  effectually 
sweep  or  graze  the  ground  before  them. 

RATCHET-WHEEL.  A  wheel  with  pointed  and  angular  teeth, 
against  which  a  ratchet  abuts,  used  either  for  converting  a  reciprocating 
into  a  rotatory  motion  on  the  shaft  to  which  it  is  fixed,  or  for  admitting 
of  its  motion  in  one  direction  only. 

RATION.  The  President  may  make  such  alterations  in  the  com- 
ponent parts  of  the  ration  as  a  due  regard  to  the  health  and  comfort 
of  the  army  and  economy  may  require ;  (Act  April  24,  1818.)  The 
allowance  of  sugar  and  coffee  to  the  non-commissioned  ^officers,  musi- 
cians, and  privates,  in  lieu  of  the  spirit  or  whiskey  component  part  of 
the  ration,  shall  be  fixed  at  six  pounds  of  coffee  and  twelve  pounds  of 
sugar  to  every  one  hundred  rations,  to  be  issued  weekly,  when  it  can 
be  done  with  convenience  to  the  public  service,  and  when  not  so  issued, 
to  be  paid  for  in  money  ;  (Act  July  5,  1838.) 

Women  not  exceeding  four  to  a  company,  and  such  matrons  and 
nurses  as  rnay  be  necessarily  employed  in  the  hospital,  one  ration  each  ; 
(Act  March  16,  1802.)  The  President  may  authorize  rations  to  be 
issued  to  Indians  visiting  military  posts;  (Act  May  13,  1800.)  (See 
PAY;  WAGON.) 

TABLE,  SHOWING  THE  WEIGHT  AND  BULK  OF  1,000  AEMY  EATIONS. 


One  thousand 
rations  of 

Nett  weight 
in  pounds. 

Gross  weight 
in  pounds. 

Bulk  in 
barrels. 

100  rations  consist  of 

Pork  

750 

1  21875 

3.75 

75     Ibs     or  ) 

Bacon  

750 

903  19 

4  90 

75     Ibs         j 

1  125 

1  234  06 

574 

112  5  Ibs    or                       ) 

Pilot  Bread  
ii 

Beans 

750 
1,000 
155 

921.69 
1,228.91 
177  32 

9.03 
12.05 
0  71 

75     Ibs.,  or                      [ 
100     Ibs.     In  the  field.    J 

Rice       

100 

114  50 

0  46 

10     Ibs    '         \ 

Coffee  

60 

70  90 

0  35 

6     Ibs 

120 

135.62 

0  50 

12     Ibs 

Vinegar       . 

92  5 

107  50 

0  33 

4  quarts 

Candles  

15 

17  50 

0  09 

H     lb« 

Soao... 

40 

46.89 

0.19 

4     Ibs. 

Salt  

33  75 

38  66 

0  16 

2  quarts 

FORAGE. 

14  Ibs.  hay  or  fodder,  )          ,  f  When  pressed  1 1  Ibs.  to  cubic  foot. 

12  qts.  oats,  or  I  Per  horse  J  40  Ibs.  to  bush.,  33.14  Ibs.  cub.  foot. 

8  qts.  corn  j   Per  day*    )  55  Ibs.  to  bush.,  45.65  Ibs.  cub.  foot. 

Average  mule  pack,  New  Mexico,  175  Ibs. 

Average  load  to  mule  team  across  the  prairies,  2,000  Ibs. 

RAVELIN — is  the  work  constructed  beyond  the  main  ditch,  op. 


488  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [RAV. 

posite  the  curtain,  composed  of  two  faces,  forming  a  salient  angle,  and 
two  demi-gorges,  formed  by  the  counterscarp.  It  is  separated  from  the 
covered  way  by  a  ditch  which  runs  into  the  main  ditch'. 

RAVELIN,  (REDOUBT  OP  THE) — is  a  work  constructed  within 
the  ravelin,  but  separated  from  it  by  a  ditch. 

RAZED.  Works  or  fortifications  are  said  to  be  razed,  when  they 
are  totally  demolished. 

READINESS.  A  state  of  alertness  or  preparation  ;  thus,  to  hold 
a  corps  in  readiness,  is  to  have  it  prepared  in  consequence  of  some 
previous  order  to  march  at  a  moment's  notice. 

REAR,  REAR  RANK.     The  hinder  rank. 

REAR  GUARD.    A  detachment  of  troops  in  the  rear  of  an  army. 

RECEIPT.  A  voucher  or  acknowledgment,  which  should  always 
be  given  when  official  papers  are  received.  When  flags  of  truce  are 
the  bearers  of  a  parcel  or  a  letter,  the  officer  commanding  at  an  outpost 
should  give  a  receipt  for  it,  and  require  the  party  to  depart  forthwith. 

RECOIL.    The  motion  which  a  cannon  takes  backward  when  fired. 

RECOMMENDATIONS.  All  members  of  a  court  who  concur 
in  recommendations  to  mercy  sign.  The  recommendation  is  introduced 
after  the  finding  and  sentence  are  closed  and  authenticated.  The  re- 
commendation should  distinctly  set  forth  the  reasons  which  prompt  it ; 
(  HOUGH.) 

RECOMPENSE.  (See  ALLOWANCE  ;  GRATIFICATION  ;  INDEMNITY  ; 
PAY.) 

RECONNOISSANCE,  RECONNOITRE,  RECONNOITRING, 
— may  be  distinguished  into  reconnoissance  of  the  enemy,  and  topo- 
graphical reconnoissances. 

Reconnoissances  are  warlike  operations  for  the  purpose  of  procur- 
ing information  of  the  positions  and  strength  of  corps  of  the  enemy. 
Without  such  knowledge,  no  well-concerted  measures  of  attack  or 
defence  can  be  made.  First  of  all,  notes  of  information  are  gained 
from  spies,  deserters,  and  travellers,  and  the  position  of  the  different 
corps  of  the  enemy  is  marked  out  upon  a  good  map.  But  when  the 
opposing  armies  are  more  nearly  approximated,  it  becomes  necessary 
to  ascertain,  every  day,  what  changes  and  movements  have  taken  place, 
whether  for  purposes  of  concentration  or  withdrawal  to  other  points. 
Reconnoissances  by  force  result  from  this  necessity,  arid  lead  sometimes 
to  bloody  actions. 

The  custom  is  almost  universal  to  cover  an  army  by  outposts,  and 
to  detach  clouds  of  light  troops  to  mask  the  camp  and  prevent  an  enemy 
from  seeing  what  dispositions  are  made  for  attack  or  defence.  To  gain 


EEC.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  489 

information,  it  is  therefore  necessary  to  push  a  reconnoissance  through 
the  curtains  of  light  troops,  by  which  the  enemy  has  enveloped  himself, 
and  drive  back  or  cut  off  outposts,  so  as  to  enable  the  officer  charged  with 
the  reconnoissance  clearly  to  see  the  army  of  the  enemy,  note  the  advan- 
tages and  disadvantages  of  his  positions,  count  his  battalions,  and  judge 
of  his  means  of  resistance  :  whether  he  is  intrenched,  what  artillery  he 
has  ;  whether  the  ground  is  or  is  not  favorable  for  cavalry  ;  where  the 
cavalry  is  encamped,  &c.  These  different  objects  ought  to  be  seen 
rapidly  and  by  a  practised  eye,  for  the  reconnoissance  will  have  called 
to  arms  a  greatly  superior  force,  and  It  is  necessary  as  soon  as  possible 
to  fall  back.  But  the  aim  will  have  been  attained,  for  the  enemy  having 
been  compelled  to  unmask  arid  deploy  his  forces,  the  reconnoitring 
officer  will  know  all  that  he  desires,  and  consequently  hastens  his  return 
to  camp,  in  order  that  his  party  may  not  be  exposed  to  have  its  retreat 
cut  off. 

Similar  reconnoissances  ordinarily  precede  battles.  By  their  means 
a  general  is  assured  of  the  true  state  of  the  enemy,  before  giving  his 
last  orders.  On  a  march,  the  advance  guard  reconnoitres  the  enemy. 
Sometimes  a  reconnoissance  has  for  its  object  to  discover  if  a  point  is 
solidly  occupied ;  if  a  bridge  over  which  an  army  is  to  pass  has  been 
broken  ;  whether  a  defile  is  fortified ;  whether  the  enemy  has  guns  in 
any  particular  position  ;  whether  he  is  in  a  certain  city,  or  whether  he 
has  followed  such  and  such  routes  after  losing  a  battle,  &c.,  &c.  Such 
reconnoissances  are  often  made  by  small  parties  of  cavalry  alone  to 
ensure  rapidity ;  but  if  resistance  is  anticipated  or  foreseen,  the  party 
must  consist  of  all  arms,  or  be  constituted  according  to  circumstances, 
and  the  command  be  given  to  an  experienced  officer. 

The  commander  of  a  reconnoissance  ordinarily  receives  written 
instructions.  He  should  well  understand  the  object  before  him,  and 
demand  such  explanations  as  he  may  require.  He  is  furnished  with  a 
good  map,  a  telescope,  writing  materials,  and  means  of  making  field- 
sketches  of  the  positions  of  the  enemy.  He  secures  two  or  three  in- 
habitants of  the  country  to  serve  as  guides,  and  to  answer  his  inquiries 
relative  to  the  names  and  populations  of  villages,  the  nature  of  the 
roads,  the  extent  of  woods,  the  condition  of  water-courses,  ground,  &c. 
He  ought  to  be  accompanied  by  an  officer  who  knows  the  language  of 
the  country,  and  he  should,  before  commencing  his  march,  inspect  the 
troops  intrusted  to  him  to  satisfy  himself  of  the  good  condition  of  their 
arms,  ammunition,  and  provisions. 

The  detachment  charged  with  pushing  a  reconnoissance  marches 
with  its  advance  guard  arid  flankers ;  stops  all  persons  who  would 


490  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [Rsc. 

precede  it,  and  might  give  information  of  its  march ;  questions  inhabi- 
tants of  villages,  and,  if  necessary,  takes  hostages  to  secure  true  in- 
formation. The  attention  of  the  commander  is  particularly  directed  to 
the  ground  over  which  he  passes,  to  determine,  in  advance,  points 
where  a  stout  resistance  may  be  made  in  the  event  of  his  being  obliged 
to  fight  when  making  his  retreat.  He  frequently  consults  his  map  to 
ascertain  its  fidelity  to  the  country  over  which  he  passes,  and  notes  its 
variations.  The  detachment  pushes  forward,  using  all  necessary  pre- 
cautions, without  fear  of  compromising  itself,  attacking  boldly  such 
antagonists  as  present  themselves,  until  the  information  has  been  gained 
for  which  it  was  despatched. 

There  are  other  reconnoissances  made  by  small  detachments,  which 
employ  stratagem  rather  than  force,  and  which  consequently  ought  to 
shun  any  engagement  that  can  be  avoided.  In  strong  reconnoissances 
or  reconnoissances  by  force,  on  the  contrary,  the  aim  is  to  penetrate 
to  the  positions  of  the  enemy,  and  the  design  must  not  be  permitted  to 
fail  by  an  accidental  meeting  with  troops ;  but,  profiting  by  such  good 
fortune,  the  opposing  troops  must  be  overthrown,  prisoners  made  who 
will  give  useful  information,  and  the  fugitives  rapidly  followed  to  the 
outposts,  which  will  probably  be  in  confusion  at  the  repulse  of  the 
detachment.  The  line  of  the  enemy  is  then  soon  pierced,  and  his  corps 
will  be  soon  seen  deployed  to  repulse  the  attack.  The  commandant  of 
the  reconnoissance  ought  now  to  seek  some  elevated  point  from  which 
he  can  gain  a  good  knowledge  of  the  force  and  positions  of  the  enemy, 
and  make,  or  have  made  by  officers  who  acccompany  him,  a  rapid 
sketch  of  the  ground  and  the  positions  of'  the  enemy.  When  once  this 
object  has  been  gained,  a  retreat  must  be  sounded  even  in  the  middle 
of  the  combat.  And  it  is  under  such  circumstances  that  skill  and  pru- 
dence guide  courage ;  and  sang-froid  is  absolutely  indispensable.  The 
object  of  the  reconnoissance  is  to  gain  information.  Boldness  must  be 
employed  to  attain  that  end ;  but,  if  in  the  hope  of  surprising  a  post, 
carrying  off  a  convoy,  or  destroying  troops,  the  commander  forsakes 
his  route  and  loses  time,  it  is  a  violation  of  duty ;  ho  is  blamable,  even 
if  success  attends  his  enterprise. 

Secret  reconnoissances  are  conducted  on  different  principles.  They 
are  ordinarily  composed  of  a  single  kind  of  troops ;  of  cavalry  in  flat, 
open  districts,  and  of  infantry  in  mountainous  or  intersected  countries. 
The  detachment  marches  with  caution.  If  the  eclaireurs  announce  the 
approach  of  an  enemy,  it  endeavors  to  avoid  observation  by  the  shelter 
furnished  by  woods  or  any  accident  of  ground  at  hand  ;  *>r  else  escaping 
by  a  prompt  retreat  if  necessary  ;  or,  if  near  its  own  outposts,  and  the 


RBC.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  491 

enemy  is  in  strength,  sending  back  information,  and  retarding  the 
column  of  the  enemy  as  much  as  possible,  by  simulating  strength. 

When  the  commandant  of  such  a  reconnoitring  party  has  reached 
his  destination  without  hindrance,  he  holds  his  men  concealed  behind 
some  curtain,  such  as  a  clump  of  trees,  an  old  wall  or  ditch,  and  fol- 
lowed only  by  a  few  men  in  echelons,  he  takes  some  elevated  position 
with  his  guide  and  two  or  three  soldiers,  whence  he  can  observe  the 
enemy.  He  notes  what  he  sees,  with  the  explanations  of  his  guide.  If 
the  positions  of  the  enemy  are  well  seen,  he  makes  sketches,  which  are 
always  valuable  even  when  very  rough.  He  must  not  be  imposed  on 
by  first  appearances,  but  examining  with  sang-froid,  he  endeavors  to 
seize  exact  ideas,  and  exposes  himself  when  necessary  to  attain  his  aim. 
Inexact  knowledge  or  lies  are  worse  than  total  ignorance.  Montluc 
well  says  that  discretion  must  be  exercised  in  selections  for  such  expe- 
ditions, for  an  inexperienced  man  may  soon  take  'alarm,  and  even 
imagine  "  bushes  to  be  battalions  of  the.  enemy."  Send  always  some 
fearless  and  skilful  officer,  and  if  you  would  do  better  go  yourself. 

When  the  reconnoissance  is  finished,  the  commanding  officer  makes 
a  written  report  to  the  general,  when  his  verbal  account  is  not  sufficient. 
This  report  ought  to  be  clear,  simple,  and  as  brief  as  possible.  The 
officer  will  state  only  facts  of  which  he  is  perfectly  sure.  His  conjec- 
tures will  be  presented  with  great  reserve,  and  always  as  conjectures. 
He  will  guard  against  flights  of  imagination,  but  confine  himself  to 
realities,  and  will  avoid  speaking  much  of  himself;  but,  knowing  the 
satisfactory  result  of  his  mission  must  do  him  honor,  he  will  bestow 
just  praise  upon  his  troops.  (See  SURVEY,  Military.) 

There  are  many  signs  which,  if  reported  to  a  general  and  his  staff, 
enable  them  to  judge  of  what  they  wish  to  know,  as  clearly  as  if  a 
detailed  picture  of  the  enemy  were  spread  before  them.  It  is  neces- 
sary, therefore,  that  every  officer  and  soldier  should  know  how  to  mark 
and  collect  these  signs.  They  consist,  when  a  camp,  bivouac,  or  can- 
tonment is  observed,  in  the  color  of  coats  and  pantaloons ;  other  dis- 
tinctive marks,  the  numbers  of  videttes,  sentinels,  fires,  and  tents  of  the 
enemy  ;  the  frequency  and  direction  of  rounds,  patrols,  and  reconnois- 
sances ;  the  nature  and  time  of  signals  by  trumpet  or  drum ;  the  placing 
of  signal  posts ;  measures  of  straw ;  boughs  broken  off;  the  arrival 
of  reinforcements  ;  new  uniforms  ;  collections  of  fascines,  beams,  joists, 
ladders,  boats.  When  a  corps  is  watched  on  the  march,  the  signs  to 
observe  are  the  depth  and  front  of  columns ;  the  number  of  subdivi- 
sions ;  the  sort  of  troops,  infantry,  cavalry,  artillery,  trains  ;  the  quick- 
ness and  direction  of  the  march  ;  the  height  of  the  dust ;  the  reflection 


492  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [RKC. 

of  arms  ;  the  number  of  the  flankers  and  the  eclaireurs.  When  an  army 
ready  for  battle  is  observed,  we  should  particularly  note  the  number  of 
its  lines,  their  extent,  the  composition  of  the  troops  in  column  or  in  line 
of  battle  ;  the  calibre  of  pieces  ;  their  position  relative  to  cavalry  and 
infantry  ;  the  number  of  skirmishers ;  their  manoeuvres ;  the  concentra- 
tion of  forces  or  artillery  on  such  a  point ;  flank  marches  of  one  or  many 
corps.  If  troops  are  followed  on  their  march,  we  note  the  tracks  of  men 
and  horses,  those  made  by  wheels,  cattle,  and  beasts  of  burden  ;  the  rela- 
tive positions  of  these  tracks  :  whether  they  are  regular  and  preserve  an 
invariable  order ;  whether  the  places  where  they  stop  have  little  or  much 
space  between  them  ;  whether  the  route  passed- over  is  covered  with  re- 
mains of  animals ;  whether  the  skeletons  of  the  horses  are  lean  and 
sore ;  whether  the  ground  is  bloody  ;  if  graves  have  been  freshly  made, 
whether  some  indications  may  not  show  them  to  be  for  superior  offi- 
cers ;  whether  the  country  has  been  devastated ;  whether  the  entrails 
of  beef,  mutton,  or  horses  are  seen ;  whether  the  fires  are  recent ; 
whether  they  are  numerous,  and  show  much  or  little  ashes  ;  whether 
bridges  are  broken,  and  in  what  parts ;  whether  the  inhabitants  of  the 
country  are  anxious,  sad,  humble,  animated,  or  satisfied. 

Topographical  reconnoissances  are  not  less  important  than  recon- 
noissances  of  the  enemy.  It  is  necessary  to  know  the  distances  of 
places  to  combine  the  march  of  different  columns,  and  without  a  knowl- 
edge of  the  difficulties  of  a  route,  necessary  measures  to  overcome  them 
cannot  be  prescribed.  It  is  by  special  reconnoissances  that  such  knowl- 
edge is  gained,  for  maps  are  never  sufficient.  They  do  not  give  the 
nature  of -the  soil,  the  quality  of  the  roads,  the  condition  of  rivers  or 
bridges,  the  thickness  of  forests,  or  the  slope  of  mountains,  &c.,  &c., 
but  it  is  necessary  to  know  all  these  things  before  undertaking  any 
important  enterprise.  If  this  detailed  information  has  not  been  col- 
lected in  time  of  peace  through  special  corps,  officers  of  the  staff,  in 
presence  of  the  enemy,  and  protected  by  troops,  commonly  make 
sketches,  representing  more  or  less  exactly  the  most  essential  localities. 
Those  officers,  also,  on  the  march  of  an  army,  make  out  itineraries, 
survey  positions,  fields  of  battle,  and  not  unfrequently  great  extents  of 
country. 

Officers  of  all  arms,  however,  are  liable  to  be  placed  in  situations 
which  require  them  to  explore  localities  and  give  correct  descriptions. 
The  following  means  may  be  employed  for  that  purpose  without  be- 
coming an  expert  in  the  art  of  drawing.  The  system  of  showing  upon 
plans  the  levels  of  the  ground  by  means  of  contour  lines  is  one  of  some 
utility,  but  it  is  the  most  difficult  representation  in  a  topographical 


EEC.] 


MILITARY  DICTIONARY. 


493 


map.  The  art  is  only  acquired  by  study  and  practice,  and  even  with 
skill  there  is  not  always  time  for  its  display  in  the  field.  Instead  of 
attempting  lines  to  represent  slopes,  the  contour  of  hills  may  be  marked 
by  two  curves,  one  for  the  top  and  one  for  the  foot  of  the  slope,  and 
these  contour  lines  naturally  present  themselves  to  the  eye,  and  are  at 
once  put  upon  paper,  to  indicate  the  general  form  of  the  hill.  The 
space  between  these  two  lines  is  sufficient  to  write  a  few  words  indi- 
cating the  slope,  &c.  Whether,  for  instance,  the  slope  is  gentle  or 
steep,  accessible  or  not  to  cavalry,  its  approximative  height.  In  order 
that  the  lines  of  circumscription  representing  heights  may  not  be  con- 
founded with  other  conventional  signs,  they  must  be  long  dots.  Ci- 
phers in  parenthesis  give  the  heights  of  points  of  the  superior  curve 
above  corresponding  points  of  the  inferior  curve. 

Other  objects,  as  water-courses,  ponds,  marshes,  woods,  vines, 
towns,  villages,  large  farms,  and  other  isolated  constructions  which  may 
play  an  important  part  in  battle,  embankments,  ferries,  fords,  stone  and 
wooden  bridges,  all  may  be  represented  as  in  Fig.  174. 

Water-courses. — Two  lines,  one  heavier  than  the  other,  are  sufficient 
to  represent  them.  It  is  usual  to  add  other  lines  between  the  two  first. 


494  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [REc. 

Sometimes  a  blue  shade  advantageously  takes  the  place  of  the  inter- 
mediate threads.  An  arrow  indicates  the  direction  of  the  current.  A 
mill  is  seen  in  the  lower  part  of  the  river.  Smaller  streams  empty  into 
the  river. 

Means  of  crossing. — A  ferry  boat.  A  stone  bridge,  distinguished 
from  a  wooden  bridge  by  being  wider  and  having  wings  on  the  opposite 
banks.  A  ford,  marked  by  dotted  lines  across  the  river. 

Ponds  or  lakes  are  designated  by  lines  of  contour,  and  by  threads 
or  a  blue  tint. 

Marshes. — By  a  line  of  contour,  and  horizontal  lines  in  the  interior, 
with  some  points  representing  grass  in  the  interior.  Practicable  or 
impracticable,  &c.,  is  written. 

Woods  and  vines. — These  objects  are  designated  by  tracing  the 
contour.  If  colors  are  used  India  ink  will  designate  woods,  and  violet 
vines.  Write,  in  the  interior,  the  nature  and  characteristic  circum- 
stances of  the  wood ;  \vhether  it  is  undergrowth  or  forest,  thickset  or 
open,  &c. 

Hocks. — Endeavor  to  imitate  them,  but  if  they  present  themselves 
in  prolonged  walls,  the  crest  and  foot  may  be  designated  as  in  the 
sketch.  Or  a  few  written  words  may  give  a  better  idea. 

Habitations. — A  village  is  represented  by  a  circle  filled  with  par- 
allel lines.  A  town  in  the  same  manner,  except  that  a  square  is  sub- 
stituted for  the  circle.  A  red  tint  may  replace  the  parallel  lines  in 
habitations.  Isolated  houses  are  designated  merely  by  their  form, 
without  regard  to  the  scale. 

Communications. — A  great  route  is  represented  by  two  parallel 
lines.  A  wagon  road  in  the  same  manner,  except  that  the  lines  are 
nearer  together.  Roads  practicable  only  for  light  carriages  by  the  same 
means,  except  that  one  of  the  lines  is  dotted.  Distances  being  essential 
in  a  plan  of  this  kind,  they  must  be  written  along  the  routes  between 
the  objects. 

Levees  and  Embankments  are  represented  by  two  parallel  lines, 
with  cross  lines  in  the  interior.  See  embankment  near  stone  bridge. 

The  sketch  is  completed  by  a  meridian  line. 

However  rapidly  such  a  sketch  as  Fig.  174  may  be  made,  there 
are  circumstances  in  which  it  is  not  possible  to  give  that  time,  and  a 
reconnoissance  must  be  made  at  a  gallop.  In  the  latter  case,  the  recon- 
noitring officer  confines  himself  to  taking  rapid  notes,  and  afterwards 
making  his  sketch  from  recollection.  This  is  a  most  useful  talent,  and 
officers  should  be  exercised  in  noting  the  prominent  features  of  locali- 
ties, and  tracing  their  recollections  upon  paper.  Reconnoissances  are 


REC.] 


MILITARY  DICTIONARY. 


495 


FIG.  175. 


&c. 

Distance  from  A  to  D  4h.  50m. 
The  route  is  good  between 
these  points,  except  next  the 
river;    there    are    deep    ruts 
which  must  be  filled. 

&C. 
Vi  TAVERN. 

TOWN.  (m\  D 

&C. 
Many  scattered  houses  in  the 
neighborhood. 

Surrounded  by  old  walls:  ac- 
commodates 3,000  men. 

3 

River  is  fordable.    The  bridge 
admits  10  abreast. 

HIGHEST 
POINT. 

It  is  necessary  to  double  the 
wagons. 

2 

•c 
N^ 

a 

VILLAGE  | 

IB 

K) 

w 

*HB0I 

Marshy  stream. 

Good  position  for  defence. 
The  front  is  covered  by  a 
marshy  river.  The  flanks  rest 
on  woods,  leaving  an  interval 
of  4,000  steps. 

"c 
Z 
0.     > 

CROSS 

Ib 

•# 

/ 

Eoad  to  T  in  4|  hours.    Prac- 
ticable for  wagons. 

o 
K 

Not  capable  of  defence.    Can 
lodge  10,000  men. 

CITV.  JPJA 

General  Observations. 

Conventional  Signs. 

Particular  Observations. 

ITINERARY  FROM  A  TO  X. 


496  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [REC. 

much  simplified  when  confined  to  noting  circumstances  along  a  route, 
and  are  then  called  Itineraries.  All  particularities  of  the  route  are  noted, 
whatever  is  remarkable  on  the  right  or  left,  the  breadth  of  defiles,  mil- 
itary positions,  the  steepness  of  slopes,  wrhat  is  necessary  to  improve  a 
road,  the  distances  between  points  in  time ;  covers,  that  is,  houses  of 
all  kinds  are  given  according  to  their  capacity  of  containing  soldiers, 
&c.  In  itineraries,  conventional  signs  as  well  as  written  notes  are 
used.  Itineraries  are  made  of  leaves  of  paper  five  or  six  inches  in 
breadth.  Leaves  are  subsequently  united,  and  represent  entire  routes. 
Notes  begin  at  the  foot  of  the  leaf,  and  are  continued  above,  as  in 
Fig.  175.  (See  also  article  JOURNAL.) 

Details  concerning  the  resources  of  a  country  must  be  embodied  in 
statistical  tables.  The  itinerary  would  be  too  much  complicated  by 
embracing  them.  Such  information  is  most  important,  however,  in 
supplying  an  army ;  but  statistical  tables,  prepared  with  that  view, 
should  be  confined  to  necessary  objects.  They  should  embrace  details 
of  the  population  of  towns,  inhabited  houses,  workmen,  mills,  ovens, 
grain,  wagons,  boats,  horses,  mules,  beef  cattle,  with  general  observa- 
tions which  would  aid  the  departments  of  supply  in  the  performance 
of  their  duties.  (Consult  DUFOUR  ;  BUGEAUD  ;  Aide  Mcmoire  cCEtat 
Major.  See  SURVEYS,  Military  or  Expeditious.) 

RECRUITING.  The  system  of  recruiting  armies  practised  in 
England  and  the  United  States  by  voluntary  enlistments,  is  vicious. 
In  continental  Europe,  the  obligation  is  acknowledged  that  every  subject 
or  citizen  of  a  certain  age  owes  military  service  to  his  country,  either 
personally  or  by  substitute.  The  government  consequently  annually 
calls  for  as  many  men  as  are  needed  for  the  military  service.  In  an. 
swer  to  this  call,  lots  are  drawn  by  the  wrhole  class  liable  to  service, 
and  those  upon  whom  the  lot  falls  become  soldiers  for  a  fixed  period, 
varying  in  different  countries  from  three  to  eight  years.  The  military 
have  but  little  to  do  with  such  a  system  of  recruiting.  There  is  in 
France  simply  a  council  for  recruiting,  in  each  department,  instituted 
to  pronounce  upon  the  fitness  for  service  of  those  men  desigated  by 
lot.  It  is  composed  of  a  prefect,  a  'commanding  general,  a  field-officer 
designated  by  the  minister  of  war,  a  councillor  of  the  prefect,  and  an 
officer  of  the  gendarmerie.  Those  upon  whom  the  lot  has  fallen,  who 
think  that  they  have  good  reasons  for  being  exempted,  present  their 
cases  before  this  committee,  who  examine  such  applications,  and  pro- 
nounce what  exemptions  shall  be  made,  and  in  what  cases  substitutes 
shall  be  admitted.  With  such  a  system  of  recruiting,  the  ranks  of  an 
army  are  composed  of  all  classes  of  the  community.  Promotion  from 


RED.] 


MILITARY  DICTIONARY. 


497 


the  ranks  is  of  ordinary  occurrence.  The  soldier  has  a  career  before 
him.  He  is  proud  of  his  profession.  The  army  is  a  national  army,  or 
an  army  of  the  people.  Its  sympathies  are  all  with  the  people,  and  it 
is  ever,  as  in  France,  a  true  representative  of  the  popular  sentiment. 

In  England,  where  it  is  the  policy  of  the  government  to  keep  the 
army  under  the  control  of  the  aristocracy,  they  are  logical  in  rejecting 
a  system  of  conscription,  and  adhering  to  a  system  of  recruiting  which 
divides  an  army  into  two  castes  :  the  officer  and  the  soldier.  What 
possible  reason  can  be  given  for  adopting  that  system  in  the  United 
States,  is  unknown.  (See  DEPOT  ;  RAISE.) 

REDAN.  Small  work  with  two  faces  terminating  in  a  salient  angle, 
used  to  cover  a  camp,  the  front  of  a  battle-field,  advanced  posts,  ave- 
nues of  a  village,  bridge,  &c.  Fig.  176  exhibits  a  bridge-head,  composed 


FIG.  176. 


of  a  redan  with  flanks,  flanked  by  two  redoubts  on  the  opposite  bank 
of  the  river.  These  works  are  supposed  to  be  in  the  neighborhood  of 
hills,  from  which  it  is  necessary  that  they  should  be  defiladed.  This  is 
effected  by  traverses  to  cover  the  bridge,  and  by  a  traverse  across  the 
centre  of  each  redoubt.  (See  FIELD-WORKS.) 

REDOUBTS— are  works  inclosed  on  all  sides  of  a  square,  poly- 
gonal, or  circular  figure.  The  latter  form  is  rarely  used,  being  unsuit- 
able to  ground  in  general,  and  from  the  impossibility  of  giving  any 
flanking  defence  to  the  ditch.  Redoubts  on  level  ground  are  generally 
square  or  pentagonal.  On  a  hill  or  rising  ground  their  outline  will,  in 
32 


498 


MILITARY  DICTIONARY. 


[RED. 


most  cases,  follow  the  contour  of  the  summit  of  the  hill.  Their  dimen- 
sions should  be  proportioned  to  the  number  of  men  they  are  to  contain. 
One  file,  that  is,  two  men,  are  required  for  the  defence  of  every  lineal 
yard  of  parapet;  the  number  of  yards  in  the  crest  line  of  any  redoubt 
should  not,  therefore,  exceed  half  the  number  of  men  to  be  contained  in 
it.  Again,  as  every  man  in  an  inclosed  work  requires  10  square  feet 
of  the  interior  space,  that  space  clear  of  the  banquette  must  not  contain 
less  than  ten  times  as  many  square  feet  as  the  number  of  men  to  be  con- 
tained in  it.  From  these  considerations  it  follows :  1st.  To  find  the  least 
number  of  men  sufficient  to  man  the  parapet  of  an  inclosed  work,  multiply 
the  number  of  yards  in  the  crest  line  by  two.  2d.  To  find  the  greatest 
number  of  men  that  an  inclosed  work  can  contain,  find  the  area,  clear 
of  the  banquette,  in  square  feet,  and  divide  this  number  by  10. 

When  the  redoubt  contains  guns,  324  square  feet  must  be  allowed 
for  each  gun,  and  this  quantity,  multiplied  by  the  number  of  guns, 

Fto.  177. 
Side  cf  the  Square  along  the  Crest,  40  yards. 


Scale  of  yards  for  Fig.  177. 


RED.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  499 

must  be  subtracted  from  the  whole  interior  space.  The  remaining 
number  of  square  feet,  divided  by  10,  will  give  the  number  of  men  which 
the  redoubt  can  hold.  The  side  of  a  square  redoubt  should,  under  no 
circumstances,  be  less  than  50  feet. 

The  great  objections  to  small  inclosed  works  are  :  1st,  the  liability 
of  their  faces  to  be  enfiladed  from  without ;  2d,  the  difficulty  of  pro- 
viding an  effective  flanking  defence  for  their  ditches  ;  3d,  the  weakness 
of  their  salient  angles,  the  ground  in  front  of  them  being  undefended 
by  a  direct  fire.  In  the  preceding  diagram  (Fig.  177)  is  shown  a  square 
redoubt,  having  a  side  of  40  yards,  and  capable  of  holding  four  pieces 
of  artillery,  and  one  hundred  and  twenty  men. 

In  tracing  redoubts  and  all  inclosed  field  works,  care  must  be  taken 
to  direct  as  much  as  possible  their  faces  upon  inaccessible  ground,  so 
as  to  reduce  to  a  minimum  the  effects  of  an  enemy's  enfilade,  while 
approach  on  the  salients  must  be  rendered  difficult  by  abatis,  trous- 
de-loup,  and  obstacles  of  all  available  descriptions.  It  will  hencefor- 
ward be  very  difficult  to  guard  the  interior  of  inclosed  works  from  the 
effects  of  distant  musketry.  Well-trained  troops  from  a  distance  of 
900  yards  could  throw  with  certainty  every  shot  into  the  interior  of 
even  a  small  redoubt ;  while  the  angle  at  which  they  fall,  some  15°  to 
20°,  would  enable  them  to  sweep  the  whole  interior  and  make  every 
part  of  the  redoubt  too  hot.  It  seems  to  be  a  question  whether  such  a 
work  can  be  protected  by  traverses  from  such  a  plunging  fire  ;  (HYDE'S 
Fortification.)  (See  ATTACK  AND  DEFENCE  of  field-works.) 

REDRESSING  WRONGS.  If  any  officer  shall  think  himself 
wronged  by  his  colonl^  or  the  commanding  officer  of  the  regiment,  and 
shall,  upon  due  application  being  made  to  him,  be  refused  redress,  he 
,may  complain  to  the  general,  commanding  in  the  State  or  territory, 
where  such  regiment  shall  be  stationed,  in  order  to  obtain  justice ;  who 
is  hereby  required  to  examine  into  the  said  complaint,  and  take  proper 
measures  for  redressing  the  wrong  complained  of,  and  transmit,  as  soon 
as  possible,  to  the  Department  of  War,  a  true  state  of  such  complaint, 
with  the  proceedings  had  thereon  ;  (ART.  34.)  If  any  inferior  officer  or 
soldier  shall  think  himself  wronged  by  his  captain  or  other  officer,  he 
is  to  complain  thereof  to  the  commanding  officer  of  the  regiment,  who 
is  hereby  required  to  summon  a  regimental  court-martial  for  the  doing 
of  justice  to  the  complainant ;  from  which  regimental  court-martial, 
either  party  may,  if  he  thinks  himself  still  aggrieved,  appeal  to  a  gen- 
eral court-martial.  But  if,  upon  a  second  hearing,  the  appeal  shall 
appear  vexatious  and  groundless,  the  person,  so  appealing,  shall  be 
punished  at  the  discretion  of  the  said  court-martial ;  (ART.  35.)  (See 


500  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [RED. 

INJURIES,  for  liability  for  private  injuries,  personal  injuries,  and  criminal 
liabilities  ;  REMEDY.) 

REDUCE.  To  reduce  a  place,  is  to  oblige  the  garrison  to  surren- 
der. To  reduce  to  the  ranks,  is  when  a  sergeant  or  a  corporal,  for  any 
misconduct,  has  his  rank  taken  from  him,  and  is  obliged  to  return  to 
the  duty  of  a  private  soldier.  Non-commissioned  officers  cannot  be  re- 
duced to  the  ranks  except  by  the  sentence  of  a  court-martial,  or  by  the 
order  of  the  colonel  of  the  regiment. 

RE-ENLISTING.  Every  able-bodied  non-commissioned  officer, 
musician,  or  private  soldier,  who  may  re-enlist  into  his  company  or 
regiment,  within  two  months  before  or  one  month  after  the  expiration 
of  his  term  of  service,  shall  receive  three  months'  extra  pay ;  (Act  July 
5,  1838.)  (See  ENLISTMENT.) 

RE-ENTERING  ANGLE— is  an  angle  pointing  inwards,  or 
towards  the  work. 

RE-ENTERING  ANGLE  OF  THE  COUNTERSCARP— is 
that  formed  by  the  intersection  of  the  two  lines  of  the  counterscarp, 
opposite  the  curtain. 

REFUSAL  TO  RECEIVE  PRISONERS.  No  officer  com- 
manding a  guard,  or  provost-marshal,  shall  refuse  to  receive  or  keep 
any  prisoner  committed  to  his  charge  by  an  officer  belonging  to  the 
force  of  the  United  States  ;  provided  the  officer  committing  shall,  at  the 
same  time,  deliver  an  account  in  writing,  signed  by  himself,  of  the  crime 
with  which  the  prisoner  is  charged  ;  (ART.  80.)  No  officer  command- 
ing a  guard,  or  provost-marshal,  shall  release  any  prisoner  committed 
to  his  charge  without  proper  authority  for  so  doWg,  nor  shall  he  suffer 
any  person  to  escape  on  penalty  of  being  punished  at  the  discretion  of 
a  court-martial ;  (ART.  81.)  Every  officer  or  provost-marshal  to  whose 
charge  prisoners  are  committed,  shall,  within  twenty-four  hours  after 
such  commitment  or  as  soon  as  he  shall  be  relieved  from  guard,  report 
in  writing  to  the  commanding  officer  their  names,  crimes,  and  the  names 
of  the  officers  who  committed  them,  on  penalty  of  being  punished  for 
disobedience  or  neglect,  at  the  discretion  of  a  court-martial ;  (ART.  82.) 
(See  CONFINEMENT  j  PROVOST-MARSHAL.) 

REGIMENT.  (Lat.  rego,  I  rule.)  A  body  of  troops  organized 
by  law,  subject  to  the  same  administration,  discipline,  and  duties,  hav- 
ing a  legal  head  and  members,  and  composed  according  to  arm  of 
companies,  battalions,  squadrons,  or  batteries.  (See  ARMY  for  the  or- 
ganization of  the  several  regiments  of  infantry,  cavalry,  and  artillery.) 

REGIMENTAL  COURT-MARTIAL.     (See  COURT-MARTIAL.) 

REGIMENTAL  NECESSARIES.     (See  NECESSARIES.) 


REG.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  501 

REGIMENTALS.  The  uniform  clothing  of  regiments,  such  as 
coats,  trousers,  caps,  &c. 

REGULATIONS.  Under  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States, 
rules  for  the  government  and  regulation  of  the  army  must  be  made  by 
Congress.  Regulation  implies  regularity.  It  signifies  fixed  forms ; 
a  certain  order ;  method ;  precise  determination  of  functions,  rights,  and 
duties.  (See  ARMY  REGULATIONS.)  Rules  of  Regulation  also  embrace, 
besides  rules  for  the  administrative  service,  systems  of  tactics,  and  the 
regulation  of  service  in  campaign,  garrison,  and  quarters.  In  the  case 
of  the  staff  departments,  legislative  authority  has  been  delegated 
jointly  to  the  President  and  Secretary  of  War.  But  in  relation  to 
the  powers,  rights,  and  duties  of  officers  and  soldiers  in  campaign, 
garrison,  and  quarters,  Congress  has  not  delegated  its  authority  to 
the  President,  nor  have  such  matters  been  precisely  determined  by 
military  laws.  Even  rights  of  rank,  command,  and  pay,  concerning 
which  Congress  has  legislated,  are  subjects  of  dispute,  and  variable 
expositions  of  laws  regulating  those  essentials  of  good  government 
have  been  given  by  different  executives,  with  an  increasing  tendency 
to  invalidate  rank  created  by  Congress.  There  can  be  no  remedy  for 
these  encroachments,  unless  Congress  should  pass  a  law  to  enable  cases 
to  be  brought  before  the  Federal  civil  courts,  in  order  that  the  true  ex- 
position of  military  statutes  and  authorities  in  dispute  may  be  deter- 
mined. With  such  a  remedy,  laws,  however  defective  they  may  be, 
would  at  least  be  known,  and  rights  powrers,  and  duties  established  by 
law  would  be  well  determined. 

But  it  may  be  said  in  relation  to  such  rules  of  regulation,  how 
can  a  body  like  Congress  determine  upon  systems  of  tactics,  &c.  ? 
Their  constitutional  duty  might  easily  be  performed  as  follows : — 1. 
By  clearly  declaring,  in  a  manner  not  to  be  misunderstood,  that  the 
general-in-chief  is  charged  with  the  discipline  and  military  control  of 
the  army  under  the  rules  made  by  Congress  and  the  orders  of  the 
President.  2.  The  Secretary  of  War  is  charged  with  the  administra- 
tive service  of  the  army  under  the  rules  made  by  Congress  and  the 
orders  of  the  President.  3.  By  directing  the  general-in-chief,  with  the 
advice  of  properly  constituted  military  boards,  to  report  to  the  Presi- 
dent rules  for  the  government  and  regulation  of  the  army  in  campaign, 
garrison,  or  quarters,  including  systems  of  tactics  for  the  different  arms 
of  the  service.  4.  By  directing  the  Secretary  of  War,  with  the  advice 
of  properly  constituted  boards,  to  report  to  the  President  rules  for 
raising  and  supporting  armies ;  including  regulations  for  the  adminis- 
trative service.  5.  By  directing  the  President  to  submit  the  rules 


502  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [REJ. 

made  in  accordance  with  provisions  3  and  4,  to  another  board  organized 
by  the  President,  with  directions  to  harmonize  the  details  of  the  several 
reports ;  which  last  report  shall  be  submitted  to  Congress  for  confirma- 
tion or  orders  in  the  case.  6.  By  directing  that  each  year,  previous 
to  the  meeting  of  Congress,  the  following  boards  be  assembled  under 
the  orders  of  the  general-in-chief,  viz.  :  a  board  of  general  staff  officers ; 
a  board  of  artillery  officers ;  a  board  of  cavalry  officers ;  and  a  board 
of  infantry  officers.  The  Secretary  of  War  to  assemble  the  following 
boards,  viz. :  a  board  of  engineer  officers  ;  a  board  of  ordnance  officers  ; 
a  board  of  medical  officers ;  and  a  board  of  quartermasters,  commis- 
saries, and  paymasters.  Each  of  the  boards  so  assembled  to  report  to 
the  general-in-chief  or  Secretary  of  War,  such  suggestions  of  improve- 
ments in  their  respective  services  as  it  may  be  desirable  to  adopt.  7. 
The  repeal  of  all  laws  delegating  legislative  authority  to  the  President 
and  Secretary  of  War.  (See  ADMINISTRATION,  and  references ;  ARTICLES 
OP  WAR  ;  COMMAND  ;  CONGRESS  ;  GOVERNMENT,  and  its  references ; 
LAWS,  (Military ;)  OBEDIENCE  ;  ORDERS  ;  ORDNANCE  DEPARTMENT  ; 
SECRETARY  OF  WAR  ;  SERVICE,  and  references  ;  STAFF,  and  references.) 

REJOINDER.  The  weight  of  authority  is  against  permitting  a 
rejoinder  on  the  part  of  the  prisoner,  unless  evidence  has  been  adduced 
in  the  reply  of  the  prosecutor.  But  such  evidence  should  not  be  per- 
mitted in  reply,  and  there  should  be  no  rejoinder ;  (HOUGH'S  Military 
Law  Authorities.) 

RELEASE  OF  PRISONERS.     (See  REFUSE.) 

RELIEF.  A  guard  is  usually  divided  into  three  reliefs.  Relief 
is  also  the  height  to  which  works  are  raised.  If  the  works  are  high 
and  commanding,  they  are  said  to  have  a  bold  relief ;  but  if  the  reverse, 
they  are  said  to  have  a  low  relief.  The  relief  should  provide  the  requi- 
site elevations  for  the  musketry  and  artillery,  to  insure  a  good  defence. 

RELIEVING  THE  ENEMY.  Whosoever  shall  relieve  the 
enemy  with  money,  victuals,  or  ammunition,  or  shall  knowingly  harbor 
or  protect  an  enemy,  shall  suffer  death,  or  such  other  punishment  as 
shall  be  ordered  by  the  sentence  of  a  court-martial  ;  (ART.  56.) 

REMBLAI — is  the  quantity  of  earth  contained  in  the  mass  of  ram- 
part, parapet,  and  banquette. 

REMEDY.  The  rules  and  articles  for  the  government  of  the  army 
are  defective  in  not  providing  sufficient  remedies  for  wrongs.  The 
army  of  the  United  States  is  governed  by  law.  The  law  should  there- 
fore provide  a  sufficient  remedy  for  cases  in  which  the  rights  of  officers 
are  wrested  from  them  by  illegal  regulations,  purporting  to  interpret 
the  true  meaning  of  acts  of  Congress.  In  cases  arising  in  the  land  and 


RET.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  503 

naval  forces  of  the  United  States,  where  the  true  construction  of  any  act 
of  Congress  is  in  dispute,  legislation  is  wanted  to  enable  an  officer,  who 
thinks  himself  wronged  by  an  illegal  executive  decision,  to  bring  the 
matter  before  the  federal  civil  courts  to  determine  the  true  exposition 
of  the  statute  or  authority  in  dispute.  (See  REDRESSING  WRONGS  ;  SUIT.) 

REPAIRS  OF  ARMS.     (See  DAMAGE.) 

REPLY.  It  is  the  duty  of  a  court  to  prevent  new  matter  from 
being  introduced  into  the  prosecution  or  defence,  but  a  prisoner  may 
urge  in  his  defence  mitigating  circumstances,  or  examine  witnesses  as 
to  character  or  services,  and  produce  testimonials  of  such  facts,  without 
its  being  considered  new  matter.  If  any  point  of  law  be  raised,  or  any 
matter  requiring  explanation,  the  judge-advocate  may  explain.,  No 
other  reply  to  be  admitted  ;  (HOUGH.) 

REPORTING  PRISONERS.     (See  REFUSE.) 

REPRIEVE.  The  President  of  the  United  States  has  power  to 
grant  reprieves  and  pardons  for  offences  against  the  United  States, 
except  in  cases  of  impeachment ;  (  Constitution.) 

REPRIMAND.  It  is  earnestly  recommended  to  all  officers  and 
soldiers  diligently  to  attend  divine  service ;  and  all  officers,  who  shall 
behave  indecently  or  irreverently  at  any  place  of  divine  wrorship,  shall, 
if  commissioned  officers,  be  brought  before  a  general  court-martial, 
there  to  be  publicly  reprimanded  by  the  President ;  (ART.  2.) 

REPRISALS.  Acts  of  war  to  obtain  satisfaction  for  losses  or  acts 
of  retaliation.  (See  WAR.) 

REPROACHFUL  or  provoking  speeches  or  gestures,  used  by  one 
officer  to  another,  are  punished  by  the  arrest  of  the  officer ;  in  the  case 
of  a  soldier,  he  is  to  be  confined  and  ask  pardon  of  the  party  offended, 
in  the  presence  of  the  commanding  officer  ;  (ART.  24.) 

REQUISITIONS.  Forms  prescribed  for  the  demand  of  certain 
allowances,  as  forage,  rations,  &c.  (See  ADMINISTRATION.) 

RESERVE.  A  select  body  of  troops  kept  back  to  give  support 
when  needed,  or  to  rally  upon. 

RESIGN ;  RESIGNATION.  The  voluntary  act  of  giving  up 
rank  or  an  appointment.  (See  DISCHARGE.) 

RETAINERS.  All  sutlers  and  retainers  to  the  camp,  and  all 
persons  whatsoever,  serving  with  the  armies  of  the  United  States  in  the 
field,  though  not  enlisted  soldiers,  are  to  be  subject  to  orders  according 
to  the  rules  and  discipline  of  war  ;  (ART.  60.) 

RETREAT.  Retrograde  movement  before  an  enemy  ;  by  retreat 
is  also  understood  the  drum-beat  at  sunset. 

RETRENCHMENT— is  an  inner  defensible  line,  either  constructed 
in  the  original  design,  or  executed  on  the  spur  of  the  occasion,  to  cut 


504  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [RET. 

"off  a  breach,  or  other  weak  point ;  so  that  the  capture  of  the  latter  shall 
not  involve  that  of  the  retrenched  post. 

RETURNS.  Every  officer  who  shall  knowingly  make  a  false 
return  to  the  Department  of  War,  or  to  any  of  his  superior  officers, 
authorized  to  call  for  such  returns,  of  the  state  of  the  regiment,  troop, 
company,  or  garrison,  under  his  command ;  or  of  the  arms,  ammu- 
nition, clothing,  or  other  stores,  thereunto  belonging,  shall  on  conviction 
thereof  before  a  court-martial  be  cashiered  ;  (ART.  18.)  The  command- 
ing officer  of  every  regiment,  troop,  independent  company,  or  garri- 
son of  the  United  States,  shall,  in  the  beginning  of  every  month,  remit, 
through  the  proper  channels,  to  the  Department  of  War,  an  exact 
return  of  the  regiment,  troop,  independent  company,  or  garrison 
under  his  command,  specifying  the  names  of  the  officers  then  absent 
from  their  posts,  with  the  reasons  for,  and  the  time  of,  their  absence. 
And  any  officer  who  shall  be  convicted  of  having,  through  neglect  or 
design,  omitted  sending  such  returns,  shall  be  punished  according  to 
the  nature  of  his  crime,  by  the  judgment  of  a  general  court-martial ; 
(ART.  19.)  Disbursing  agents  shall  make  monthly  returns,  in  such 
forms  as  may  be*prescribed  by  the  treasury  department,  of  the  moneys 
received  and  expended  during  the  preceding  month,  and  of  the  unex- 
pended balance  in  their  hands ;  (Act  March  3,  1800.  See  ACCOUNT- 
ABILITY ;  ORDNANCE  DEPARTMENT.) 

REVEILLE.     Drum-beat  and  roll-call  at  daybreak. 

REVERSE.  The  reverse  flank  in  a  column  is  the  flank  at  the 
other  extremity  of  the  pivot  of  a  division. 

REVETMENTS.  The  interior  slopes  of  the  parapets  of  permanent 
and  field-works,  as  well  as  in  some  cases  the  sides  of  the  ditches  of  the 
latter,  require  revetments  to  enable  them  to  stand  at  that  slope  which 
is  necessary,  arid  to  endure  the  action  of  the  weather.  The  materials 
made  use  of  in  the  construction  of  field-revetments  are :  fascines,  ga- 
bions, hurdles,  sod,  sand-bags,  and  timber.  In  siege  operations,  and  in 
fact  in  all  operations  in  active  warfare,  vast  quantities  of  these  materials 
are  required,  and  are  daily  consumed,  in  the  construction  of  breast- 
works, parapets,  batteries,  magazines,  and  a  variety  of  miscellaneous 
purposes.  Large  quantities,  then,  must  be  prepared  or  manufactured  by 
the  ordinary  troops  of  the  line,  superintended  by  their  own  officers,  who 
should  be  acquainted  with  all  the  details  necessary  for  their  production. 

Fascines  are  strong,  close,  regular  fagots,  carefully  and  compactly 
made,  generally  of  green  brushwood.  They  should  be  straight,  cylin- 
drical, and  pliant ;  bound  round  with  good  thick,  unbroken  gads  or 
withes,  of  pliant  wood,  at  equal  distances,  the  knots  well  tied,  and  all 
in  one  line  ;  no  variation  in  girth  exceeding  1  inch  to  be  allowed. 


REV.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  505 

Fascines  are  of  several  kinds  and  various  dimensions,  according  to 
the  purposes  for  which  they  are  intended.  The  most  common  are  the 
long  fascines  or  saucissons,  18  feet  long,  9  inches  in  diameter,  about 
140  Ibs.  in  weight ;  such  a  fascine  can  be  made  by  five  men  in  one 
hour,  including  the  cutting  of  the  wood  when  at  hand.  Water  fascines, 
18  inches  in  diameter,  6  to  9  feet  long.  Trench  fascines,  4  or  5  feet 
long,  6  inches  in  diameter.  Sap  fagots,  3  feet  long,  9  inches  in  diam- 
eter, having  a  sharp-pointed  stake,  passed  longitudinally  through  the 
centre,  and  projecting  a  foot  or  so  beyond  the  extremity  of  the  fascine. 
To  make  good  fascines  requires  considerable  practice  and  much  care  and 
attention,  (Fig.  178.)  The  process  is  this  :  Stakes  are  driven  into  the 
%  FIG.  178. 


ground,  obliquely,  in  pairs,  so  that  the  stakes  in  each  pair  cross  at  the 
same  height  above  the  ground  about  3  feet,  where  they  are  firmly  bound 
together,  forming  a  row  of  trestles  each  in  shape  like  the  letter  X. 
These  trestles  should  be  placed  about  4  feet  apart  when  the  brushwood 
is  good ;  closer  together  when  it  is  bad.  Thus  5  trestles  at  least  will 
be  requisite  to  prepare  18-feet  fascines. 

A  choker  must  now  be  prepared.  This  is  made  by  fastening,  by  an 
iron  ring,  each  extremity  of  a  chain  about  4  feet  long,  to  an  ash  stake. 
Each  stake  is  4  feet  long,  and  the  point  where  the  chain  is  fastened  is 
about  18  inches  from  the  thicker  end.  Two  small  rings  are  attached 
to  the  chain  28^  inches  apart,  (equal  to  the  circumference  of  the  fascine,) 
and  equidistant  from  its  middle  point.  In  choking  the  fascine,  the 
middle  of  the  chain  is  placed  under  it,  and  the  ends  brought  over  and 
crossed  as  in  Fig.  179.  Two  men,  one  on  each  side,  then  bearing  on 
the  longer  arms  of  the  levers  tighten  the  chain,  and  compress  the  fas- 
cine to  the  proper  dimensions,  that  is,  until  the  rings  on  the  chain  meet. 
A  third  man  now  binds  the  fascine  as  close  as  possible  to  the  choker, 
with  a  strong  gad,  or  with  stout  spun  yarn,  when  the  choker  may  be 
removed  and  the  operation  repeated  at  the  proper  intervals,  generally 
18  inches.  For  withes  or  gads  to  bind  fascines,  very  straight  rods  must 
be  selected ;  they  should  be  5  feet  long,  not  thicker  at  the  thickest  part 
than  the  thumb,  nor  thinner  at  the  thinnest  than  the  little  finger.  To 
prepare  them  for  use,  place  the  thick  end  under  the  foot,  and  twist  the 


506 


MILITARY  DICTIONARY. 


[REV. 


rod  from  the  top  downwards,  by  which  the  rod  will  become  flexible 
and  capable  of  being  securely  knotted  without  fracture.     The  knot  to 

FIG.  179. 


be  formed  in  fastening  the  gad  round  the  fascine  is  shown  in  Fig.  180. 
To  make  the  fascine,  the  brushwood  is  laid  in  the  trestles,  the  longest 
arid  straightest  rods  being  kept  round  the  outside,  the  inferior  material 
in  the  middle.  The  proper  quantity  of  brushwood  having  been  thus 
carefully  arranged,  the  choker  is  applied  near  the  extremity  of  the  fas- 
cine, and  subsequently  at  intervals  of  18  inches  as  already  mentioned. 
The  ends  and  exterior  are  now  neatly  trimmed,  by  the  hand  saw  and 
billhook,  and  the  fascine  is  complete.  When  good  gads  or  withes  can- 
not be  procured,  stout,  well-tarred  spun-yarn  may  be  substituted  for 
them.  With  fascines  are  prepared  bundles  of  stakes,  called  fascine 
pickets,  in  the  proportion  of  six  to  each  fascine ;  they  should  be  4  feet 
long,  ^  inch  in  diameter,  and  be  cut  to  triangular  points. 

Slopes,  to  be  revetted 
with  fascines,  have  usually 
a  base  equal  to  one-fourth 
their  height.  The  fascines 
are  placed  horizontally 
one  over  another,  as  the 
work  is  built,  until  the 
whole  slope  is  covered  by 
one  layer  of  fascines.  Pick- 
ets are  driven  through 
each  fascine  to  secure  it  to  the  work,  and  these  are  sometimes  fastened  to 
other  pickets,  buried  vertically  in  the  mass  of  parapet,  as  shown  in  Fig. 


FIG.  ISO. 


FIG.  181. 


REV.] 


MILITARY  DICTIONARY. 


507 


181.  To  find  the  number  of  fascines  required  to  revet  any  slope, 
divide  the  length  of  the  slope  by  the  length  of  the  fascine,  and  the 
height  of  the  slope  by  the  diameter  of  the  fascine  :  these  two  quotients 
multiplied  together  will  be  the  requisite  number. 

Gabions  are  stout,  rough,  cylindrical  baskets,  open  at  top  and  bot- 
tom ;  they  are  made  of  various  dimensions  according  to  their  intended 
use.  Those  for  revetting  the  interior  slopes  of  parapets  are  usually  3 
feet  high  and  2  feet  in  diameter ;  strongly  and  somewhat  coarsely  made. 
Those  used  in  sapping  (called  sap  gabions)  have  about  the  same  dimen- 
sions, but  are  carefully  finished.  To  construct  a  gabion,  a  circle  of  22 
inches  diameter  must  be  traced  on  a  clean,  hard,  level  piece  of  ground, 
each  quarter  of  this  circla  is  then  divided  into  four  or  five  equal  parts, 
and  small  holes  made  at  the  points  of  division,  to  receive  straight  up- 
rights of  3^  feet  in  length,  around^which  the  withes  are  interwoven. 
Gabions  may  be  made  with  one,  two,  or  three  rods  woven  together 
about  the  uprights ;  when  two  rods  are  woven  together,  the  work  is 
called  pairing  ;  when  three,  waling.  The  last  gives  the  strongest  gabions. 
The  method  of  working  will  be  best  understood  by  reference  to  Fig. 

FIG.  182. 


FIG.  183. 


182.     Each  rod  passes  outside  two,  and  inside  one,  upright,  and  the 
three  are  twisted  together  like  a  rope. 

In  revetting  with  gabions,  a  base  is  first  made  for  them  at  right  angles 
to  the  slope,  so  that  when  standing  upon  this,  their 
surfaces  will  be  coincident  with  the  slope,  (Fig.  183). 
When  one  row  of  gabions  has  been  thus  placed,  and 
the  parapet  has  risen  as  high  as  their  upper  surfaces, 
a  row  of  fascines  is  laid  horizontally  upon  the  tops 
of  the  row  of  gabions.  Above  these  again  another 
row  of  gabions  is  placed  at  the  same  inclination  with 
the  former,  and  finally  another  row  of  fascines  com- 
pletes the  whole.  Two  rows  of  gabions  and  two  of 
fascines  are  required  for  the  revetment  of  an  interior 
slope,  of  the  usual  height,  without  a  banquette,  and  one  row  of  gabions 


508 


MILITARY  DICTIONARY. 


[REV. 


and  two  of  fascines  with  a  banquette ;  therefore,  in  the  former  case,  the 
number  of  gabions  required,  will  be  equal  to  the  number  of  feet  of 
crest  to  be  revetted,  and  in  the  latter  case  to  half  that  number.  The 
number  of  fascines,  in  either  case,  will  be  equal  to  twice  the  length  of 
the  slope  divided  by  the  length  of  a  fascine. 

Hurdles  (Fig.  184)  are  the  common  coarse  wicker  hurdles  made  for 
farming,  and  other  purposes,  usually  3  or  4  feet  high  and  6  to  9  feet  long. 
They  are  useful  in  temporary  works,  to  retain  earth  at  a  steep  slope,  for 
'  a  short  time.  When  thus  used,  they  should  be  secured  by  anchoring 
pickets.  Hurdles  are  moreover  useful,  to  form  a  dry  footing  in 
trenches,  during  wet  weather ;  in  the  passage  of  wet  ditches,  and  for 
many  similar  purposes.  Sods  or  turfs  are  used  for  the  formation  of 
the  interior  slopes  of  parapets,  and  the  cheeks  of  embrasures.  Sods 
should  be  cut  from  fine  close  turf,  with  thickly  matted  roots,  previously 
mown,  and  if  possible,  watered,  to  make  the  earth  adhere  more  closely 
to  the  roots  of  the  grass.  The  sods  are  laid,  with  the  grass  downwards, 
alternately  headers  and  stretchers,  like  bricks  in  a  wall.  Their  under 
or  upper  surfaces  should  be  perpendicular  to  the  slope  of  the  parapet, 
and  not  horizontal,  except  in  a  vertical  revetment,  and  each  sod  should 
be  fastened  to  those  beneath,  by  two  or  three  wooden  pegs.  Sod  work 
can  be  made  with  great  perfection,  and  is  very  durable.  The  arrange- 
ment of  the  sods  is  shown  in  plan  and  in  rear  elevation  in  Fig.  185,  and 
in  side  elevation  in  Fig.  186.  In  meadows,  the 
dimensions  of  sods  may  be  from  12  to  18  inches 
long,  12  inches  wide,  and  4  to  6  inches  thick. 

FIG.  185. 


FIG.  186. 


Fio.  184 


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^                {  -=-      <sjj             ^ 

^   V-    ml 

if  

-^ 

^ 

In  heath,  having  large  roots,  they  may  be  2  feet  long,  12  or  18  inches 
wide,  and  8  to  10  inches  thick.  To  find  the  number  of  sods  required  to 
revet  any  given  length  of  slope,  the  revetment  being  one  sod  thick : 


REV.] 


MILITARY  DICTIONARY. 


509 


FIG.  1ST. 


Divide  the  height  of  slope  by  thickness  of  sods,  for  the  number  of  rows. 
Divide  twice  the  length  of  the  slope  by  the  sum  of  the  length  and 
breadth  of  a  sod  for  the  number  in  one  row.  Multiply  these  two  quo- 
tients together,  for  the  whole. 

Sand-bags  are  coarse  canvas  bags,  of  a  capacity  sufficient  to  hold 
about  a  bushel  of  earth  ;  when  empty  they  occupy  only  a  small 
space,  and  are  frequently  of  great  use.  A  good  field-revetment  can  be 
built  with  filled  sand-bags,  laid  as  sods ;  such  a  revetment,  however,  is 
only  fit  for  temporary  purposes,  as  the  sand-bags  soon  rot ;  they  are 
unfit  for  lining  the  cheeks  of  embrasures,  as  the  flash  of  the  guns  speed- 
ily destroys  them.  In  rocky  positions,  it  is  sometimes  necessary  to 
construct  entire  batteries  and  parallels  with  filled  sand-bags.  In  Figs. 
187  and  188,  are  shown  a  section  of  a  para- 
pet revetted  with  sand-bags,  and  an  enlarged 
plan  of  the  same.  Many  of  the  British 
trenches  and  batteries  before  Sebastopol, 
owing  to  the  rocky  nature  of  the  ground, 
were  formed  of  sand-bags,  baskets,  casks, 
&c.,  filled  with  earth  brought  from  a  dis- 
tance. Sand-bags  are  used  in  great  num- 
bers, laid  on  the  superior  slopes  of  para- 
pets, to  form  loop-holes  for  riflemen. 

Timber  is  used  for  revetments,  in  par- 
ticular cases  only,  as  where  it  may  be  con- 
sidered advisable,  in  important  field-works, 
to  retain  the  escarp  of  the  ditch  at  a  steep 

slope.      In  this  case,  a  revetment    is   neces-  SAND-BAGS  SHOTTLD  BK  TARRED.  AND 

sary,  which  may  be  constructed  of  beams  or  UOLD  ONE  cumc  FOOT  01 
the  trunks  of  small  trees,  planted  3  or  4  feet  deep,  vertically  in  the 
ground  and  touching  each  other,  or  by  lining  the  surface  of  the  slope 
with  planks  secured  by  stout  posts,  3  or  4  feet  apart,  planted  several 
feet  in  the  ground,  find  there  fastened  to  heavy  horizontal  beams. 
The  strength  of  the  revetment  may  be  still  further  increased,  by  con- 
necting the  upper  extremities  of  the  posts  to  others  buried  under  the 
mass  of  the  rampart ;  (HYDE'S  Fortification.) 

REVIEW.  Prescribed  form  of  passing  troops  before  a  general 
officer,  an  inspector,  or  other  reviewing  personage. 

REVISION.  Where  an  officer,  who  orders  a  court-martial,  does 
not  approve  their  proceedings,  he  may,  by  the  custom  of  war,  return 
them  to  the  court  for  revision,  and  no  additional  evidence  can  be  taken 
on  such  revision  ;  (Houon.) 


FIG.  188. 


510  MILITARY  DICTIONARY. 

REWARD.  Thirty  dollars  are  paid  for  the  apprehension  of  de- 
serters. 

RICOCHET.  Guns  fired  with  a  small  charge  and  a  low 
elevation,  project  ricochet  shot,  which  merely  clear  a  parapet,  and 
thence  bound  along  a  rampart,  destroying  gun-carriages,  &c.  (See 
FIRING.) 

RIFLED  ORDNANCE.  Rifle-muskets  are  wholly  indebted  to 
the  elongated  projectile  for  their  efficiency  and  celebrity.  Elongated 
shot  possess,  when  their  axes  are  coincident  with  the  path  they  describe, 
the  properties  of  being  less  resisted  by  the  air,  having  longer  ranges 
and  greater  penetrating  power  than  spherical  projectiles  of  the  same 
diameter.  To  obviate  the  difficulty  and  loss  of  time  in  loading  ordi- 
nary rifles,  by  forcing  the  ball  into  the  barrel  by  repeated  blows  of 
the  ramrod  or  a  mallet,  on  account  of  which  that  arm  had  been  little 
used,  M.  Delvigne  proposed  that  the  bullet  should  have  sufficient  wind- 
age tp  enter  freely  into  the  barrel,  in  order  that,  when  stopped  by  the 
contraction  of  the  chamber  with  which  this  arm  was  furnished,  it  might 
be  forced  to  expand  and  enter  into  the  grooves,  on  receiving  a  few 
smart  blows ;  thus  the  piece  being  fired,  the  bullet  would  come  out  a 
forced,  or  rifle  ball,  without  having  been  forced  in.  But  this  ingenious 
contrivance  was  not  found  to  answer.  The  edge  of  the  chamber  on 
which  the  ball  lodged,  not  being  opposite  to  the  direction  of  the 
blow,  did  not  form  a  sufficient  support  upon  which  to  flatten  the  ball 
when  struck  by  the  ramrod,  and  thus  cause  the  bullet  to  expand ; 
whilst  portions  of  the  charge  of  powder  previously  poured  in,  hav- 
ing lodged  on  the  contraction,  cushioned  and  still  further  impeded 
the  expansion  of  the  shot ;  and  as,  obviously,  no  patch  could  be 
used,  the  grooves  were  liable  to  get  foul,  and  to  become  leaded,  to 
an  extent  which  could  not  be  effectually  obviated.  To  remedy  this 
defect,  Colonel  Thouvenin  proposed  in  1828  to  suppress  the  chamber, 
and  substitute  a  cylindrical  tige  or  pillar  of  steel,  screwed  into  the 
breech  in  the  centre  of  the  barrel,  so  that  the  bullet,  when  stopped  by, 
and  resting  upon  the  flat  end  of  the  pillar,  directly  opposite  to  the  side 
struck,  might  more  easily  be  flattened  and  forced  to  enter  the  grooves. 
But  here  another  defect  appeared.  The  pillar  occupying  a  large  portion 
of  the  centre  of  the  barrel,  and  the  charge  being  placed  in  the  annular 
space  which  surrounds  it,  the  main  force  of  the  powder,  instead  of 
taking  effect  in  the  axis  of  the  piece,  and  on  the  centre  of  the  projectile, 
acted  only  on  the  spherical  portion  of  the  bullet  which  lies  over  this 
annular  chamber,  arid  thus  the  ball,  receiving  obliquely  the  impulse 
of  the  charge,  was  propelled  with  diminished  force.  The  next  im- 


RIP.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  511 

provement,  which  was  proposed  by  M.  Delvigne,  was  to  make  the 
bottom  of  the  projectile  a  flat  surface ;  the  body  cylindrical,  and  to 
terminate  it  in  front  with  a  conical  point,  thus  diminishing  the  resist- 
ance of  the  air  comparatively  with  that  experienced  by  a  solid  of  the 
same  diameter  having  a  hemispherical  end.  The  form  of  the  projectile 
was,  therefore,  an  approximation  to  that  of  Newton's  solid  of  least  re- 
sistance. (See  PROJECTILE.)  In  1841  a  patent  was  obtained  by  Captain 
Tamisier  for  his  method  of  giving  steadiness  to  the  flight  of  cylindro- 
conical  shot,  by  cutting  three  sharp  circular  grooves  each  .28  inches 
deep,  on  the  cylindrical  part  of  the  shot,  by  which  the  resistance  of  the 
air  behind  the  centre  of  gravity  of  the  projectile  being  increased,  the 
axis  of  rotation  was  kept  more  steadily  in  the  direction  of  the  trajectory  ; 
the  grooves  being  to  this  projectile  what  the  feathers  are  to  the  arrow, 
and  the  stick  to  the  rocket. 

But  the  tige  musket  having  been  found  inconvenient  in  cleaning,  the 
pillar  liable  to  be  broken,  and,  after  firing  some  rounds,  the  operation 
of  ramming  down  so  fatiguing  to  the  men  as  to  make  them  unsteady 
in  taking  aim,  M.  Minie,  previously  distinguished  as  a  zealous  and  able 
advocate  for  restoring  the  rifle  to  the  service  in  an  improved  form,  pro- 
posed to  suppress  the  tige,  and  substitute  for  it  an  iron  cup,  b  (Fig. 
189,)  put  into  the  wider  end  of  a  conical  hollow,  a, 
made  in  the  shot :  this  cup  being  forced  further  in  by 
the  explosion  of  the  charge,  causes  the  hollow  cylindrical 
portion  of  the  shot  to  expand  and  fix  itself  in  the 
grooves,  so  that  the  shot  becomes  forced  at  the  moment 
of  discharge.  A  slip  of  cartridge-paper  is  wound  twice 
round  the  cylindrical  part  of  the  projectile,  so  that,  as 
the  latter  does  riot  become  forced  or'  rifled  till  the 
charge  is  fired,  it  fits  so  tightly  to  the  barrel  as  to  be 
free  from  any  motion  which  would  be  caused  by  the 
carriage  of  the  rifle  on  a  march,  or  by  its  being 
handled  before  the  shot  is  fired.  But  unless  the  cup  b 
(Fig.  189)  be  driven,  by  the  first  action  of  the  explosion  of  the  charge, 
so  far  into  the  conical  space  in  which  it  is  placed,  as  to  cause  the  lead  to 
enter  into  the  grooves  of  the  rifle  before  the  shot  moves,  there  will  be  no 
rotation — the  paper  wrapped  round  the  shot  not  sufficing  for  this  purpose. 
In  the  experiments  of  1850  it  was  found  that  the  hollow  part  of  the 
Minie  cylindro-conical  shot  was  very  frequently  separated  entirely 
from  the  conical  part  by  the  force  with  which  the  cup  was  driven  into 
the  hollow  part  of  the  shot,  and  sometimes  remained  so  firmly  fixed  in 
the  barrel  that  it  could  not  be  extracted ;  but  in  the  more  recent  trials 


512  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [RiF. 

with  shot  made  by  compression  and  with  better  lead,  no  such  failure 
occurred. 

While  efforts  were  being  made  in  France  to  augment  the  power  and 
accuracy  of  small-arms,  loaded  at  the  muzzle,  as  already  described,  M. 
Dreyse,  of  Sommerda,  in  Thuringia,  was  led  to  test  whether  the  incon- 
venience of  ramming  down  and  flattening  the  shot  might  not  be  got  rid 
of  by  loading  the  barrel  at  the  breech — an  old  project ;  and  he  suggested 
a  plan  for  this  purpose,  which  has  been  adopted  to  a  great  extent  in  the 
Prussian  army.  The  Prussian  rifled  musket  for  firing  cylindro-conical 
shot  is  loaded  at  the  breech,  and  is  designated  "  zundnadelgewehr,"  from 
the  ignition  of  the  charge  being  produced  by  passing  a  needle  through  the 
cartridge  to  strike  the  percussion-powder  placed  in  the  wooden  bottom, 
or  spiegel.  The  escape  of  gas  at  the  junction  of  the  chamber  and  barrel 
is  considered  by  all  as  a  great  objection  to  the  needle-prime  musket : 
it  is  stated  that  the  point  of  the  igniting  needle  soon  becomes  furred,  so 
that  it  is  difficult,  and,  after  a  time,  impossible,  to  draw  it  back  by  the 
thumb.  The  Prussians,  however,  appear  to  be  quite  confident  of  the 
superiority  of  the  latter  over  other  rifle-muskets ;  their  government  is 
said  to  have  caused  60,000  stand  of  these  arms  to  be  executed,  and  at 
least  half  as  many  more  are  ordered.  Their  fusiliers,  who  are  armed 
with  the  needle-prime  musket,  have  also  a  short  sword,  with  a  cross 
hilt :  this  they  plant  in  the  ground  ;  and,  lying  down,  they  use  the  hilt 
as  a  rest  for  the  purpose  of  taking  a  steady  aim. 

It  is,  no  doubt,  in  some  respects,  an  important  advantage  in  the 
Prussian  rifles,  that  they  may  be  loaded  more  quickly  than  the  ordinary 
musket  or  rifle ;  but  rifle  actions  are  generally  decided,  not  by  mere 
rapidity  of  fire,  but  by  each  soldier  taking  time  to  use  his  arm  in  the 
most  efficient  manner  possible.  Although  the  use  of  the  rifle  was  sus- 
pended in  the  French  armies  throughout  the  whole  of  the  general  war 
(1704-1815,)  yet  the  French  infantry,  armed  with  the  common  musket, 
were  well  trained  to  act  en  tirailleur, and  showed  great  aptitude  for  that 
kind  of  service.  Good  patterns  having  been  obtained  of  the  Delvigne 
carabine  a  tige,  the  French  and  the  Belgian  Minie  rifles,  experiments 
were  made  at  Woolwich  in  1851  with  these  three  arms  and  with  Lan- 
caster's pillar-breech  rifle,  in  order  to  test  their  relative  merits  in  firing 
at  a  target  6  feet  square,  at  400  yards'  distance.  The  results  of  these 
experiments  fully  established  the  peculiar  advantages  of  M.  Minie's 
method  of  quick  loading,  and  forcing  the  shot  into  the  rifled  state,  and  a 
large  supply  of  what  has  been  called  the  regulation  Minie  musket  was 
ordered.  The  form  of  its  projectile,  which  is  simply  conoidal,  is  given 
in  Fig.  190  annexed. 


RlF.] 


MILITARY  DICTIONARY. 


513 


FIG.  190. 


Mr.  Lancaster,  who  invented  the  ordnance  with  an  elliptical  bore, 
spirally  formed,  and  the  pillar-breech  rifle,  proposed  also  a  description 
of  musket  having  a  bore 
of  a  similar  kind.  No 
grooves  are  cut  in  the 
interior  surface  of  the 
barrel ;  but  in  'a  trans- 
verse section,  the  bore 
has  the  form  of  an  el- 
lipse of  small  eccen- 
tricity, being  freed  at  . 
the  breech  :  the  projec- 
tile is  cylindro-conoidal,  with  a  circular  base,  and,  when  heated  by 
the  fired  gunpowder,  it  expands  so  far  as  to  take  a  form  correspond- 
ing to  the  elliptical  section  of  the  bore.  The  bore,  being  a  continuous 
spiral,  fulfills  the  object  of  grooves,  and  causes  the  shot,  in  passing 
along  it,  to  acquire  a  rotatory  motion  on  its  axis.  The  spiral  is  not 
uniform  in  its  whole  length,  but  has  what  is  called  by  Americans  a 
gaining  twist  or  an  increasing  spiral.  The  advantages  of  this  rifle  are 
supposed  to  be — greater  accuracy  of  practice,  less  recoil  than  other 
muskets  have,  and  no  tendency  to  cause  the  rifle  to  turn  over 
sideways. 

Jn  December,  1853,  a  trial  was  made  at  Hythe  of  Mr.  Lancaster's 
elliptically-bored  muskets  freed  at  the  breech,  in  order  to  compare  their 
shooting  with  that  of  a  rifle-musket  of  .577  bore,  having  three  grooves 
regularly  spiral  of  one  turn  in  6  ft.  6  in.,  which  was  manufactured  at 
Enfield  in  the  same  year ;  the  report  of  this  trial  wras  in  favor  of  the 
Enfield  rifle,  Lancaster's  muskets  evincing  a  strong  tendency  to  strip, 
and  at  the  longer  ranges  this  defect  was  very  marked. 

In  1858,  Mr.  Whitworth  of  Manchester  produced  a  musket  having 
a  hexagonal  bore  of  a  spiral  figure,  making  one  turn  in  20  in.,  by  which 
the  projectiles — either  of  hexagonal  or  cylindro-conoidal  form — in 
passing  along  the  barrel  acquire  a  swift  and  steady  rotation  on  their 
axes.  This  species  of  rifle  has  been  found  considerably  superior  in 
accuracy  of  shooting  to  the  Enfield  rifle,  which  has  been  adopted  in 
England. 

In  order  to  test  the  relative  merits  of  these  two  kinds  of  weapons,  a 
series  of  trials  were  made  at  Hythe,  under  the  direction  of  Colonel  Hay, 
the  able  superintendent  of  the  school  of  musketry  at  that  place,  and  the 
results  are  stated  in  the  following  table.  The  rifles  were  fired  from 
rests,  and  ten  or  twenty  rounds  were  fired  from  each  at  the  several 
33 


514 


MILITARY  DICTIONARY. 


[RlF. 


distances.  The  numbers  in  the  fourth  column  express,  in  feet  and  deci- 
mals, the  means  and  the  distances  of  the  ten  or  twenty  points  of  impact 
on  the  target,  from  a  nearly  central  point  of  the  group  in  each  trial. 

TABLE  SHOWING  THE  RESULTS  OF  EXPERIMENTS  WITH  THE  "  WHITWORTH  '" 
AND  "ENFIELD"  RIFLES. 


Description  of  Rifle. 

Distance  in 
yards. 

Angle  of 
elevation. 

Mean  radial 
deviation. 

Eemarks. 

Enfield  

600 

1    32 

Feet. 
2.°4 

Whitworth  

1    15 

.37 

Enfield   

800 

2  45 

4  20 

Whitworth  

2  22 

1  00 

. 

Enfield 

1  100 

4  12 

8  04 

3     8 

2.62 

Enfield 

1  400 

(  Shooting  so  wild,  no 

Whitworth  

5     0 

4  G2 

{      diagram  taken. 

Enfield 

I  880 

Not  tried 

Whitworth  

6  40 

11  02 

The  superiority  of  the  Whitworth  rifle  in  accuracy  of  fire  is  hence 
manifest ;  and  it  may  be  added  that,  from  its  form,  the  bore  is  less 
liable  to  be  worn  than  that  of  any  grooved  rifle.  As  the  projectile  may 
be  made  harder,  it  will,  consequently,  have  greater  penetrating  power  ; 
and,  in  fact,  the  Whitworth  projectile  went  through  35  half-inch  planks 
of  elm  wood,  and  remained  in  a  bulk  of  solid  oak  beyond,  while  the 
Enfield  projectile  went  through  only  12  such  planks. 

Till  within  the  last  twenty  years,  no  sight  was  considered  necessary 
for  a  common  musket — the  stud  at  the  muzzle  being  sufficient  for  the 
purpose  of  taking  aim.  When  percussion-arms  were  first  introduced, 
a  fixed  block-sight  for  120  yards  was  adopted ;  and  subsequently  a 
block-sight  for  200  yards  and  a  leaf  for  300  yards  were  affixed  to  the  two- 
grooved  rifle.  At  present  every  English  rifled  musket  is  furnished  with 
a  complicated  and  delicate  sight.  The  rifles  used  by  the  Russians  at  the 
battle  of  the  Alma  were  of  good  construction  ;  they  have  two  grooves, 
and  carry  conoidal  shot,  each  weighing  767  grains,  equivalent  in  weight 
to  a  spherical  bullet  of  9  to  the  pound.  They  are  flat  at  the  base,  and 
have  projections  at  the  sides  corresponding  with  the  grooves  of  the 
musket.  The  great  weight  of  these  projectiles  is  very  objectionable; 
the  soldiers  who  carry  them  must  be  very  much  distressed  by  the  loads 
in  their  pouches,  or  these  must  contain  a  smaller  number  of  shot  than 
are  usually  carried.  The  Russian  missile  is  more  pointed  than  the  English 
Minie  shot,  and  no  part  being  cylindrical,  it  must  be  liable  to  irregular 
Xnovements  in  the  barrel,  and,  consequently,  to  unsteadiness  in  its  flight. 


RIF.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  515 

It  has  the  designation  of  a  Minie  shot,  a  term  now  generally  but  im- 
properly applied  to  all  elongated  shot  for  musketry,  since  they  differ 
from  one  another  both  in  form  and  weight. 

The  rifle  used  in  the  French  service  up  to  the  commencement  of  the 
late  Italian  war  consisted  only  of  the  carabine  a  tige,  and  these  were  given 
only  to  special  corps  of  riflemen.  However  eminent  the  authority  of 
Colonel  Minie  on  the  subject  of  rifles,  his  method  of  rifling  was  never 
introduced  into  the  French  service.  Throughout  the  Crimean  war,  the 
French  infantry  of  the  line  were  armed  with  the  smooth-bored  regula- 
tion musket.  Some  time  previous  to  the  Italian  campaign  the  whole 
of  the  French'  infantry  had  their  old  muskets  rifled,  and  conical  shot 
introduced — the  rifling  principle  being  a  triangular  hollow  cut  in  the 
bottom  of  the  shot,  without  any  cup,  as  in  the  Minie  system.  The 
efficient  range  did  not  exceed  600  yards,  and  was  very  inaccurate  be- 
yond 400  yards.  This  imperfect  measure,  as  admitted  by  the  French 
authorities,  hardly  kept  pace  with  the  general  improvement  in  small- 
arms  ;  but  they  were  restricted  by  considerations  of  economy,  which 
did  not  admit  of  any  general  alteration  of  the  muskets  in  store.  Thus 
all  the  French  infantry  during  the  Italian  campaign  used  these  defective 
rifled  muskets,  with  the  exception  of  the  chasseurs,  who  retained  the 
carabine  a  tige,  the  range  of  which  was  far  superior  to  other  French 
rnusket  rifles. 

In  1846,  iron  rifled  cannon,  loaded  at  the  breech,  were  invented  by 
Major  Cavalli  and  Baron  WahrendorfF,  for  the  purpose  of  firing  cylin- 
dro-conical  and  cylindro-conoidal  shot.  In  these  guns  the  mechanical 
contrivances  for  securing  the  breech,  are  very  superior  to  the  rude  pro- 
cesses of  earlier  times ;  yet  it  appears  doubtful  whether  or  not,  even 
now,  they  are  sufficiently  strong  to  insure  safety  when  high  charges  are 
used  in  long  continued  firing.  The  length  of  the  Cavalli  gun  is  8  feet 
10.3  inches ;  it  weighs  66  cwt.,  and  its  calibre  is  6£  inches.  Two 
grooves  are  cut  spirally  along  the  bore,  each  of  them  making  about 
half  a  turn  in  the  length,  which  is  6  feet  9  inches.  The  chamber,  which 
is  cylindrical,  is  11.8  inches  long  and  7.008  inches  diameter. 

In  the  summers  of  1853  and  1854,  trials  were  made  at  a  spot 
between  Leiny  and  Cirie,  in  Piedmont,  of  a  rifled  Cavalli  gun,  loaded 
at  the  breech,  and  with  various  improvements  in  the  apparatus 
for  loading  and  pointing.  The  gun  carried  cylindro-ogivale  shells, 
each  weighing  30  kilogrammes,  (66  Ibs.  3  oz.  English,)  and  provided 
with  a  metal  fuze.  The  shells  were  fired  with  charges  equal  to  one- 
tenth  of  the  weight  of  the  projectile,  at  elevations  varying  from  5  to 
25  degrees.  The  firing  was  directed  against  a  target  about  10  feet 


516  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [RiF. 

square,  and  placed  at  the  distance  of  3,050  yards  from  the  gun.  In  ten 
trials,  at  an  elevation  of  10  degrees,  Ithe  mean  of  the  ranges  obtained 
was  3,058  yards ;  the  means  of  the  deviations  were  to  the  right  3.4 
yards,  and  to  the  left  3.39  yards.  After  one  rebound  the  shot  went 
to  the  distance  of  4,096  yards  from  the  gun,  with  a  deviation  to  the 
right  equal  to  126  yards.  The  mean  time  of  flight  was  11  seconds. 
In  fifteen  trials,  at  an  elevation  of  15  degrees,  the  mean  of  the  ranges 
was  4,128  yards ;  the  mean  deviations  were,  to  the  right  11  yards,  and 
to  the  left  1  foot  11  inches.  The  time  of  flight  was  16  seconds.  In 
fifteen  trials,  at  an  elevation  of  20  degrees,  the  mean  of  the  ranges  was 
4,917  yards;  while  the  mean  deviations  were,  to  the  right  6  yards  2 
feet,  and  to  the  left  10  yards.  The  time  of  flight  was  19  seconds. 
Lastly,  in  ten  trials,  at  an  elevation  of  25  degrees,  the  mean  of  the 
ranges  was  5,563  yards,  while  the  deviations  were,  to  the  right  3  yards, 
and  to  the  left  4  yards.  These  trials  were  considered  highly  satisfactory  ; 
and  no  less  so  were  some  experiments  also  made  with  metal  fuzes,  and 
with  a  charge  equal  to  one-thirtieth  of  the  weight  of  the  projectile;  the 
first  shell  so  fired  struck  against  one  of  the  beams  of  the  target,  and 
tore  away  splinters  of  the  wood  varying  in  length  from  1  ft.  9  in.  to 
1  ft.  11  in.  The  bursting-charge  appeared  to  be  fired  a  little  "before  the 
moment  of  the  shell  falling. 

Baron  Wahrendorf  invented  a  24-pounder  gun,  which  is  also  to  be 
loaded  at  the  breech.  It  is  mounted  on  a  cast-iron  traversing  carriage  ; 
and,  taking  little  room,  it  appears  to  be  very  fit  for  casemates.  The 
upper  part  of  the  carriage  has,  on  each  side,  the  form  of  an  inclined 
plane,  which  rises  towards  the  breech,  and  terminates  near  either  ex- 
tremity in  a  curve  whose  concavity  is  upwards.  Previously  to  the  gun 
being  fired  the  trunnions  rest  near  the  lower  extremity ;  and  on  the 
discharge  taking  place,  the  gun  recoils  on  the  trunnions,  along  the 
ascending  plane,  when  its  motion  is  presently  stopped.  After  the 
recoil,  the  gun  descends  on  the  plane  to  its  former  position,  where  it 
rests  after  a  few  short  vibrations.  The  axis  of  the  gun  constantly  re- 
tains a  parallel  position,  so  that  the  pointing  does  not  require  readjust- 
ment after  each  round.  The  gun  was  worked  easily  by  eight  men, 
apparently  without  any  strain  on  the  carriage,  With  a  charge  of  8 
Ibs.,  and  with  solid  shot,  the  recoil  was  about  3  feet,  and  the  trunnions 
did  not  reach  the  upper  extremity  of  the  inclined  plane,  though  the 
surface  was  greased. 

THE  ARMSTRONG  GUN. — In  the  latter  part  of  the  year  1854,  Mr. 
William  George  Armstrong  (now  Sir  William  George  Armstrong) 
submitted  to  the  Duke  of  Newcastle,  then  Minister  at  War,  a  proposal 


RlF.] 


MILITARY  DICTIONARY. 


517 


for  a  rifled  field-piece  on  a  new  principle,  and  undertook,  with  his 
grace's  authority,  to  construct  a  gun  upon  the  plan  he  had  suggested. 
This  gun  was  completed  early  in  the  following  year,  (1855,)  and  became 
the  subject  of  a  long  course  of 
experiments,  which  ultimately 
led  to  the  general  introduction 
of  the  weapon  into  the  British 
service.  Fig.  191  shows  the 
exterior  of  a  12-pounder  Arm- 
strong gun,  such  as  is  now  used 
for  field  artillery,  and  also  an 
end  view  of  the  same,  showing 
the  hole  through  the  breech- 
screw  for  loading  and  sponging 
the  gun.  These  guns  can  be 
fired  with  careful  aim  twice  in 
a  minute,  andvfully  three  times 
per  minute  without  aim. 

The  following  description  of 
the  Armstrong  gun,  as  now 
manufactured,  was  given  by  Sir 
William  in  the  discussion  which 
recently  took  place  at  the  Civil 
Engineers'  Institute. 

"  The  gun  is  composed  wholly 
of  wrought  iron,  and  the  promi- 
nent feature  in  its  manufacture 
is  the  application  of  the  material 
in  the  form  of  long  bars,  which 
are  coiled  into  spiral  tubes,  and 
then  welded  by  forging.  For 
the  convenience  of  manufacture, 
these  tubes  are  made  in  lengths 
of  from  2  to  3  feet,  which  are 
united  together,  when  necessary, 
by  welded  joints.  From  the 
muzzle  to  the  trunnions  the  gun 
is  made  in  one  thickness,  and  is 
therefore,  so  far  as  that  portion 
is  concerned,  strictly  analogous 
to  the  barrel  of  a  fowling-piece. 


518 


MILITARY  DICTIONARY. 


[RlF. 


FIG.  192. 


Behind  the  trunnions  two  additional  layers  of  material  are  applied.  The 
external  layer  consists,  like  the  inner  tube,  of  spiral  coils  ;  but  the  inter- 
mediate layer  is  composed  of  iron  slabs  bent  into  a  cylindrical  form  and 
welded  at  the  edges.  The  reason  for  this  distinction  is,  that  the  inter- 
mediate layer  has  chiefly  to  sustain  the  thrust  on  the  breech,  and  it  is 
therefore  desirable  that  the  fibre  of  the  iron  should  be  in  the  direction  of 
the  length,  while  elsewhere  in  the  gun  it  is  more  advantageously  applied 
in  the  transverse  direction.  The  back  end  of 
the  gun  receives  the  breech-screw,  which  presses 
against  a  movable  plug,  or  stopper  for  closing 
the  bore.  This  screw  is  hollow,  and  when  the 
stopper  is  removed,  the  passage  through  the 
screw  may  be  regarded  as  a  prolongation  of 
the  bore.  The  screw  is  turned  by  means  of  a 
handle,  which  is  free  to  move  through  half  a 
circle  before  it  begins  to  turn  the  screw.  It 
has  thus  a  certain  amount  of  run,  which  enables 
it  to  act  as  a  hammer,  both  in  tightening  and 
slackening  the  screw.  The  bore  is  3  inches  in 
diameter,  and  is  rifled  with  thirty-four  small 
grooves,  having  the  driving  side  rectangular 
and  radial,  and  the  opposite  side  rounded. 
The  bore  is  widened  at  the  breech  end  one- 
eighth  of  an  inch,  so  that  the  shot  may  enter 
freely  and  choke  at  the  commencement  of  the 
grooves. 

"The  projectile  (Fig.  192)  consists  of  a 
very  thin  cast-iron  shell,  the  interior  of  which 
is  composed  of  forty-two  segment-shaped  pieces 
of  cast  iron,  built  up  in  layers  around  a  cylin- 
drical cavity  in  the  centre,  which  contains  the 
bursting-charge,  and  the  concussion  arrange- 
ment. The  exterior  of  the  shell  is  thinly  coated 
with  lead,  which  is  applied  by  placing  the  shell 
in  a  mould,  and  pouring  melted  lead  around  it. 
12-PDB.  SEGMENT  sHELi.  The  lead  is  also  allowed  to  percolate  among 

A  A.  The  cast-iron  case  or  shell  * 

??•  Jhe  segment  shot  in  layers,  the  segments,  so  as  to  fill  up  the  interstices, 
the  central  cavity  being  kept  open  by  the 
insertion  of  a  steel  core.  In  this  state  the 


0  C.  The  lead  covering. 

D.  The     central    cavity    for 

bursting-tube,  and  con- 
cussion-fuze. 

E.  Screw  for  time-fuze. 


projectile  is  so  compact  that  it  may  be  fired 
through   six    feet   of  hard   timber  without   injury ;    while   its  resist- 


RI.F.] 


MILITARY  DICTIONARY. 


510 


FIG.  193. 


ance  to  a  bursting  force  is  so  small,  that  less  than  one  ounce  of  powder 
is  sufficient  to  break  it  in  pieces.  When  this  projectile  is  to  be  used 
as  a  shot,  it  requires  no  preparation,  but  the  expediency  of  using  it  in 
any  case  otherwise  than  as  a  shell,  is  much  to  be  doubted.  To  make 
it  available  as  a  shell,  the  bursting-tube,  the  concussion  arrangement, 
arid  the  time-fuze,  are  all  to  be  inserted;  the  bursting-tube  entering 
first  and  the  time-fuze  being  screwed 
in  at  the  apex.  If  then  the  time-fuze 
be  correctly  adjusted,  the  shell  will 
burst  when  it  reaches  within  a  few 
yards  of  the  object ;  or,  failing  that, 
it  will  burst  by  the  concussion  ar- 
rangement, when  it  strikes  the  object, 
or  grazes  the  ground  near  it.  Again, 
if  it  be  required  to  act  as  "  canister," 
upon  an  enemy  close  to  the  gun,  the 
regulator  of  the  time-fuze  must  be 
turned  to  zero  on  the  scale,  and  the 
shell  will  then  burst  at  the  instant 
of  quitting  the  gun.  In  every  case 
the  shell  on  bursting  spreads  into  a 
cloud  of  pieces,  each  having  a  for- 
ward velocity  equal  to  that  of  the 
shel\  at  the  instant  of  fracture.  The 
explosion  of  one  of  these  shells  in 
a"  closed  chamber,  where  the  pieces 
could  be  collected,  resulted  in  the 
following  fragments  : — 106  pieces 
of  cast  iron,  99  pieces  of  lead,  and 
12  pieces  of  fuze,  &c. ;  making  in 
all  217  pieces.  The  construction  of 
the  time-fuze  and  the  concussion  ar- 
rangement are  described  as  fol- 
lows : — The  body  of  the  time-fuze 
(Fig.  193)  is  made  of  a  mixture  of 
lead  and  tin,  cast  to  the  required 
form,  in  a  mould.  The  fuze-compo- 
sition is  stamped  into  a  channel  form- 
ing nearly  an  entire  circle  round  the 
body  of  the  fuze,  and  is  afterwards  papered  and  varnished  on  the  external 
surfaces.  As  the  shell  fits  accurately  into  the  gun,  there  is  no  passage 


TIME-FUZB. 

A  A.  The  body  of  the  fuze. 

B  B.  Groove  containing  fuze-composition. 

C.  The  detonator. 

D.  The  striker. 

E  E.  The  holding  pin.  , 

F  F.  The  flame  passage. 

G  G.  Revolving  cover,  or  regulator. 

H.  Igniting  aperture. 

I.  Chamber  for  priming-powder. 
K  K.  Tightening  cap. 


520 


MILITARY  DICTIONARY. 


[RlF. 


of  flame  by  which  the  fuze  could  be  ignited.  That  effect  is  therefore 
produced  in  the  following  manner :  A  small  quantity  of  detonating 
composition  is  deposited  at  the  bottom  of  the  cylindrical  cavity  in  the 
centre  of  the  fuze,  and  above  this  is  placed  a  small  weight,  or  striker 
terminating  in  a  sharp  point  presented  downwards.  This  striker  is 
secured  in  its  place  by  a  pin,  which,  when  the  gun  is  fired,  is  broken 
by  reason  of  the  vis  inertice  of  the  striker.  The  detonator  is  then  in- 
stantly pierced  by  the  point,  and  thus  fired.  The  flame  thus  produced 
passes  into  an  annular  space,  formed  within  the  revolving  cover,  which 
rests  on  the  upper  surface  of  the  fuze-composition,  and  from  this  annular 
space,  it  is  directed  outwards,  through  an  opening,  so  as  to  impinge  on 
and  to  ignite  the  fuze-composition,  at  any  required  part  of  the  circle. 
The  fuze,  thus  ignited,  burns  in  both  directions,  but  only  takes  effect 
at  one  extremity,  where  it  communicates  with  a  small  magazine  of 
powder  in  the  centre.  The  fuze  is  surrounded  by  a  scale-paper,  grad- 
uated to  accord  with  the  elevation  of  the  gun,  so  that  when  the  range 
of  a  distant  object  is  found  by  trial,  it  is  only  necessary  to  turn  the 
igniting  aperture  of  the  cover  to  the  point  on  the  fuze-scale  correspond- 
ing with  the  degrees  and  minutes  of  elevation  on  the  tangent-scale. 
This  fuze  has  the  advantage  of  being  capable  of  adjustment  and  re- 
adjustment any  number  of  times,  before  entering  the  gun,  and  the 
officer  in  command  has  the  opportunity  of 
seeing  that  it  is  correctly  set,  at  the  moment 
of  being  used. 

"The  concussion-fuze  (Fig.  194)  is  on  nearly 
the  same  principle.  A  striker  with  a  point, 
presented  upwards,  is  secured  in  a  tube  by  a 
wire  fastening,  which  is  broken  on  the  firing 
of  the  gun  ;  the  striker,  being  then  liberated, 
recedes  through  a  small  space,  and  rests  at 
the  bottom  of  the  tube,  but  as  soon  as  the 
shell  meets  with  any  check  in  its  motion,  the 
striker  runs  forward  and  pierces  the  detonator 
in  front,  by  which  means  the  bursting-charge 
is  ignited.  The  process  of  loading  is  effected 
by  placing  the  projectile,  with  the  cartridge 
and  a  greased  wad,  in  the  hollow  of  the  breech- 
screw,  and  thrusting  them  either  separately  or 
B  £  ^e  holdin?  wire-  collectively,  by  a  rammer,  into  the  bore  oppo- 

C.  The  detonator.  J  '     J 

D.  The  chamber  for  priming-     site;  (Fig.  195.)    The  stopper  is  then  dropped 
E  E.  Flame  passages.  into  its  place,  and  secured  by  half  a  turn  of  the 
screw.     The  gun  is  fired  by  the  ordinary  friction-tube,  the  vent  being 


FIG.  194. 


ElF.] 


MILITARY  DICTIONARY. 


521 


\ 


contained  in  the  stopper.    The  whole  operation  ffi 

is  simple,  and  can  be  very  rapidly  performed.  | 

"  In  the  early  guns  it  was  necessary  that  I 

the  portion  of  the  bore  which  was  occupied  - 

by  the  shot  should  be  perfectly  clean,  other-  o^ 

wise   the   shot   would   not   always   enter  its  |f 

place.     A  wet   sponge  had   therefore   to   be  &T 

used;    but  in  the  new  guns,  now  issued  for  §• 

service,  a   slight   alteration   in   the  bore  has  «! 

enabled   a  greased  wad  to  be  employed  with  g 

perfect  effect,  in  substitution  of  the  wet  sponge.  »" 

The  gun  can  now  be  fired  with  great  rapidity,  ~ 

and  apparently  for  any  length  of  time,  with-  jr 

out  being  sponged  at  all.      The  reason  for  ? 

making  the  vent  in  the  stopper  is,  that,  since  ET 

the  chief  wear  of  the  gun  always  takes  place  3- 

at  the  vent,  it  is  better  to  make  it  in  a  part  g 

which    can    be    easily  replaced,  than   in   the  | 

body  of  the   gun   itself.      The  breech-screw  jj? 

being  internal   is    never   exposed   to   injury,  j? 

nor  can  drifting  sand,  or  dust,  ever  reach  the  ~ 

oiled  surfaces,  so  as  to  impede  the  action  of  "^ 

the  screw  by  adhering  to  the  lubrication.    The  £ 

screw  is  of  small  diameter,  and  the  few  inches  |. 

of  extra  length  in  the   gun,  required  for  its  g 

reception,  cannot  be  of  any  importance,  con-  £ 

sidering  that  any  further  reduction  of  weight  <q 

is  prohibited  by  recoil.     The  stopper  is  se-  | 

cured  from  falling  by  a  chain,  but  in  practice  3 

it  is  preferred  to  leave  it  loose.      The  man  -^ 

who  fires  the  gun  lifts  the  stopper  after  each  * 

round,  and  in  so  doing  only  occupies  time  ® 

that  would  otherwise  be  vacant.     A  duplicate  |. 
stopper  accompanies  each  gun.     The  form  of 

carriage  which  was  originally  used,  is  repre-  g 
sented  in  the  following  diagram,  (Fig.  196.) 
It  was  fitted  with  a  recoil   slide,  which  was 

afterwards  abandoned  for  field  guns ;    but  it  g 

has  been  decided  that  the  principle  should  be  <g 
retained  in  ship  guns,  (Fig.  197.)    It  is  a  point 
of  great  importance,  that  a  breech-loading  gun  should  be  self-acting,  in 
recovering  its  position  after  recoil,  so  as  to  obviate  the  employment  of 


MILITARY  DICTIONARY. 
FIG.  196. 


[RlF. 


so  many  men  to  run  out  the  gun.  A  traversing  movement  was  originally 
applied  to  the  field-carriages,  as  shown  in  the  diagram,  and  was  found 
to  afford  great  facility  in  laying  the  gun.  A  very  neat  modification  of 
this  traversing  movement  has  recently  been  contrived  in  the  Royal 
Carriage  Department,  and  adopted  for  the  field  carriages." 

The  greatest  range  which  has  yet  been  attained  with  the  Armstrong 
gun  is  9,175  yards,  or  nearly  5^  miles.  The  conditions  which  are 
chiefly  conducive  to  an  extended  range  are,  a  small  bore  and  a  very 
lengthened  projectile ;  but  the  more  a  projectile  assumes  the  character 
of  a  bolt,  the  less  suitable  it  becomes  for  a  shell.  Sir  William  Arm- 
strong, therefore,  deprecates  any  further  increase  of  range  at  expense 
of  efficiency  in  the  shell ;  and,  indeed,  it  may  well  be  doubted  whether 
an  ex  tension  of  range  beyond  a  distance  of  five  miles  would  prove  of  any 
practical  utility.  The  following  is  an  example  of  practice  with  th'e 
Armstrong  12-pounder  field-gun  of  8  cwt.,  at  an  angle  of  5°  and  with 
a  charge  of  1  Ib.  8  oz. 


No. 

Eange. 

Deflection. 

Left. 

Eight. 

1          

Yards. 
1920        

....      1   ft  

2 

1910 

i    ft       

3         

1909 

In 

line. 

4         

1923       

1  ft      

5         

1945 

3  ft 

6         

1923       

3  ft 

7 

1906 

3  ft 

8 

1911       

3  ft. 

9         ..!... 

1903       

2  ft 

10         

1921       

4  ft  
2  ft  
6  ft  

11         

1918       

12         

1924       

RIF.] 


MILITARY  DICTIONARY 


524  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [RiF. 

The  above  practice  was  made  with  the  ordinary  shell  adapted  for 
this  gun,  and  the  minimum  charge.  By  increasing  the  charge,  and 
using  a  longer  projectile,  the  same  range  is  attained  with  less  elevation, 
but  the  recoil  becomes  too  severe  upon  the  carriage  for  long  continued 
firing.  The  projectiles,  as  now  used  for  these  guns,  are  in  all  cases 
made  of  cast  iron,  thinly  coated  with  lead,  and,  being  of  somewhat 
larger  diameter  than  the  bore,  the  lead  is  crushed  into  the  grooves ;  by 
means  of  which  the  necessary  rotation  is  given,  while  all  shake  and  wind- 
age are  prevented.  The  projectile  for  field-service  admits  of  being  used 
indifferently  as  solid  shot,  shrapnell  shells,  or  canister  shot.  It  is  com- 
posed of  separate  pieces,  so  compactly  bound  together  that  it  has  been 
fired  through  a  mass  of  oak  timber  9  feet  in  thickness  without  sustaining 
fracture.  When  used  as  a  shell  it  divides  into  the  number  of  pieces  of  iron, 
lead,  and  fuze,  stated  in  p.  519.  It  combines  the  principle  of  the  shrapnell 
and  of  the  percussion  shell :  that  is,  it  may  be  made  to  explode  either 
as  it  approaches  the  object  or  as  it  strikes  it.  The  shock  which  the 
projectile  receives  in  the  gun  puts  the  percussion  arrangement  as  it  were 
from  half-cock  to  full-cock,  and  it  then  becomes  so  delicate  that  it  will 
burst  by  striking  even  a  bundle  of  shavings.  It  may  also  be  made  to 
explode  at  the  instant  of  leaving  the  gun,  in  which  case  the  pieces  pro- 
duce the  usual  effect  of  grape  or  canister,  For  breaching  purposes  or 
for  bursting  in  the  side  of  a  ship,  a  different  construction  of  shell  is 
adopted.  The  object  in  that  case  being  to  introduce  the  largest  possible 
charge  of  powder,  the  projectile  used  is  simply  a  hollow  shot,  and  from 
its  length  and  form  is  capable  of  containing  a  much  larger  bursting 
charge  than  is  compatible  with  a  spherical  form  of  the  same  diameter. 
The  largest  gun  which  has  yet  been  completed  upon  Sir  William  Arm- 
strong's principle  is  one  of  65  cwt.,  which,  although  only  designed  to 
throw  a  projectile  of  80  Ibs.,  has  been  frequently  tried  with  a  shot 
weighing  upwards  of  100  Ibs. 

Early  in  the  course  of  his  experiments,  Sir  William  Armstrong's 
attention  was  directed  to  the  improvement  of  the  sights,  as  the  means 
of  aiming  guns  previously  employed  were  obviously  not  sufficiently 
delicate  for  a  gun  having  57  times  their  accuracy.  The  sights  which 
he  has  introduced  present  many  peculiarities.  The  eye-piece  of  the 
tangent-scale  is  in  the  form  of  a  cross  slit,  and  has  a  traversing  move- 
ment for  correcting  the  effect  of  side  wind.  The  vertical  and  lateral 
movements  of  the  sight  are  each  regulated  by  means  of  a  vernier  which 
enables  the  scale  to  be  read  off  to  one  minute  of  a  degree  both  for 
elevation  and  deflection.  With  regard  to  the  strength  of  the  Armstrong 
guns  to  resist  explosion,  the  12-pounders  have  J^een  proved  by  filling 


RIF.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  525 

the  chamber  with  powder  (about  2j  Ibs.),  and  using  a  shot  of  double 
the  service-weight.  In  the  case  of  the  40-pounders,  it  is  intended  to 
apply  double  charges  and  single  shot.  To  provide  for  a  large  charge  of 
powder,  it  is  only  necessary  to  reduce  the  lead  on  the  shot,  so  as  to  allow 
it  to  enter  further  into  the  bore.  Sir  W.  Armstrong  believes  the 
strength  of  his  guns  to  be  enormously  in  excess  of  these  charges,  the 
object  of  the  proof  being  rather  to  detect  defects  in  the  surface  of  the 
bore  than  the  resistance  to  bursting,  which  he  considers  to  be  almost 
uniform  in  all  guns  constructed  on  his  principle. 

THE  WHITWORTH  GUN. — Mr.  Whitworth,  of  Manchester,  has  suc- 
ceeded in  constructing  several  rifled  breech-loading  cannon  of  various 
calibres  :  his  3-pounder  gun,  208  Ibs.  in  weight,  with  a  calibre  of  1£ 
inches,  a  charge  of  8  oz.  of  powder,  and  an  elevation  of  35P,  projects  its 
shot  to  a  distance  of  more  than  5£  miles,  and  this  with  remarkable  ac- 
curacy. He  applies  the  same  principles  to  his  guns  which  have  been  so 
successful  in  his  small-arms — using  a  very  long  projectile,  3£  diameters 
in  length,  that  the  resistance  of  the  air  may  be  as  small  as  possible, 
(Fig.  198.)  To  overcomd  the  tendency  of  so  long  a  projectile  to 
turn  over  in  its  flight,  a  rapid  spin  or  rotation  is  impressed  upon 

FIG.  193. 


it,  by  a  more  than  usually  rapid  twist  in  the  grooves  of  the  rifle. 
The  bore  of  the  barrel  is  described  by  its  hexagonal  section  moving 
parallel  to  itself  from  breech  to  muzzle,  and  at  the  same  time  rotating 
uniformly  about  its  centre  with  such  a  velocity,  that  it  completes  one 
whole  rotation  while  its  centre  is  moving  over  a  space  of  20  inches  in 
the  small-arms  and  3  feet  8  inches  in  the  3-pounder  gun.  So  that  the 
barrel  may  be  considered  as  a  rifle  with  six  grooves,  making  one  turn  in 
20  inches  in  the  one  case,  and  in  3  feet  8  inches  in  the  other.  The 
bullets  are  made  of  a  hard  metal,  an  alloy  of  9  parts  lead  with  1  part  tin, 
and  they  are  shaped  to  fit  accurately  the  interior  of  the  bore.  Experi- 
ments made  to  test  the  penetrating  powers  of  Whitworth's  hexagonal 
80-pounder  shot,  have  established  its  superiority  to  any  other  gun  or 
projectile  yet  produced  in  penetrating  power.  The  hexagonal  bore  is 
also  the  best  for  communicating  a  rapid  rifle  motion  to  the  projectile, 
but  experiments  in  the  United  States  have  not  shown  it  to  be  safe  for 
ordinary  cast-iron  cannon. 


526 


MILITARY  DICTIONARY. 


[RlF. 


TABLE  I. — Ratifies  obtained  at  Southport,  February  15th  ana  llth,  1860,  of  a 
Z-pounder  Whitworth  Gun,  length  6  'ft.,  weight  208  Ibs.,  diameter  of  bore  1£  in., 
charge  7|  oz.,  at  the  undermentioned  angles  of  elevation. 


Angles  of 
Elevation. 

Yards 
Eange. 

Deviation  from 
Line  of  Fire. 

Angles  of 
Elevation. 

Yards 
Range. 

Deviation  from 
Line  of  Fire. 

8° 

1,607 
1,593 

i  yard  to  the  right 

20° 

6.784 
6,720 

12  yards  to  the  left 
14i 

1,589 

Line! 

" 

6,910 

2 

1,5SS 
1,577 

1  yard  to  the  right. 
i                          " 

85° 

8,907 
8,930 

22  yards  to  the  right 
10  yards  to  the  left. 

1,575 

9,059 

11  yards  to  the  right. 

1.573 

i                       " 

9,164 

2.'3i 

1,503 

2 

9,6S8 

84            "            " 

1,552 

\                        " 

9,645 

81            "            " 

1  ° 

4,171 

6  yards  o  the  left. 

9,611 

89            "            " 

4,179 

4 

9.547 

57            "           " 

4,224 

5 

9,503 

72 

4,122 

2                         " 

9,463 

68            "            " 

20° 

6,760 

5                        " 

TABLE  II. — 


of  a  3-pounder  Whitworth  Gun,  at  20°  Elevation.     Charge 
oz.  of  Powder. 


Yards 
Eange. 

Deviation  from 
Line  of  Fire. 

Yards 
Eunge. 

Deviation  from 
Line  of  Fire. 

6,818 
6,749 
6,602 
6,556 
6,511 

26  yards  to  the  left 
27 
54 
"85 
84            "            " 

6,561 
6,316 
6,469 
6,339 

1 

20  yards  to  the  left 
20            "            " 
11            "            " 
12 

TABLE  III. — Ranges  of  a  11-pounder  Whitivorth  Gun;  length  7  ft.  9  in.,  weight  8 
cwt.,  diameter  of  bore  3£  in.,  with  a  charge  of  If  /6s.  of  powder,  at  elevations  of 
2°,  5°,  and  10  . 


Angles  of 
Elevation. 

Yards 
Eange. 

Deviation  from 
Line  of  Fire. 

Angles  of 
Elevation. 

Yards 
Eange. 

Di-\  i;ition  from 
Line  of  Fire. 

2° 

1,280 

t  yard  to  the  risht 

5° 

2,333 

2  vards  to  the  left. 

" 

1,270 

4  yard  to  tho  left 

2,298 

1  van!  to  the  left. 

1,257 
1.254 

i 
1  J  yards  to  the  right 

10° 

3.942 
4,120 

15  yards  to  the  right 
13 

1,2.18 

i           i*           u 

H 

4,011 

7                4;                u 

5° 

2,342 

4  yards  to  the  left. 

N 

4.002 

16 

2,321 

On  the  line.  • 

It 

4,059 

9            "           " 

2,326 

1  yard  to  the  right. 

JABLE  IV. — Ranges  of  an  SQ-poundtr  Whitworth  Gun;  weight  4  tons,  with  a  charge 
o/lO  Ibs.  of  powder,  and  a  solid  shot  of  90  Ibs.  weight,  at  elevations  of  5°,  7°, 


and  10°. 


Angles  of 
Elevation. 

Yards 
Eange. 

Deviation  from 
Line  of  Fire. 

Angles  of 
Elevation. 

Yards 
Eange. 

Deviation  from 
Line  of  Fire. 

5° 

2.544 

2.604 

5  yards  to  the  right 

7° 

• 

3.487 
3,482 

6^  yards  to  the  right. 

7° 

3,503 

44         "           " 

10° 

4,700 

5            "            " 

3,498 

6           "           " 

4,409         6           "           " 

RlF.] 


MILITARY  DICTIONARY. 


527 


All  serviceable  cannon,  whether  of  bronze  or  iron,  may  be  rifled,  for 
the  use  of  General  James's  projectile.  It  is,  therefore,  an  invention  of 
the  greatest  practical  utility,  and  the  author  is  much  indebted  to  Major 
W.  A.  Thornton,  U.  S.  Ordnance  Department,  for  the  following  descrip- 
tion and  experiments  made  by  a  board  of  officers  of  the  U.  S.  Army : 

GENERAL  JAMES'S  PROJECTILE — is  a  cylindro-conoidal  missile  of 
cast-iron,  having  a  compound  envelop  of  canvas — sheet  tin,  and  lead, 
called  packing,  encircling  nearly  the  entire  length  of  the  body  of  the 
cylinder.  The  canvas,  being  the  external  portion  of  the  packing,  is 
well  saturated  with  a  tallow  lubric,  which  renders  the  loading  easy, 
and  cleans  the  gun  at  each  discharge.  The  head  of  the  projectile  may 
be  solid,  or,  if  it  has  a  prepared  cavity,  the  missile  then  becomes  a  shell. 
The  average  wreight  of  the  projectile  for  a  42-pounder  gun  is,  if  a 
solid,  81j  ibs.,  if  a  shell,  G4£  Ibs.,  of  which  in  either  case  G-£  Ibs.  is  the 
weight  of  the  packing.  Its  length  is  13  inches,  of  which  6|  inches  is  the 
measurement  of  the  conical  head,  and  6f  inches  is  the  length  of  its 
cylindrical  body.  The  diameter  of  the  cylinder  is  6f  inches,  or  |  of  an 
inch  less  than  the  bore  of  a  42-pounder  gun.  It  retains  its  full  diameter 
for  f  of  an  inch  of  its  length  at  each  end  : — then  for  the  intermediate 
space,  the  diameter  is  shortened  half  an  inch,  thereby  forming  a  recess 
round  the  body  of  the  cylinder,  between  the  ends ;  (Fig.  199. )v  The 
shortening  of  the  diameter,  and  consequent  loss  of  iron  to  the  circum- 
ference of  the  body  of  the  cylinder,  is  replaced  by  the  before-named 


FIG.  199. 


FIG.  200. 


JAMES'S  SHELL,  BEFORE  THE  APPLICATION  OF 

THE  PACKING. 

a.  Hand  J  inch  wide  at  ends  of  cylinder. 
&,  C,  <?,  f.  Recess  round  body  of  cylinder. 

m.  Kectangular    openings    through    to 

recess. 
n.  Orifice  in  base,  leading  to  the  recess. 


JAMES'S  SHELL,  AFTER  THE  APPLICATION  OP  THB 

PACKING,  AND  READY  FOR  USE. 
a,  &,  c,  d.  Belt  of  canvas,   tin,   and  lead,  called 

packing. 
e.  Orifice  in  base,  leading  fo  recess. 


packing,  when  the  projectile  is  prepared  for  use,  (Fig.  200.)  The 
solidity  of  the  conical  head  is  continued  into,  and  forms  the  solid  end  of 
the  cylinder.  The  base,  or  opposite  end  of  the  projectile,  has  a  central 


528  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [Rir. 

orifice,  of  3|  inches  in  diameter,  which  extends  2^-  inches  into  the  cylin- 
der ;  and  from  which  ten  rectangular  openings  diverge,  (lilie  the  mor- 
tises for  spokes  in  the  hub  of  a  wheel,)  through  the  body,  to  the 
periphery  of  the  cylinder,  in  the  recess  of  its  circumference.  The  pack- 
ing is  formed  by  a  plate  of  sheet  tin,  of  the  length  of  the  greatest  circle 
of  the  cylinder  ;  and  in  width,  equal  to  the  length  of  the  recess  caused 
by  the  shortening  of  the  diameter.  This  plate  of  tin  is  laid  on  a  piece 
of  strong  canvas,  which  is  two  inches  wider,  but  of  the  same  length  of 
the  plate  ;  and  the  canvas  is  folded  over  the  side  edges  of  the  plate  and 
firmly  secured  by  cross  sewing.  The  tin  plate,  when  so  prepared,  or 
half  covered,  is  folded  round  the  body  of  the  missile  in  the  recess,  and 
retained  in  position  by  an  iron  collar  clamp;  (Figs.  199  and  200.) 
The  space  between  the  inner  surface  of  the  envelop  and  the  body  of 
the  cylinder  is  filled  with  melted  lead,  which,  adhering  to  the  tin  and 
iron,  forms  a  compact  mass  round  the  body  of  the  projectile.  When 
the  charge  is  fired,  the  power  or  gas  generated  by  the  burning  of  the 
powder,  in  its  effort  to  expel  the  projectile  and  to  escape  from  the  gun, 
is  forced  into  the  orifice  in  the  base  of  the  missile,  and  through  the  ten 
openings  against  the  packing,  which  is  thereby  pressed  into  the  grooves, 
in  the  gun's  bore,  and  by  its  firm  hold  in  them  the  rifle  motion  is  im- 
parted to  the  projectile.  The  packing  has  not  been  known  to  strip 
from  the  projectile  while  in  the  gun  ;  and  the  certainty  that  it  compels 
obedience  on  the  part  of  the  missile  to  the  rifling,  is  demonstrated  in 
direct  hits,  by  the  perfect  circular  orifice  cut  by  the  shot  in  entering 
targets ;  and  when  the  projectiles  are  obtained  after  firing,  their  head 
and  body  are  frequently  found  cut  in  furrows,  conforming  to  the  rifling 
of  the  gun,  by  stones,  against  which  the  missile  impinged  in  entering 
the  ground.  All  serviceable  guns,  either  of  bronze  or  iron,  can  be 
made  available  by  rifling,  for  the  use  of  the  said  projectiles.  The  rifling 
should  be  of  the  gain  twist  nature.  It  should  be  shallow ;  say,  for 
field-guns  -£^,  and  for  siege-guns  T^,  and  -fa  of  an  inch  in  depth.  The 
lands  and  grooving  should  be  of  the  same  width,  and  about  18  of  each, 
for  the  bore  of  a  42-pound er  gun.  The  ordinary  grained  cannon 
powder  does  not  appear  to  act  too  violently  in  projecting  these  heavy 
missiles  from  field-guns ;  but  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  coarse- 
grained T%  inch  powder  is  far  the  best  for  service,  in  firing  James's  pro- 
jectiles from  long-bored  guns. 

When  the  projectile  is  a  shell,  (Fig.  201,)  its  fuze-orifice  is  in  its 
head  and  axis.  The  length  of  the  orifice  for  a  42-pounder  shell  is  2^ 
inches.  For  two  inches  of  its  length,  its  diameter  is  1  inch,  and  for  the 
remainder  of  the  length,  the  diameter  is  reduced  to  f  of  an  inch ;  so 


ElF.] 


MILITARY  DICTIOXARY. 


529 


JAMES'S  SHELL. 
Section  through  the  axis, 
a.  Brass  fuze-orifice  screw- 
cap. 
Z>.  Fuze  slide-plug. 

c.  Cone  to  fuze-plug — mus- 

ket size. 

d.  Lead  portion  of  packing. 

e.  Canvas  and  tin  portion  of 

packing. 

m.  Rectangular  openings  to 
periphery  in  recess. 


forming  a  shoulder  in  the  fuze-orifice,  to  prevent  the  fuze-plug  from 

being  driven  into  the  cavity  of  the  shell,  when,  Flo  2oi. 

by  firing,  the  missile  is  expelled  from  the  gun. 

The  threads  of  a  female  screw  are  cut  in  the 

head  of  the  fuze-orifice  for  the  reception  of  the 

body  of  the  fuze-orifice  cap.      This  cap  is  of 

brass.     Its  diameter  is  an  inch,  its  length  half 

an  inch ;  its  head  is  convexed,  and  has  a  slot  cut 

in  it  for  the  reception  of  a  screw-driver ;  the 

base  end  is  deeply  cupped,  to  admit  the  nipple 

of  a  musket  cone,  and  to  give  more  play  to  the 

fuze-pi  ug. 

The  fuze-plug  is  of  wrought  iron,  surmounted 
by  a  musket  cone ;  and  its  action  in  the  fuze- 
orifice  is  like  the  ordinary  working  of  a  piston. 
Its  length  is  li  inches,  of  which  the  quarter  is 
the  length  of  its  shoulder.  The  diameter  of  its 
shoulder  and  body,  is  very  nearly  the  same  as  the 
two  diameters  of  the  fuze-orifice.  Its  vent  is  in  its 
axis,  and  in  size  to  receive  the  male  screw  of  the 
musket  cone.  The  threads  of  a  female  screw  are  cut  in  the  head  end  of 
the  vent,  of  sufficient  length  to  receive  the  screw  end  of  the  said  cone. 

When  the  shell  is  loaded,  care  should  be  taken  not  to  overfill  its 
cavity,  and  thereby  prevent  the  working  of  the  fuze-plug.  The  powder 
should  be  cleaned  from  the  fuze-orifice ;  the  plug  should  be  oiled  to 
ensure  its  free  and  sure  action.  Its  cone  should  be  capped,  but  before 
the  application  the  percussion  cap  should  be  carefully  examined  to  see 
that  it  is  perfect,  and  of  the  best  quality.  The  fuze-plug,  when  so  pre- 
pared, is  then  inserted  into  the  fuze-orifice,  and  it  should  enter  freely 
but  not  by  its  own  weight,  until  the  shoulders  of  the  fuze-plug  and 
orifice  are  in  contact.  The  cap  for  the  fuze-orifice  should  be  then  firmly 
screwed  in,  which  completes  the  charging  of  the  shells.  If  after  the 
shell  is  loaded  the  fuze-plug  should  be  disturbed  by  handling ;  that  is, 
if  the  plug  has  slidden  forward,  it  will  be  forced  back  to  its  proper 
position  by  the  impulse  given  to  the  missile,  by  the  firing  of  the  gun 
charge ;  and  it  will  so  remain  during  the  flight,  until  the  shell  impinges 
against  any  hard  substance ;  as  ground,  wood,  06C,,  which,  by  obstruct- 
ing the  progress  of  the  missile,  causes  the  fuze-plug  to  slide '  forward 
with  violence,  and  by  the  collision  of  the  cone's  point  against  the  bottom 
of  the  fuze-orifice  cap-plug,  the  percussion  cap  on  the  cone  will  be  ex- 
ploded, and  the  bursting  charge  of  the  shell  fired. 
34 


530 


MILITARY  DICTIONARY. 


[RiF. 


GENERAL  C.  T.  JAMES'S  PROJECTILE.    SUMMARY  OF  TARGET-FIEING,  WATCH 

HILL,  R.  I.,  1860. 

42-pdr.  Service   Guny  Rifled. 
811     Jbs.  averaged  weight  of  projectile,  of  which  6J  Ibs.  packing, 

2         "    of  powder,  the  loading  charge  of  shell, 

8         "    averaged  weight  of  charge  of  powder, 

2°  \u       elevation, 

3i/;          time  of  flight  to  target, 
45  projectiles  fired, 

31  hits  direct, 

8  hits  ricochet, 

68.8  proportional  direct  hits  per  100  shots 

17.7  "  ricochet      '    "  " 


target 
20  by  40  feet. 

distance 
1,000  yards. 


5°  2'  elevation, 

6  f"  time  of  flight  to  target, 
65  projectiles  fired, 

15  hits  direct, 

7  hits  ricochet, 

23  proportional  direct  hits  per  100  shots 
10.7  "  ricochet        "  " 


target 
20  by  40  feet. 

distance 
2,000  yards. 


FIG.  202. 


Remarks.— The  averaged  weight  of  the  projectile  at  rest  in  the  gun  was 
81^  Ibs. ;  averaged  weight  of  packing  thrown  off 
was  6£  Ibs. ;  weight  of  projectile  when  it  impinged, 
74J  Ibs.  Penetration,  through  45  inches  of  the  best 
well-seasoned  oak,  at  2,000  yards ;  weight  of  oak 
target  17  tons,  well  bedded  and  firmly  braced  by 
back  timbers ;  forced  back  10  inches  by  impact 
of  shot ;  range,  at  15°  elevation  4,346  yards,  or 
nearly  2|  miles  ;  ricochet  on  water,  in  prolongation 
of  line  of  fire,  but  the  projectile  does  not  bound  as 
often  as  round  balls.  When  the  missile  is  a  shell 
loaded,  it  bursts  by  percussion,  in  penetrating  earth, 
or  other  denser  material. 

The  Reed  projectile  is  also  an  American  inven- 
tion. Its  peculiarity,  whether  shot  or  shell,  con- 
sists in  its  having  a  base  or  cup  of  wrought  iron 
connected  by  casting  in,  or  in  any  other  mode  of 
attachment,  to  the  cast-iron  projectile,  (Fig.  202.) 
The  object  is  to  obtain  a  material  pliable  enough  to 
be  forced  by  the  expansive  action  of  the  powder  into 
the  grooves  of  the  gun,  and  strong  enough  to  give  the 


BIF.] 


MILITARY  DICTIONARY. 


531 


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Uniform,  one  turn  in 
1C  feet.  . 

Uniform,  one  turn  in 
19  feet. 

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532 


MILITARY  DICTIONARY. 


[RtF. 


necessary  rotative  movement  to  the  projectile  resulting  from  the  twist  of 
these  grooves.  The  action  is  in  fact  similar  to  that  of  the  common  elon-, 
gated  bullet  for  the  rifle  musket,  or  the  application  of  the  Minie  ball 
to  cannon.  The  projectile  is  2.9  inches.  R.  P.  Parrott,  Esq.,  West 
Point  Foundry,  has  produced  a  field-gun  for  firing  this  elongated  bullet 
reinforced  by  wrought  iron,  the  idea  of  which  is  not  novel,  but  which  he 
claims  to  have  arranged  in  proper  proportions,  and  otherwise  to  have 
brought  into  practical  shape  so  as  to  make  a  safe,  cheap,  and  good  rifled 
cannon.  The  gun  has,  in  reference  to  the  projectile,  three  grooves  and 
a  twist  of  one  turn  in  10  feet.  It  has  not  yet  been  before  a  board,  but 
has  been  successfully  tried  before  officers  of  the  army.  (Consult  Sir 
HOWARD  DOUGLAS ;  HYDE;  WILCOX.  See  AMMUNITION ;  ARMS;  BUL- 
LET; CARBINE;  FIRING;  PERCUSSION;  PROJECTILE.) 

RIFLE  PITS — are  holes  or  short .  trenches,  about  four  feet  long 
and  three  feet  deep,  forming,  with  the  earth  thrown  out  in  front  of 
them,  cover  for  two  men.  There  is  generally  a  loophole  on  the  vop 
of  the  breastwork,  made,  by  placing  two  sand-bags  across  the  parapet, 
and  a  third  resting  on  these,  in  the  direction  of  it,  to  cover  the  head  and 
shoulders  of  the  riflemen.  A  rifle  pit  of  this  construction  is  shown  in 
plan,  section,  and  elevation  in  Fig.  203. 

FIG.  203. 


TT  "~/ 

Vt 

\uUJ 


-t 


-31— 


RIOT.     (See  EXECUTION  OP  LAWS.) 

ROADS.  "When  it  is  proposed  to  construct  a  line  of  road,  extend- 
ing between  two  places,  the  officer  upon  whom  such  duty  devolves,  first 
makes  himself  well  acquainted  with  the  surface  of,  the  country  lying 
between  the  two  places ;  he  is  then  to  select  what  he  thinks,  all  circum- 
stances being  taken  into  consideration,  the  best  general  route  for  the 
proposed  road.  But  previously  to  laying  it  out  with  accuracy,  it  is 
necessary  to  make  an  instrumental  survey  of  the  country,  along  tho 
route  thus  selected ;  taking  the  levels  from  point  to  point  throughout 
the  whole  distance,  and  making  borings  in  all  places  where  excavations 
are  required,  to  determine  the  strata  through  which  such  cuttings  are  to 


ROA.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  533 

4 

be  carried,  and  the  requisite  inclinations  of  the  slopes  or  slanting  sides 
as  well  of  the  cuttings  as  of  the  embankments  to  be  formed  by  the 
material  thus  obtained.  It  is  also  requisite,  in  the  selection  of  the  route 
for  the  proposed  road,  to  have  regard  to  the  supply  of  materials,  not 
only  for  first  constructing  it,  but  for  maintaining  it  in  repair.  The  re- 
sults of  such  an  investigation  should  be  reduced  to  plan  and  section ;  the 
plan  of  the  road  being  on  a  scale  not  less  than  66  yards  to  an  inch,  and 
the  section  not  less  than  30  feet  to  an  inch.  The  loss  of  tractive  power 
and  consequent  danger  produced  by  steep  acclivities,  render  it  necessary 
that  a  proper  limitation  should  be  imposed  on  the  acclivities  or  inclina- 
tions on  every  line  of  road.  As,  however,  this  reduction  of  hills  in  a 
country  wrhere  much  inequality  of  surface  exists,  is  attended  with  great 
labor  and  expense,  greater  rates  of  inclination  must  be  allowed  to  hills 
or  roads  where  the  traffic  is  not  sufficient  to  repay  the  expense  of  exca- 
vations. A  dead  level,  even  where  it  can  be  obtained,  is  not  the  best 
course  for  a  road ;  a  certain  inclination  of  the  surface  facilitates  the 
drainage,  and  keeps  the  road  in  a  dry  state.  There  is  a  certain  inclina- 
tion or  acclivity,  which  causes,  at  a  uniform  speed,  the  traces  to  slacken, 
and  the  carriages  press  on  the  horses,  unless  a  drag  or  break  is  used ; 
the  limiting  inclination  within  which  this  effect  does  not  take  place  is 
called  the  angle  of  repose.  On  all  acclivities  less  steep  than  the  angle 
of  repose,  a  certain  amount  of  tractive  force  is  necessary  in  the  descent, 
as  well  as  in  the  ascent ;  and  the  means  of  the  two  drawing  forces, 
ascending  and  descending,  is  equal  to  the  force  along  a  level  road.  The 
exact  course  of  the  road,  and  the  degree  of  its  acclivities  being  deter- 
mined, the  next  thing  to  be  considered  is  the  formation  of  its  surface. 
The  qualities  which  ought  to  be  imparted  to  it,  are  twofold :  first,  it 
should  be  smooth ;  secondly,  it  should  be  hard ;  and  the  goodness 
of  the  road  will  be  exactly  in  proportion  as  these  qualities  can  be 
imparted  to  it,  and  permanently  maintained  upon  it.  The  means  re- 
sorted to  accomplish  these  objects  are  :  1.  Gravel  Roads.  A  coating  of 
four  inches  of  gravel  should  be  spread  over  the  road  bed,  and  ve- 
hicles allowed  to  pass  over  it,  till  it  becomes  tolerably  firm — rneri 
being  required  to  ^ake  in  the  ruts  as  fast  as  they  appear ;  a  second 
coating  of  3  or  4  inches  of  gravel  should  be  then  added  and  treated 
like  the  first,  and  finally  a  third  coating.  2.  Broken  Stone  Roads,  or 
McAdam  roads.  French  engineers  value  uniformity  in  size  of  the 
broken  stone  less  than  McAdam.  They  use  all  sizes  from  1^  inches 
to  dust.  McAdam  considers  from  7  to  10  inches  of  depth  of  stone  on 
the  road  sufficient  for  any  purpose.  He  earnestly  advocates  the  prin- 
ciple, that  the  whole  science  of  road-making  consists  in  making  a  solid 


534  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [ROA. 

dry  path  on  the  natural  soil,  and  then  keeping  it  dry  by  a  durable  water- 
proof coating.  3.  Broken  stone  roads  with  a  paved  bottom  or  foun- 
dation, or  Tilford  Roads  ;  a  road  thus  constructed  will,  in  most  cases, 
cost  less  than  one  entirely  of  broken  stone.  4.  Roads  of  Wood.  The 
abundance,  and  consequent  cheapness  of  wood,  renders  its  employ- 
ment in  road-making  of  great  value.  It  has  been  used  in  the  form  of 
logs,  of  charcoal,  of  planks,  and  of  blocks.  When  a  road  passes  over 
soft  swampy  ground  it  is  often  made  passable  by  felling  straight  young 
trees,  and  laying  them  side  by  side  across  the  road  at  right  angles  to 
its  length.  This  is  the  primitive  corduroy  road.  A  very  good  road 
has  been  lately  made  through  a  swampy  forest,  by  felling  and  burning 
the  timber,  and  covering  the  surface  with  charcoal  thus  prepared.  Tim- 
ber from  6  to  18  inches  through  is  cut  24  feet  long,  and  piled  up  length- 
wise in  the  centre  of  the  road  about  five  feet  high,  and  then  covered 
with  straw  and  earth  in  the  manner  of  coal  pits.  The  earth  required 
leaves  two  good  ditches,  and  the  timber,  though  not  split,  is  easily 
charred  ;  and  when  charred  the  earth  is  removed  to  the  side  of  the 
ditches,  and  the  coal  raked  down  to  a  width  of  15  feet,  leaving  it  two 
feet  thick  at  the  centre  and  one  at  the  sides.  5.  Plank  Roads.  Two 
parallel  rows  of  small  sticks  of  timber  (called  sleepers)  are  imbedded 
in  the  road  three  or  four  feet  apart.  Planks,  8  feet  long  and  3  or  4 
inches  thick,  are  laid  on  these  sleepers  across  them.  A  side  track  of 
earth  to  turn  out  upon  is  carefully  graded.  Deep  ditches  are  dug  on 
each  side  to  ensure  perfect  drainage ;  and  thus  we  have  the  plank  road. 
6.  Roads  of  Earth.  These  roads  are  deficient  in  the  important  requi- 
sites of  smoothness  and  hardness,  but  they  are  the  only  roads  usually 
made  in  the  field  to  carry  on  military  operations.  Its  shape,  when  well 
made,  is  properly  formed  with  a  slope  of  1  in  20  each  way  from  the 
centre.  Its  drainage  should  be  made  thorough  by  deep  and  capacious 
ditches,  sloping  not  less  than  ]  in  125.  Trees  should  be  removed  from 
the  borders  of  the  road,  so  as  not  to  intercept  the  sun  and  wind.  The 
labor  expended  upon  it,  will,  however,  depend  upon  circumstances. 
Every  hole  or  rut  in  the  road  should,  however,  be  at  once  filled  up  with 
good  materials,  for  the  wheels  fall  into  them  like  thammers,  deepening 
them  at  each  stroke  and  thus  increasing  the  destructive  effect  of  the  next 
wheel.  (Consult  GILLESPIE,  Roads  and  Road-making.}  The  cross-sec- 
tion of  a  road  embraces:  1.  The  width  of  the  road — from  16£  to  30 
feet,  according  to  its  importance,  and  the  amount  of  travel  upon  it. 
2.  The  shape  of  the  road-bed.  The  best  shape  of  the  transverse  profile 
for  a  road  on  level  ground  is  two  inclined  planes  meeting  in  the  centre 
of  road,  and  having  their  angle  slightly  rounded.  On  a  steep  hill,  the 


Roc.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  535 

transverse  profile  should  be  a  single  slope  inclining  inwards  to  the  face 
of  the  hill.  3.  Footpaths,  d-c.  4.  Ditches.  The  ditches  should,  if  pos- 
sible, lead  to  the  natural  water-courses  of  the  country.  5.  The  side 
slopes  of  the  cuttings  and  fillings.  These  vary  with  the  nature  of  the  soil. 
ROCKET,  (WAR.)  A  projectile  set  in  motion  by  a  force  within 
itself.  It  is  composed  of  a  strong  case  of  paper  or  wrought  iron,  in- 
closing a  composition  of  nitre,  charcoal,  and  sulphur  ;  so  proportioned  as 
to  burn  slower  than  gunpowder.  The  head  is  either  a  solid  shot,  shell, 
or  spherical-case  shot.  The  base  is  perforated  by  one  or  more  vents,  and 
in  the  case  of  the  Congreve  rocket,  with  a  screw  hole  to  which  a  guide- 
stick  is  fastened.  The  rockets  used  in  the  United  States  service  are 
Hale's,  in  which  steadiness  is  given  to  the  flight  of  the  rocket  by  rota- 
tion, as  in  the  case  of  the  rifle  ball,  around  the  long  axis  of  the  rocket. 
This  rotation  is  produced  by  three  small  vents  placed  at  the  base  of 
the  head  of  the  rocket.  Fig.  204  shows  Hale's  rocket  now  used  in  the 
United  States.  Mr.  Hale's  last  improvement  (Fig.  205)  consists  in 

Fio.  204. 


a.  Bore  and  vent  c.          ^ 

Z>.   liecess  in  the  base  of  the  head.  d.   Head  solid. 


FIG.  205. 


> 


placing  three  tangential  vents  in  a  plane  passing  through  the  centre  of 
gravity  of  the  rocket,  and  at  right  angles  to  the  axis.  This  is  accom- 
plished by  dividing  the  case  into  two  distinct  parts,  or  rockets,  by  a 
perforated  partition.  The  composition  in  the  front  part  furnishes  the 
gas  for  rotation,  and  that  in  the  rear  the  gas  for  propulsion.  The  two 
sizes  of  Hale's  rockets  in  use,  are  the 

2£  inch,  (diameter  of  case,)  weighing  6  Ibs. ;  and 
3i  inch          "  "  "        16  Ibs. 

tinder  an  angle  of  from  4°  to  5°  the  range  of  these  rockets  is  from  500 
to  600  yards,  and  under  an  angle  of  47°  the  range  of  the  former  is  1 ,760 
yds.,  and  the  latter  2,200  yards.  War  rockets  are  usually  fired  from 
tubes  or  troughs,  mounted  on  portable  stands,  or  on  light  carriages. 


536  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [Rou 

The  following  rules  concerning  the  length  of  rocket-fazes,  the  ranges 
and  elevations,  for  Congreve's  rockets,  may  be  useful,  though  they  have 
not  been  confirmed  by  an  extensive  course  of  practice  : — 

For  24-pounder  rockets ;  if  the  whole  length  of  the  fuze  is  left  in 
the  shell  of  the  4-pounder  rocket,  it  may  be  expected  to  burst  at  about 
3,700  yards,  elevation  47  degrees. 

If  the  whole  of  the  fuze-composition  be  bored  out,  and  the  rocket- 
composition  left  entire,  the  shell  may  be  expected  to  burst  at  about 
2,000  yards,  elevation  27  degrees. 

If  the  rocket-composition  be  bored  into,  to  within  1.5  inch  of  the 
top  of  the  cone,  the  shell  may  be  expected  to  burst  at  about  700  yards, 
elevation  17  degrees. 

For  12-pounder  rockets ;  if  the  whole  length  of  fuze  be  left  in  the 
shell  of  the  12-pounder  rocket,  it  may  be  expected  to  burst  at  about 
3,000  yards,  elevation  40  degrees. 

If  the  whole  of  the  fuze-composition  be  bored  out,  and  the  rocket- 
composition  left  entire,  the  shell  may  be  expected  to  burst  at  about 
1,500  yards,  elevation  20  degrees. 

If  the  rocket-composition  be  bored  into,  to  within  one  inch  of  the  top 
of  the  cone,  the  shell  may  be  expected  to  burst  at  about  420  yards,  ele- 
vation 10  degrees. 

For  6-pounder  rockets ;  if  the  whole  length  of  fuze  be  left  in  the 
shell  of  the  6-pounder  rocket,  it  may  be  expected  to  burst  at  about 
2,300  yards,  elevation  37  degrees. 

If  the  whole  of  the  fuze-composition  be  bored  out,  and  the  rocket- 
composition  be  left  entire,  the  shell  may  be  expected  to  burst  at  about 
1,100  yards,  elevation  15  degrees. 

If  the  rocket-composition  be  bored  into  within  one  inch  of  the  top 
of  the  cone,  the  shell  may  be  expected  to  burst  at  about  20  yards,  eleva- 
tion 10  degrees. 

For  3-pounder  rockets  ;  if  the  whole  length  of  the  fuze  be  left  in  the 
shell  of  the  3-pounder  rocket,  it  may  be  expected  to  burst  at  about 
1,800  yards,  elevation  25  degrees. 

If  the  whole  of  the  fuze-composition  be  bored  out,  and  the  rocket- 
composition  be  left  entire,  the  shell  may  be  expected  to  burst  at  about 
850  yards,  elevation  12  degrees. 

If  the  rocket  composition  be  bored  into  within  one  inch  of  the  top 
of  the  cone,  the  shell  may  be  expected  to  burst  at  about  420  yards,  ele- 
vation 8  degrees  ;  (Sir  HOWARD  DOUGLAS.) 

ROLL.  A  uniform  beat  of  the  drum,  without  variation  for  a  cer- 
tain length  of  time. 


SAB.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  537 

Long-roll. — A  beat  of  the  drum,  as  a  signal  for  the  assembling  of 
troops  at  any  parade. 

Muster-roll. — A  return,  forwarded  every  two  months  from  every 
company  in  the  service  to  the  adj. -general  and  paymaster.  It  contains 
a  list  of  the  officers,  non-commissioned  officers,  and  privates,  specifying 
their  pay,  and  the  casualties  arising  from  deaths,  promotions,  &c. 

ROSTER  OR  ROLLSTER.  Lists  of  officers  for  duty.  The  prin- 
ciple which  governs  details  for  duty  is  from  the  eldest  down ;  longest 
off  duty  first  on.  If  an  officer's  tour  of  duty  for  armed  service,  court- 
martial,  or  fatigue  happen  when  he  is  upon  either  duty,  he  is  credited 
with  both  duties.  A  regiment,  or  detachment,  detailed  for  any  duty, 
receives  credit  for  the  duty  when  it  marches  off  parade  to  perform  the 
duty,  but  not  if  it  is  dismissed  on  parade.  Officers  on  inlying  pickets 
are  subject  to  all  details. 

ROUNDS.  Visiting  rounds ;  grand  rounds;  visiting  small  posts, 
guards,  and  sentinels  by  commanders  or  staff  officers.  He  who  makes 
the  round  is  alone,  or  accompanied  according  to  grade  and  circum- 
stances. 

ROUT.  To  put  to  rout  is  to  defeat  and  throw  into  confusion.  It 
is  not  a  retreat  in  good  order,  but  also  implies  dispersion. 

ROUTE.  An  open  road  ;  the  course  of  march  of  troops.  Instruc- 
tions for  the  march  of  detachments,  specifying  daily  marches,  means  of 
supply,  are  given  from  the  head-quarters  of  an  army  in  the  field,  and 
are  called  marching  routes. 

RUFFLE.  "A  low,  vibrating  sound  beat  upon  a  drum  not  so  loud 
as  a  roll. 

RULES  AND  ARTICLES  OP  WAR.     (See  ARTICLES  OF  WAR.) 

RUN  ;  RUNNING.     (See  MANOEUVRES  OF  INFANTRY  IN  COMBATS.) 

RUNNING  FIRE.     Rapid  and  successive  fire  by  troops. 

s 

SABOT,  \nfield-guns,  when  firing  solid  shot,  the  charge*  is  usually 
about  j  the  weight  of  the  shot.  For  spherical  case  and  canister,  the 
charge  is  less.  These  projectiles  are  always  fixed  to  a  block  of  wood, 
called  a  sabot,  (Fig.  206,)  to  which  the  cartridge  is  also  attached ; 
forming  what  is  called  a  round  of  fixed  ammunition',  (Fig.  207.)  In 
the  12-pdr.  field-howitzer,  also,  the  ammunition  used  is  fixed,  A,  (Fig. 
206 ;)  but  with  the  other  howitzers  the  projectile  and  charge  are  sep- 
arate ;  the  latter  being  attached  to  a  block  of  wood  called  a  cartridge- 
block,  (Fig.  208,)  the  object  of  which  is  to  give  a  finish  to  the  cartridge 


538 


MILITARY  DICTIONARY. 


[SAB. 


and  fill  the  chamber,  the  dimensions  of  the  block  being  so  calculated  for 
each  different  charge  as  to  reach  to  the  mouth  of  the  chamber.  The 
sabots  used  with  these  heavy  howitzers  are  conical 
in  shape  to  fit  the  connecting  surface  between  the 
chamber  and  bore.  Care  should  be  taken  in  loading 
to  put  the  seam  of  the  cartridge  to  the  sides,  so  that 
it  will  not  come  under  the  vent.  In  loading  the  32 
and  24-pdr.  howitzer,  the  cartridge  is  first  pushed 
carefully  into  the  chamber  without  ramming,  and 
the  shell  is  then  sent  home,  also  without  ramming. 


Shot. 


Canister. 

12-PDB.    HOWITZEE. 


FIG.  207. 


Shell. 


Bound  Shot  fixed. 


Canister. 


FIG.  208. 
Cartridge  Block. 


i2         < 


Canister  fixed. 

When  sabots  cannot  be  obtained,  place  upon  the 
powder  a  layer  of  tow,  about  0.2  in.  thick,  forming 
a  bed  for  the  shot ;  tie  the  bag  over  the  shot  and 
around  the  tow  ;  the  bag  requires  to  be  one  inch 
longer  than  for  strapped  shot;  (GIBBON.) 

SABRE.  The  cavalry  sabre  blade  has  shoulder, 
back,  edge,  bevel  point,  curvature,  large  groove, 
small  groove,  tang  reveting.  The  HILT  has  a  brass 
surmounting  (gilt  for  officers)  guard,  and  steel  scab- 
bard. The  blade  of  the  mounted  artillery  sabre  has 
but  one  groove ;  the  guard  but  one  branch,  (c^alry 
sabre  guard  has  three;)  steel  scabbard.  Officers  of 
mounted  artillery,  and  mounted  officers  of  artillery  and  infantry  use 
the  sabre  for  mounted  artillery  with  gilt  mounting.  (See  SWORD.) 

SABRETASCHE.  From  the  German,  Sabel,'&  sabre,  and  Tasche, 
a  pocket.  The  sabretasche  is  part  of  the  accoutrements  of  a  cavalry 
or  staff  officer,  consisting  of  a  leathern  case  or  pocket,  suspended  at 


Howitzer  Cartridge. 


SAL.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  539 

the  left  side  from  the  sword  belt  by  three  slings,  corresponding  with 
the  belt. 

SACK.  An  expression  used  when  a  town  has  been  taken  by  storm, 
arid  given  up  to  pillage. 

SADDLER.  All  acts  of  Congress  previous  to  the  Act  of  March 
2,  1833,  allowed  one  saddler  to  each  company  of  dragoons.  The  omis- 
sion to  provide  for  saddlers  in  the  present  cavalry  organization  would 
seem  to  be  accidental. 

SAFEGUARD.  Whosoever,  belonging  to  the  armies  of  the 
United  States,  employed  in  foreign  parts,  shall  force  a  safeguard,  shall 
suffer  death ;  (ART.  55.)  The  men  left  with  a  safeguard  may  require 
of  the  persons  for  whose  benefit  they  are  so  left,  reasonable  subsistence 
and  lodging  ;  and  the  neighboring  inhabitants  will  be  held  responsible 
by  the  army  for  any  violence  done  them. 

The  bearers  of  a  safeguard  left  by  one  corps,  may  be  replaced  by  the 
corps  that  follows ;  and  if  the  country  be  evacuated,  they  will  be  re- 
called ;  or  they  may  be  instructed  to  wait  for  the  arrival  of  the  enemy, 
and  demand  of  him  a  safe  conduct  to  the  outposts  of  the  army.  The 
following  form  will  be  used  : — 

SAFEGUARD. 

By  authority  of  Major-gen. ,  (or  Brig'r-gen. .) 

The  person,  the  property,  and  the  family  of ,  (or  such  a  col- 
lege, and  the  persons  and  things  belonging  to  it ;  such  a  mill,  &c.,)  are 
placed  under  the  safeguard  of  the  United  States.  To  offer  any  violence 
or  injury  to  them  is  expressly  forbidden  ;  on  the  contrary,  it  is  ordered 
(hat  safety  and  protection  be  given  to  him,  or  them,  in  case  of  need. 

Done  at  the  head-quarters  of ,   this day  of ,  18 — . 

Forms  of  safeguards  ought  to  be  printed  in  blank,  headed  by  the 
article  of  war  relative  thereto,  and  held  ready  to  be  filled  up,  as  occa- 
sions may  offer.  A  duplicate,  &c.,  in  each  case,  might  be  affixed  to  the 
houses,  or  edifices,  to  which  they  relate. 

SALE.  The  President  is  authorized  to  cause  to  be  sold  unservice- 
able ordnance  or  stores  of  any  kind,  but  the  inspection  or  survey  of  un- 
serviceable stores  shall  be  made  by  an  inspector-general,  or  such  other 
officer  or  officers  as  the  Secretary  of  War  may  appoint  for  that  pur- 
pose ;  and  the  sales  shall  be  made  under  such  rules  and  regulations  as 
may  be  prescribed  by  the  Secretary  of  War ;  (Act  March  3,  1825.) 
In  all  cases  where  lands  have  been,  or  shall  hereafter  be,  conveyed  to 
or  for  the  United  States,  for  forts,  arsenals,  dock-yards,  light-houses, 
or  any  like  purpose,  or  in  payment  of  debts  due  the  United  States, 


540  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [SAL. 

which  shall  not  be  used,  or  necessary  for  the  purposes  for  which  they 
were  purchased,  or  other  authorized  purpose,  it  shall  be  lawful  for  the 
President  of  the  United  States  to  cause  the  same  to  be  sold,  for  the  best 
price  to  be  obtained,  and  to  convey  the  same  to  the  purchaser  by  grant 
or  otherwise  ;  (Act  April  28,  1828.) 

SALIENT.  The  salient  angle  of  a  fortification  is  an  angle  project- 
ing towards  the  country. 

SALLY.  A  sally  or  sortie  is  a  movement  made  by  strong  de- 
tachments from  a  besieged  place  to  attack  the  besiegers  or  destroy  their 
works. 

SALLY-PORTS.  Openings  to  afford  free  egress  to  troops  for  a 
sortie.  They  are  cut  in  the  faces  of  the  re-entering  places  of  arms,  and 
in  the  middle  of  the  branches  of  the  covered-ways.  When  sally-ports 
are  not  in  use,  they  are  closed  by  strongly  constructed  gates  of  timber 
supported  by  bars  of  iron. 

SALTPETRE.     (^GUNPOWDER;  NITRE.) 

SALUTE.  A  discharge  of  artillery  in  compliment  to  some  in- 
dividual ;  beating  of  drums  and  dropping  of  colors  fur  the  same  pur- 
pose ;  or  by  carrying  or  presenting  arms  according  to  the  rank  and 
position  of  an  officer. 

SAND-BAGS.  Bags  filled  with  earth,  usually  from  12  to  14 
inches  wide,  and  about  30  inches  long.  They  are  employed  sometimes 
in  constructing  batteries,  and  in  repairing  breaches  and  embrasures 
when  damaged  by  the  enemy's  fire.  (See  REVETMENT.) 

SANITARY  PRECAUTIONS.  Send  troops  where  we  may,  they 
are  destroyed  by  fevers.  Is  there  any  safeguard  ?  None,  but  in  the 
good  keeping,  good  condition,  physical  and  moral,  of  the  troops.  After 
a  fever  has  been  established,  physic  does  little,  but  the  battle  is  fought 
by  the  nurse ;  let  that  attendant  be  sagacious  and  vigilant,  and  the 
patient  is  saved  ;  the  contrary,  and  he  dies.  The  most  successful  treat- 
ment (the  necessary  evacuations  always  being  premised)  is  cold  water, 
or,  in  other  words,  the  regulation  of  the  temperature.  Fever,  when 
once  it  has  gained  entry,  is  the  most  tenacious  of  all  pre-occupants. 
Rhythm,  the  rule  of  number  counting  by  day,  as  if  it  played  upon  the 
nervous  chords,  paroxysm,  remission  and  crisis,  proclaim  its  sway. 
Let  the  practitioner  obviate  evil  tendencies  whenever  he  can,  but  if 
he  turn  to  his  medical  books  he  will  find  in  the  medical  records  of  two 
thousand  years  always  the  same  results,  viz. :  the  futility  of  interfering 
with  medicines  of  specific  power,  and  the  deaths  of  a  given  number, 
almost  always  the  same,  when  the  air  is  pure,  and  the  patient  has  had 
any  thing  like  fair  play.  Quinine  is  a  specific  in  intermittent  fever, 
I 


SAN.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  541 

but  it  is  as  futile  as  all  other  specifies  in  continued  fevers.  The  prac- 
titioner must  content  himself  with  taking  for  his  guides  depletion  at  the 
outset,  refrigeration  during  all  the  middle  stages,  and  stimulation  with 
support  at  the  close  of  the  disease.  This  course  may  be  taken  with 
very  little  aid  from  medicine,  and  the  event  will  be  more  successful 
than  if  the  patient  had  been  drugged  with  all  the  stuff  of  an  apothe- 
cary's shop. 

Disinfectants. — The  best  disinfectants  are  caloric,  light,  ventilation, 
and  the  operation  of  water,  and  a  bountiful  Providence  has  placed  them 
all  at  our  disposal.  It  is  a  matter  of  experiment  that  even  the  concen- 
trated matter  of  small-pox,  cow-pox,  and  the  fomites  of  scarlatina  are 
deprived  of  all  infecting  power  on  being  subjected  to  a  heat  of  140°  of 
Fahrenheit's  thermometer.  It  may  then  be  fairly  inferred  that  if  these 
could  be  so  neutralized,  gaseous  factitious  infectants,  such  as  that  of 
typhus  fever,  wrouldbe  dissipated  under  a  much  inferior  degree  of  heat, 
and  it  is  accordingly  found  that  typhus  will  not  readily  cross  the  tropic 
of  cancer,  and  the  plague  of  the  Levant  goes  out  at  the  same  boundary. 
Boiling  water,  then,  must  be  all-sufficient  for  the  purification  of  what- 
ever it  can  be  made  to  touch ;  and  a  portable  iron  stove,  filled  with 
ignited  charcoal,  will  infallibly  disinfect  any  building  or  apartment. 
The  infection  constantly  given  out  from  a  living  body  cannot,  while  it 
continues  diseased,  be  so  disposed  of;  but  all  that  it  has  inhabited  is 
easily  rendered  harmless. 

Light  is  another  sure  disinfectant ;  the  strongest  poisons,  as  prussic 
acid,  when  exposed  to  its  influence  lose  their  power. 

Ventilation  comprehends  all  that  the  atmosphere  can  bring  to  the 
process  of  disinfection  ;  and  water  is  only  a  more  concentrated  applica- 
tion of  the  same  principle.  Chlorine  fumigation  is  utterly  useless,  "  but 
the  burning  of  a  few  handfuls  of  charcoal,  with  the  aid  of  clean  linen, 
will  certainly  disinfect  the  most  saturated  lazar  that  ever  came  out  of 
a  pest-house ;  but  until  that  ceremony,  or  an  equivalent  to  it,  such  as 
a  hot  bath,  be  performed,  no  one  can  answer  for  his  being  otherwise 
than  dangerous." 

Dysentery  is  truly  an  army  disease.  In  some  services  the  soldiery 
in  the  field  nfiay  escape  fever,  but  never  dysentery  if  they  lie  on  the 
ground.  Atmospherical  vicissitudes,  cold  of  the  night,  chill  of  the 
morning,  after  heat  of  preceding  day,  will  cause  it  to  spread.  Heat  is, 
however,  uniformly  the  remote  cause.  The  disease  is  purely  inflamma- 
tory in  the  beginning  ;  yet,  because  the  acid  and  sub-acid  fruits  some- 
times occasion  griping  when  in  health,  these  and  vegetables  of  every 
kind  are  sometimes  strictly  prohibited.  They  are,  however,  amongst 


542  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [SAN. 

the  best  remedies.  For  the  peculiar  inflammation  which  dysentery 
sets  up  in  the  mucous  linings  of  the  intestines,  there  has  been  no  remedy 
yet  discovered  at  all  comparable  to  mercury,  (calomel.)  The  specific 
inflammations,  such  as  the  iritic,  the  hepatic,  the  pneumonic,  the  syphi- 
litic, &c.,  all  fall  before  its  peculiar  superseding  stimulus.  The  habitual 
use  of  mercury  is  not  fitted  to  all  constitutions,  and  it  has  often  been 
abused ;  but  the  discovery  of  its  power  to  supersede  inflammation  is 
one  of  the  happiest  of  the  uncertain  art  of  medicine. 

Miasmata  or  marsh  poisons,  it  has  been  supposed,  are  exhalations 
produced  by  the  agency  of  vegetable  or  aqueous  putrefaction.  More 
general  knowledge  has,  however,  established  the  fact,  that  one  condition 
only  is  necessary  to  the  production  of  miasma  on  all  surfaces  capable 
of  absorption,  and  that  is,  the  paucity  of  water  where  it  has  previously 
and  recently  abounded.  The  greatest  danger  may  exist,  where  there  is 
no  evidence  of  putrefaction,  as  every  one  can  testify  who  has  seen  pesti- 
lence steam  forth,  to  the  paralyzation  of  armies,  from  the  barren  sands 
of  the  Alentyo  in  Portugal,  the  arid  burnt  plains  of  Estremadura  in 
Spain,  and  the  recently  flooded  table-lands  of  Barbadoes,  which  have 
seldom  more  than  a  foot  of  soil  to  cover  the  coral  rock,  and  are  there- 
fore, under  the  drying  process  of  a  tropteal  sun,  brought  almost  im- 
mediately after  the  rains  into  a  state  to  give  out  pestilential  miasmata. 
It  is  not  known  whether  miasma  is  lighter  or  heavier  than  air,  but  it  is 
established  that  the  inhabitants  of  ground  floors  are  affected  by  it  in  a 
greater  proportion  than  those  of  upper  stories ;  and  that  this  is  caused 
by  its  attraction  by  the  earth's  surface  is  proved  by  its  creeping  along 
the  ground,  and  concentrating  and  collecting  on  the  sides  of  adjacent 
hills,  instead  of  floating  directly  upwards  in  the  atmosphere.  Miasma 
is  certainly  lost  and  absorbed  by  passing  over  a  small  surface  of  water. 
The  rarefying  heat  of  the  sun,  too,  certainly  dispels  it,  and  it  is  only 
during  the  cooler  temperature  of  the  night  that  it  acquires  body,  concen- 
tration, and  power.  All  regular  currents  of  wind  have  also  the  same 
effect.  The  leeward  shore  of  Guadaloupe,  for  a  course  of  nearly  thirty 
miles,  under  the  shelter  of  a  very  high  steep  ridge  of  volcanic  moun- 
tains, never  felt  the  sea  breeze,  nor  any  breeze  but  the  night  land  wind 
from  the  mountains  ;  and  though  the  soil  is  a  remarkably  open,  dry,  and 
pure  one,  being  mostly  sand  and  gravel,  altogether  and  positively  with- 
out marsh  in  the  most  dangerous  places,  it  is  inconceivably  pestiferous 
throughout  the  whole  tract,  and  in  no  spot  more  so  than  the  bare  sandy 
beach  near  the  high  water  mark.  The  colored  people  alone  ever  venture 
to  inhabit  it,  and  when  they  see  strangers  tarrying  on  the  shore  after 
nightfall,  they  never  fail  to  warn  them  of  their  danger. 


SAN.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  543 

The  chief  predisposing  causes  of  every  epidemic,  and  especially  of 
cholera,  are :  damp,  moisture,  filth,  animal  arid  vegetable  matters  in  a  state 
of  decomposition,  and  in  general,  whatever  produces  atmospherical  im- 
purity ;  which  always  have  the  effect  of  lowering  the  health  and  vigor  of 
the  system,  and  of  increasing  the  susceptibility  to  disease.  Attacks  of 
cholera  are  uniformly  found  to  be  most  frequent  and  virulent  in  low- 
lying  districts,  on  the  banks  of  rivers,  in.  the  neighborhood  of  sewer 
mouths,  and  wherever  there  are  large  collections  of  refuse,  particularly 
amidst  human  dwellings.  The  practical  precautions  given  in  Russia 
are  "  to  keep  the  person  and  dwelling-place  clean,  to  allow  of  no  sinks 
close  to  the  house,  to  admit  of  no  poultry  or  animals  within  the  house, 
to  keep  every  apartment  as  airy  as  possible  by  ventilation,  and  to  pre- 
vent crowding  wherever  there  are  sick."  Next  to  perfect  cleansing  of 
the  premises,  dry  ness  ought  to  be  carefully  promoted,  by  keeping  up  in 
damp  and  unhealthy  districts  sufficient  fires,  and  this  agent  will  promote 
ventilation  as  well  as  warmth  and  dryness.  If,  notwithstanding  these 
precautions,  cholera  break  out,  the  premonitory  symptom  of  looseness 
of  the  bowels  almost  universally  precedes  the  setting  in  of  the  more 
dangerous  state  of  the  disease.  This  looseness  of  the  bowels  may  be 
accompanied  with  some  degree  of  pain,  but  in  many  cases  pain  is 
wholly  absent,  and  for  some  hours  or  even  days  the  bowel  complaint 
may  appear  so  slight,  without  previous  knowledge  of  the  importance 
of  its  warning,  as  to  escape  notice  altogether.  But  when  the  Asiatic 
cholera  is  epidemic,  never  neglect  the  slightest  degree  of  looseness  of  the 
bowels.  If  neglected  only  a  few  hours,  it  may  suddenly  assume  the 
most  fatal  form.  The  most  simple  remedies  will  suffice,  if  given  on  the 
first  manifestation  of  the  premonitory  symptom,  and  the  following,  which 
are  within  the  reach  and  management  of  every  one,  may  be  regarded 
as  among  the  most  useful,  namely  :  twenty  grains  of  opiate  confection, 
mixed  with  two  tablespoonfuls  of  peppermint  water,  or  with  a  little 
weak  brandy  and  water,  and  repeated  every  three  or  four  hours,  or 
oftener,  if  the  attack  is  severe,  until  the  looseness  is  stopped ;  or  an 
ounce  of  the  compound  chalk  mixture,  with  ten  or  fifteen  grains  of  the 
aromatic  confection,  and  from  five  to  ten  drops  of  laudanum  repeated 
in  the  same  manner.  From  half  a  drachm  to  a  drachm  of  tincture  of 
catechu  may  be  added  to  the  last,  if  the  attack  is  severe.  Half  these 
quantities  should  be  given  to  young  persons  under  15,  and  still  smaller 
doses  to  infants.  It  is  recommended  to  repeat  these  remedies  night 
and  morning  for  some  days  after  the  looseness  of  the  bowels  has  been 
stopped,  and  in  all  cases  to  have  recourse  to  medical  advice  as  soon  as 
possible.  Next  in  importance  to  the  immediate  employment  of  such 


544  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [SAP. 

remedies,  is  attention  to  proper  diet  and  clothing.  The  most  wholesome 
articles  of  vegetable  diet  are  ivell-baked  but  not  new  bread,  rice,  oatmeal, 
and  good  potatoes.  The  diet  should  be  solid  rather  than  fluid,  and  with 
the  means  of  choosing,  it  is  better  to  live  principally  upon  animal  food, 
as  affording  the  most  concentrated  and  invigorating  diet — avoiding 
salted  and  smoked  meats,  pork,  salted  and  shell-fish,  cider,  perry,  ginger 
beer,  lemonade,  acid,  liquors  of  all  description,  and  ardent  spirits.  If, 
notwithstanding  these  precautionary  measures,  a  person  is  seized  sud- 
denly with  cold,  giddiness,  nausea,  vomiting,  and  cramps,  under  circum- 
stances in  which  instant  medical  assistance  cannot  be  procured,  the  con- 
current testimony  of  the  most  experienced  medical  authority  shows 
that  the  proper  course  is  to  get  as  soon  as  possible  into  a  warm  bed ; 
to  apply  warmth  by  means  of  heated  flannel,  or  bottles  filled  with  hot 
water,  or  bags  of  heated  camomile  flowers,  sand,  bran,  or  salt,  to  the 
feet  and  along  the  spine ;  to  have  the  extremities  diligently  rubbed ; 
to  apply  a  large  poultice  of  mustard  and  vinegar  over  the  region  of  the 
stomach,  keeping  it  on  fifteen  or  twenty  minutes ;  and  to  take  every 
half  hour  a  teaspoonful  of  sal  volatile  in  a  little  hot  water,  or  a  dessert- 
spoonful of  brandy  in  a  little  hot  water,  or  a  wine  glass  of  hot  wine 
whey,  made  by  pouring  a  wine  glass  of  sherry  into  a  tumbler  of  hot 
milk ;  in  a  word,  to  do  every  thing  practicable  to  procure  a  warm,  gen- 
eral perspiration,  until  the  arrival  of  the  physician  whose  immediate 
care  under  such  circumstances  is  indispensable. 

(This  article  is  an  abstract  from  an  article  in  the  British  Aide  Me- 
moire  to  the  Military  Sciences,  under  the  head  of  Sanitary  Precautions, 
and  that  article  is  taken  entirely  from  the  works  of  Dr.  W.  Ferguson, 
Inspector-general  of  Military  Hospitals,  and  Reports  of  the  General 
Board  of  Health,  London,  1849.) 

SAP.  •  The  sap  is  an  apparently  slow  means  of  constructing  trenches, 
but  being  continued  by  night  as  by  day  without  cessation,  its  progress 
is  soon  felt.  The  work  is  executed  by  sappers  rolling  before  them 
a  large  gabion,  which  shelters  the  workmen  from  musketry.  In  this 
manner  one  gabion  after  another  is  filled  with  earth  and  rolled  in  ad- 
vance of  its  predecessor  after  that  part  of  the  trench  already  made  has 
been  well  consolidated.  A  trench  thus  formed  is  called  a  sap.  When 
the  fire  of  the  enemy  is  slack,  so  that  many  gabions  may  be  placed  and 
filled  at  the  same  time,  it  is  called  a  flying  sap.  If  two  parapets,  one 
on  each  side  of  the  trench,  be  formed,  it  is  then  called  a  double  sap. 

SAP-FAGrOTS — are  fascines  three  feet  long,  placed  vertically 
between  two  gabions,  for  the  protection  of  the  sappers  before  the  para- 
pet is  thrown  over.  ' 


SAW.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  545 

SAPPERS.  There  is  attached  to  the  corps  of  engineers  a  company 
of  sappers,  miners,  arid  pontoniers,  called  engineer  soldiers  The  com- 
pany is  composed  of  ten  sergeants  or  master  workmen,  ten  corporals 
or  overseers,  two  musicians,  thirty -nine  privates  of  the  first  class  or 
artificers,  and  thirty-nine  privates  of  the  second  class  or  laborers.  The 
said  engineer  company  shall  be  subject  to  the  Rules  and  Articles  of 
War,  be  recruited  in  the  same  manner  and  with  the  same  limitation, 
and  are  entitled  to  the  same  provisions,  allowances,  and  benefits,  as  are 
allowed  to  other  troops  constituting  the  present  military  peace  establish- 
ment. The  said  company  shall  be  officered  by  officers  of  the  corps  of 
engineers,  shall  perform  all.  the  duties  of  sappers,  miners,  and  ponto- 
niers, and  shall  aid  in  giving  practical  instructions  in  those  branches  at 
the  Military  Academy ;  and  shall,  under  the  orders  of  the  chief  engineer, 
be  liable  to  serve  by  detachments  in  overseeing  and  aiding  laborers 
upon  fortifications  or  other  works  under  the  engineer  department,  and 
in  supervising  finished  fortifications  as  fort-keepers,  preventing  injury 
and  applying  repairs  ;  (Act  May  15,  1846.)  In  marches  near  an  ene- 
my, every  column  should  have  with  its  advance  guard  a  detachment  of 
sapppers,  furnished  with  tools  to  open  the  way  or  repair  the  road.  It 
would  be  well  if  these  sappers,  as  suggested  by  General  Dembinski, 
were  mounted,  in  order  rapidly  to  regain  the  advance  guard,  after 
having  finished  their  work. 

SAP-ROLLER — consists  of  two  large  concentric  gabions,  six  feet 
in  length,  the  outer  one  having  a  diameter  of  four  feet,  the  inner  one  a 
diameter  of  two  feet  eight  inches,  the  space  between  them  being  stuffed 
with  pickets  or  small  billets  of  hard  wood,  to  make  them  musket-shot- 
proof.  Its  use  is  to  protect  the  squad  of  sappers,  in  their  approach, 
from  the  fire  of  the  place. 

SASH.  A  mark  of  distinction,  worn  by  officers  round  the  waist, 
and  composed  of  silk. 

SAW-MILL,  (PATENT,  UPRIGHT,  PORTABLE.)  It  is  composed  of 
eight  pieces  of  timber,  from  five  to  eight  feet  long ;  four  pieces  of  plank, 
from  four  to  six  feet  long  ;  arid  about  fifteen  hundred  pounds  of  iron  ; 
besides  two  long  bed-pieces,  a  carriage,  some  small  wooden  fixtures, 
pulleys,  etc.  The  common  up-and-down  saw,  six  and  one-half  or  seven 
feet  long,  is  used  without  sash-gate  or  muley,  and  will  saw  timber  of 
the  largest  or  smallest  size.  It  is  so  very  simple  in  its  construction 
that  it  has  but  few  bearings,  and  consequently  but  little  friction,  and  will 
therefore  require  much  less  power  to  drive  it  than  the  more  complicated 
mills  now  in  general  use.  As  much  of  the  cumbrous  machinery  of  other 
mills,  such  as  large,  heavy  frames,  sash-gates,  etc.,  is  dispensed  with  in 
35 


54G  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [SCA. 

this,  it  is  much  less  liable  to  get  out  of  order ;  while  its  simplicity  en- 
ables any  one  of  ordinary  mechanical  ability  to  repair  or  build  it.  The 
amount  of  repairs  required  with  fair  usage  is  of  insignificant  import. 
The  great  advantage  of  such  a  mill  for  military  purposes  is  its  portability. 
The  engines  and  boilers  furnished  with  these  mills  are  constructed 
specially  for  it.  The  first  size  is  a  boiler  10  feet  long,  24  tubes  2J 
inches  in  diameter,  and  7J  feet  long,  shell  over  the  fire-box  44  inches  in 
diameter,  shell  over  the  tubes  34  inches  in  diameter,  and  engine  of  7- 
inch  cylinder  and  15-inch  stroke.  This  is  a  large  eight-horse  power, 
and  is  sufficient  to  drive  the  mill  with  any  rapidity  in  the  hardest  and 
heaviest  timber.  It  is  sold  with  the  mill — the  whole  establishment 
weighing  about  6,500  pounds — for  $1,250.  The  second  size  is  a  boiler 
11-J-  feet  long,  25  tubes  2]-  inches  in  diameter,  and  7£  feet  long,  shell 
over  the  fire-box  44  inches  in  diameter,  shell  over  the  tubes  34  inches 
in  diameter,  engine  same  as  that  described  above,  (7-inch  cylinder  and 
15-inch  stroke,)  excepting  that  it  has  extra  connections.  It  may  be 
rated  as  good  ten-horse,  and  is  capable  of  driving  the  mill,  together 
with  some  other  machinery  at  the  same  time,  such  as  circular-saw  for 
sawring  slabs,  lath,  and  other  light  work.  This  power  is  recommended. 
It  is  sold  with  the  mill — the  whole  weighing  about  7,500  Ibs. — for 
$1,400.  In  these  prices  smoke  pipes,  connections,  and  every  thing 
necessary  for  running  are  included.  The  mill,,  may  be  put  up  and  at 
work  in  two  or  three  days  after  its  receipt  at  any  given  place.  It  is 
said  to  saw  three  thousand  feet  a  day,  and  has  been  made  to  saw  nine 
hundred  feet  per  hour.  With  an  exhaust  pipe  on  the  smoke  stack  the 
sawdust  may  be  used  for  fuel. 

SCALING  LADDERS.     (See  ESCALADE.) 

SCARFED.     (See  CARPENTRY.) 

SCARP.     (See  ESCARP.) 

SCARP  (To.)  To  cut  down  a  slope,  so  as  to  render  it  inacces- 
sible. 

SCHOQL.     (See  ACADEMY,  Military.) 

SCOUTS.  Horsemen  sent  in  advance,  or  on  the  flanks  to  give  an 
account  of  the  force  and  movements  of  the  enemy. 

SCREWS.  In  screws  the  parts  are — the  stem,  the  head,  the  slit, 
and  the  thread.  The  bottom  of  the  slit  of  the  larger  screws  of  small- 
arms  is  concave  ;  the  base  screw  of  the  rear  sight  has  two  holes  in  the 
head  instead  of  a  slot,  in  order  that  it  may  not  be  removed  by  the 
ordinary  screw-driver.  The  Screw  is  also  a  mechanical  power.  The 
power  applied  perpendicular  to  the  axis,  is  to  the  weight,  as  the  pitch 
of  the  screw  s,  or  the  distance  between  the  two  threads,  is  to  the  cir- 


SEC.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  547 

cumference  described   by  the  point  to  which  the   power  is   applied. 
Thus,  if  the  power  is  applied  by  means  of  a  lever  I, 

p_   w  s 
2  vl 

SECANT.     (&?<?  TRIGONOMETRY.) 

SECRETARY  OF  WAR.  The  principal  officer  of  the  Execu- 
tive Department  of  War.  (See  DEPARTMENT  OF  WAR.)  Mr.  Attorney- 
general  Wirt,  in  an  opinion,  dated  Jan.  25,  1821,  says,  the  Secretary  of 
War  "  does  not  compose  a  part  of  the  army,  and  has  no  duties  to  per- 
form in  the  field."  The  duties  assigned  by  law  for  the  Secretary  of 
War  are  the  following  :  1.  The  act  creating  the  new  department  (Act 
Aug.  7,  1789)  gives  to  the  Secretary,  besides  the  custody  of  records, 
books,  and  papers  of  the  old  department,  the  record  of  military  com- 
missions, the  care  of  warlike  stores  and  other  duties  clearly  minis- 
terial. 2.  Section  5,  Act  March  3,  1813,  continued  in  force  by  the  9th 
section  of  the  Act  of  April  24,  1816,  delegates  jointly  to  the  President 
and  Secretary  of  War  the  power  to  make  regulations  better  defining  and 
describing  the  respective  powers  and  duties  of  staff  officers.  3.  Articles 
of  War,  13,  18,  and  19,  intrust  the  Secretary  of  War  with  muster- 
rolls  and  returns,  and  give  him  authority  over  the  forms  of  such  papers, 
and  to  require  stated  returns.  4.  The  llth  Article  of  War  authorizes 
him  to  grant  discharges  to  non-commissioned  officers  and  soldiers  ;  and 
the  65th  of  the  same  articles  makes  him  the  medium  in  passing  pro- 
ceedings of  certain  courts-martial,  and  the  organ  of  the  President's 
orders  thereon }  5.  Another  Article  of  War  (the  95th)  charges  the 
Secretary  with  receiving  accounts  of  the  effects  of  deceased  officers  and 
soldiers.  6.  Act  "May  18,  1826,  section  1,  respecting  clothing,  &c., 
charges  certain  duties  upon  the  Quartermaster-general  "  under  the 
direction  of  the  Secretary  of  War."  7.  Several  acts  authorize  the 
Secretary  to  purchase  sites  for  arsenals.  8.  The  Ordnance  Depart- 
ment and  its  materiel  are  made  subject  to  the  Secretary  by  the  Act 
February  8,  1815.  9.  Under  the  Act  March  2,  1803,  Section  1,  the 
Secretary  of  War  is  authorized  to  give  direction  to  the  State  Adjutants- 
general,  in  order  "  to  produce  uniformity  "  in  returns,  and  to  lay  ab- 
stracts of  the  same,  &c.  10.  The  Secretary  shall  lay  before  Congress 
on  the  1st  of  February  in  each  year  a  statement  of  the  appropriations 
of  the  preceding  year  showing  the  amount  appropriated,  and  the 
balance  remaining  unexpended  on  the  31st  of  December  preceding.  He 
shall  estimate  the  probable  demands  which  may  remain  on  each  appro- 
priation, and  the  balance  shall  be  deducted  from  the  estimates  of  his 
department  for  the  service  of  the  current  year ;  (Act  May  1,  1820.) 


548  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [SEC. 

11.  He  shall  render  annually  accounts  exhibiting  the  sums  expended  out 
of  such  estimates,  together  with  such  information  connected  therewith 
as  may  be  deemed  proper  ;  (Act  May  1, 1820.)  12.  The  Secretary  of 
War  shall  cause  to  be  collected  and  transmitted  to  him  at  the  seat  of 
Government  all  flags,  standards,  and  colors,  as  may  be  taken  by  the 
army  of  the  United  States  from  their  enemies ;  (Act  April  18,  1814.) 
13.  The  Secretary  may  employ  for  the  office  of  the  War  Department 
one  chief  clerk,  and  such  other  clerks  as  may  be  authorized  by  law ; 
(Acts  April  20,  1818,  and  May  26,  1824.)  14.  The  Secretary  of  War 
may  furnish  to  persons  who  design  to  emigrate  to  Oregon,  California, 
or  New  Mexico,  such  arms  and  ammunition  as  may  be  needed  to  arm 
them  for  the  expedition  at  the  actual  cost  of  such  arms  and  ammunition ; 
(Resolution  March,  2,  1849.)  15.  All  purchases  and  contracts  for  sup- 
plies or  services  for  the  military  service  of  the  United  States,  shall  be 
made  by  or  under  the  Secretary  of  War  ;  (Act  July  16, 1798.)  16.  He 
shall  annually  lay  before  Congress  a  statement  of  all  contracts,  with  full 
details  ;  (Act  April  21,  1808.) 

Not  one  of  the  numerous  acts  of  Congress  relative  to  the  War  Df1- 
partment  gives  him  authority  to  command  troops.  His  lawful  duties 
are  all  purely  administrative,  and  as  "  he  does  not  compose  a  part  of 
the  army,"  the  President,  in  the  exercise  of  his  office  of  commander-in- 
chief,  can  of  course  only  use  the  military  hierarchy  created  by  Congress. 
The  English,  from  whom  our  system  is  borrowed,  opposed  to  centraliza- 
tion of  authority  as  adverse  to  freedom,  have  judiciously  recognized  the 
fact,  in  practice  as  well  as  theory,  that  the  War  Department  is  not  of  such 
a  nature  that  it  can  be  directed  as  other  departments  of  the  cabinet,  or  even 
be  made  to  work  by  the  simple  play  of  constitutional  changes  in  the  min- 
istry. They  have  consequently  separated  the  action  of  the  public  force 
from  the  direction  of  financial  matters.  But  as  the  safety  of  the  state 
depends  upon  the  stability  of  its  .military  institutions,  the  steadfast- 
ness of  the  means  at  work,  and  the  skilful  direction  of  all  details,  the 
Minister  of  War,  who  is  changed  by  every  triumph  of  opposite  opin- 
ion, is  not  a  military  officer,  and  not  charged  with  military  authority. 
The  permanent  military  institutions  of  the  country  do  not  depend  upon 
him.  The  army  does  not  look  to  him  for  nominations  to  office,  disci- 
pline, or  military  control.  He  is  simply  the  great  provider,  the  super- 
intendant  of  accounts,  the  financier,  the  interpreter  of  the  plans  of  the 
cabinet  for  exterior  and  politico-military  operations.  He  is  aided  by 
under-secretaries,  who  do  not  go  out  of  office  with  the  cabinet,  and  who 
are  charged  with  the  administration  and  payments  for  materiel. 

The   commander-in-chief,  on  the   contrary,  is  the  conservator  of 


SER.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY*  5^9 

discipline,  the  centre  of  nominations,  the  life-spring  which  animates  and 
directs  the  army,  the  source  of  orders,  the  regulator  of  tactics.  He 
occupies  himself  \vith  improvements  of  all  kinds,  and  with  the  destina- 
tion of  materiel.  It  is  to  him  that  the  Minister  of  State1  for  War  has 
recourse  when  he  communicates  to  parliament  or  the  cabinet  the  con- 
dition of  the  army,  details  of  organization  and  other  military  information. 
Military  finance  and  the  support  of  armies  are  thus  left  with  the  Secre- 
tary of  War,  while  command,  discipline,  and  improvements  are  regu- 
lated by  the  commander-in-chief.  The  Minister  of  War  thus  follows  the 
fortunes  of  a  cabinet  without  the  military  institutions  of  the  country 
being  in  any  manner  affected  by  party  changes.  Practice  in  the  United 
States  has  widely  diverged  from  this  theory.  (Consult  BARDIN,  Dic- 
tionnaire  de  VArmee  de  Terre  y  Milice  Anglaise  /  Debates  in  Par- 
liament.) 

SECTION,  PROFILE,  GROUND-PLAN.  If  a  plane  pass 
through  work  in  any  direction,  the  cut  made  by  it  is  a  section ;  if  the 
cut  be  vertical  and  perpendicular  to  the  face  of  the  work,  it  is  a  ground- 
plan  :  thus,  when  the  foundation  of  a  house  appears  just  above  the 
ground,  it  shows  the  ground-plan  of  the  building. 

SELLING.     (See  AMMUNITION.) 

SENIOR.     Superior  rank. 

SENTENCE.     (See  COURT-MARTIAL.) 

SENTRY  OR  SENTINEL.  Any  sentinel  sleeping  on  post  or 
leaving  it  before  being  regularly  relieved,  shall  suffer  death,  or  such 
other  punishment  as  may  be  inflicted  by  sentence  of  a  court-martial. 

SERGEANT.  Non-commissioned  officer  above  corporal.  There 
are  various  grades  of  sergeants  :  1st.  Sergeant-major,  the  first  non- 
commissioned officer  of  a  regiment,  whose  principal  office  is  to  assist 
the  adjutant ;  2d.  Quartermaster-sergeant,  assistant  to  the  regimental 
quartermaster ;  3d.  Principal  musicians  of  a  regiment ;  4th.  Ordnance 
sergeant ;  5th.  First  sergeant,  or  orderly  sergeant  of  a  company,  and 
6th.  Sergeants,  without  prefix. 

SERVANTS.  (See  PAY,  for  the  number  allowed  to  officers.) 
Company  officers  only  can  take  soldiers  from  the  line  as  servants ; 
(Act  April  24,  1816.) 

SERVICE.  The  military  art  is  the  art  of  serving  the  state  in  war. 
All  studies,  acts,  and  efforts  of  the  profession  of  arms  have  this  end  in 
view.  To  belong  to  the  army  and  to  belong  to  the  land  service,  are  the 
same  thing.  In  a  more  restricted  sense,  service  is  the  performance  of 
military  duty.  In  its  general  sense,  service  embraces  all  details  of  the 
military  art.  But  in  its  restricted  sense,  actual  service  is  the  exercise 


550  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [SEX 

of  military  functions.  We  say  the  Military  Service  ;  Cavalry,  Artil- 
lery, or  Infantry  Service ;  Active  Service ;  Regimental  Service ;  De- 
tached Service ;  Service  on  the  Staff;  Garrison  Service ;  Camp  Service ; 
Campaign  Service  ;  Service  in  peace  ;  Service  in  war  ;  Daily  Service ; 
Service  abroad  ;  Service  at  home  ;  Frontier  Service ;  Service  us  captain, 
&c. ;  Armed  Service ;  Actual  Service.  To  see  service  implies  actual  com- 
bat with  an  enemy.  Service  in  campaign,  is  service  in  the  field  ;  and  in 
the  French  army,  service  in  war  or  in  colonies  counts  double,  in  estimat- 
ing length  of  service,  for  promotions,  pensions,  retreat,  and  other  re- 
munerations. (See  ABATIS  ;  ADJUTANT-GENERAL  ;  AIDE-DE-CAMP  ;  ARMS, 
(Small;)  ARTILLERY;  ASSAULT;  ATTACK  AND  DEFENCE  ;  BARRICADES; 
BARRIER  ;  BATTERIES  ;  BATTLE  ;  BAYONET  ;  BLACKING  ;  BLINDAGE  ; 
BLOCK-HOUSE  ;  BOMBARDMENT  ;  BRIDGES  ;  CAMP  ;  CAMPAIGN  ;  CAPITU- 
LATION ;  CARPENTRY  ;  CAVALRY  ;  CHARGE  ;  CONVOYS  ;  COOKING  ;  COUP 
D'CEIL  ;  DEFENCE,  ( Coast ;)  DEFILE  ;  DEFILEMENT  ;  DISEMBARKATION  ; 
DRAGOONS.;  EMBARKATION  ;  ENGINEERS  ;  ESCALADE  ;  FASCINES  ;  FIELD- 
WORKS  ;  FIRING  ;  FLAGS  OF  TRUCE  ;  FLANK  ;  FORAGING  ;  GABIONS  ; 
GUNNERY  ;  INFANTRY  ;  LANCE  ;  LAW,"  (Martial ;)  LODGMENT  ;  MANOEU- 
VRES IN  BATTLE  ;  MARCH  J  MlNE  J  OBSTACLES  J  OvEN  J  OUTPOSTS  J 

PARTISAN.;  RECONNOISSANCE  ;  RIFLEMEN  ;  ROADS  ;  SANITARY  PRECAU- 
TIONS ;  SAW-MILL  ;  SIEGES  ;  SQUARES  ;  STADIA  ;  STRATEGY  ;  SURYEYS, 
(Military  ;)  TACTICS  ;  TARGET  ;  TELEGRAPH  ;  TOOLS  ;  VETERINARY  ; 
WAGON  ;  WAR  ;  and  Alphabetical  list  generally. 

SEXTANT.  An  instrument  for  measuring  the  angular  distances  of 
objects  by  reflection.  It  is  a  segment  of  a  circle  of  60°.  The  quadrant 
and  reflecting  circle  are  instruments  which  depend  on  the  same  prin- 
ciple of  optics,  viz. :  if  an  object  be  seen  by  reflection  from  two  mirrors 
which  are  perpendicular  to  the  same  plane,  the  angular  distance  of  the 
object  from  its  image  is  double  the  inclination  of  the  mirrors.  The 
purpose,  then,  of  the  sextant,  quadrant,  and  reflecting  circle,  is  the 
adaptation  of  a  convenient  method  for  measuring  the  angle  between 
two  mirrors  perpendicular  to  the  same  plane,  and  thus  ascertaining  the 
angle  between  two  objects.  This  is  accomplished  by  a  contrivance 
which  enables  the  mirrors  to  be  so  arranged  that  an  object  seen 
directly  is  brought  to  coincide  with  the  image  of  another  object  seen  by 
reflection,  and  the  angle  is  shown  by  an  index. 

SHAFT — in  mining,  is  a  perpendicular  excavation. 

SHEERS.  (See  DERRICK  ;  GIN.)  By  removing  the  pry  pole  of 
the  gin,  it  may  be  used  as  sheers.  When  thus  used,  a  block  of  wood 
of  the  same  dimensions  as  the  head  of  the  pry  pole  with  a  hole  in  it  large 
enough  to  receive  the  clevis  blot,  must  be  inserted  in  place  of  the  pry  pole. 


SIK.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  551 

SHELLS.  A  shell  is  a  hollow  shot  with  a  hole  to  receive  the  fuze. 
They  are  usually  fired  from  mortars  and  howitzers,  and  are  charged 
with  a  sufficient  quantity  of  powder  to  burst  them,  when  they  reach  the 
end  of  their  range.  When  fired  at  troops,  the  shells  should  be  pre 
pared  to  burst  over  their  heads  ;  or  if  the  ground  be  favorable,  to  rico- 
chet in  front  and  plunge  into  the  column.  When  fired  at  works  or 
buildings,  the  shells  should  burst  after  penetration.  (See  AMMUNITION  ; 
FUZE  ;  RIFLED  ORDNANCE  ;  SABOT  ;  SPHERICAL  CASE.) 

SHOT,  (SOLID  OR  .ROUND.)  Made  of  cast  iron  and  used  as  pro- 
jectiles when  great  accuracy,  range,  and  penetration  are  required.  (See 
BREACH  ;  SABOT.) 

SIEGES.  An  army,  to  undertake  the  siege  of  a  fortress,  must 
have  superiority  in  the  field,  so  that  while  some  of  the  corps  are  oc- 
cupied in  besieging  the  place,  others  are  employed  in  covering  this 
operation,  or  in  repulsing  the  enemy  whenever  he  endeavors  to  succor 
the  place.  The  army  covering  the  siege  is  called  an  Army  of  Obser- 
vation, and  that  which  endeavors  to  give  aid  to  the  place  is  called  the 
Succoring  Army.  The  Besieging  Army  is  that  which,  protected  by  the 
army  of  observation,  throws  up  all  the  works  necessary  to  take  the 
place,  such  as  trenches,  batteries,  &c.  It  begins  its  operations  by  in- 
vesting the  fortress  ;  that  is,  it  will  advance  with  the  greatest  secrecy 
and  rapidity,  and  occupy  positions  on  every  side,  to  cut  off  all  com- 
munication with  the  adjacent  country,  and  confine  the  garrison  entirely 
to  their  own  resources.  The  positions  thus  occupied  are  strengthened 
by  field-works,  and  a  sure  communication  is  kept  up  between  them. 

It  is  absolutely  necessary  to  invest  the  fortress  attacked,  so  as  to 
prevent  the  garrison  holding  any  intercourse  with  the  neighboring 
country  ;  for  if  this  precaution  be  not  taken,  the  defenders  will  be  able 
to  draw  fresh  supplies  of  men,  provisions,  and  ammunition  from  the 
country,  increasing  greatly  the  duration  of  the  siege,  and  reducing  the 
chances  of  ultimate  success.  At  the  late  siege  of  Sebastopol,  the 
ground  being  intersected  by  the  inlet  of  the  harbor  of  Sebastopol,  the 
allied  army  was  unable  to  complete  the  investment.  Thus  the  fortress 
on  the  northern  side  was  left  open  to  receive  all  the  reinforcements  of 
men  and  materiel  which  could  be  furnished  by  the  resources  of  Russia. 
Fresh  officers,  fresh  troops,  fresh  provisions  were  continually  poured 
in ;  the  defences  were  enlarged  and  multiplied ;  and  the  besiegers, 
attacked  in  their  own  lines,  held  at  one  period  a  very  critical  position. 
The  siege  was  thus  prolonged  beyond  that  of  any  other  of  modern 
times,  and  success  was  ultimately  attained  by  a  loss  of  men  and  ma- 
teriel altogether  unprecedented.  Ground  was  broken  on  the  10th 


552  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [SiE. 

October,  1854,  and  on  the  10th  September,  1855,  the  Russians,  having 
sunk  their  ships,  retreated  from  the  southern  to  the  northern  side  of 
the  harbor,  leaving  the  works  on  the  southern  side  in  the  hands  of  the 
allies,  exactly  eleven  months  after  the  commencement  of  their  attack. 

A  place  may  sometimes  be  reduced  by  investment  or  blockade 
alone,  and  where  it  is  possible  suddenly  to  blockade  a  place  ill  pro- 
visioned and  filled  with  a  numerous  garrison  and  population,  it  may 
be  the  most  rea^y  and  bloodless  mode  of  proceeding.  Indeed,  many 
other  circumstances  may  render  it  desirable  to  endeavor  to  reduce 
a  place  by  blockade.  When  the  defenders  have  been  driven  within 
their  works,  and  the  place  invested,  the  ground  before  the  fronts  to  be 
attacked  is  carefully  examined,  and  the  most  suitable  situations  selected 
for  the  park  of  artillery,  and  the  engineer's  park :  the  former  to  receive 
all  the  ordnance  stores  and  ammunition  ;  the  latter  all  the  engineers' 
stores  and  materials  to  be  used  in  the  construction  of  the  trenches, 
batteries,  &c.  These  parks  should  be  placed  in  secure  localities,  be- 
hind the  slopes  of  hills  or  in  ravines,  beyond  the  general  range  of  the 
guns  of  the  fortress,  but  with  a  ready  access  to  the  trenches  and  batteries 
of  attack,  for  the  use  of  which  they  are  formed. 

The  artillery  and  engineer  parks  having  been  duly  established,  and 
an  adequate  supply  of  ordnance,  ammunition,  and  materials  collected 
in  them,  for  a  week's  or  ten  days'  consumption,  the  actual  work  of  the 
siege  begins.  The  objects  of  the  besiegers  are  three :  1st.  By  a  su- 
perior fire  of  artillery  to  dismount  the  guns  and  subdue  the  artillery 
fire  of  the  place.  2d.  To  construct  a  secure  and  covered  road  by  which 
his  columns  may  march  to  assault  the  defensive  works,  so  soon  as  they 
are  sufficiently  destroyed  to  justify  the  attempt.  3d.  To  breach  or 
batter  down  the  escarp  revetments  of  the  fortress  in  certain  spots, 
causing  the  fall  of  the  rampart  and  parapet  supported  by  them,  and 
thus  exposing  the  interior  of  the  place  to  the  assaulting  columns. 

Now,  before  any  means  can  be  taken  to  attain  any  one  of  these 
objects,  a  strong  force  must  be  placed  under  cover,  close  at  hand  to 
the  spots  on  which  the  necessary  operations  are  to  be  commenced, 
whose  duty  it  is  to  repel  any  sortie  of  the  enemy,  and  drive  back  any 
parties  which  issue  from  the  place  to  destroy  or  interrupt  the  works 
of  the  attack.  The  cover  provided  for  this  guard  of  the  trenches  is 
usually  a  trench  and  parapet  called  the  first  parallel,  formed  around 
the  whole  of  the  fronts  attacked  :  its  distance  from  the  advanced  works 
has  usually  been  between  600  and  700  yards.  In  the  late  siege  of  Se- 
bastopol,  the  first  parallel  was  opened  at  a  distance  of  1,200  yards  ;  and 
doubtless,  in  future  sieges,  owing  to  the  increased  range  of  fire-arms, 


SIE.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  553 

the  first  parallel  will  seldom  be  less,  and  may  probably  be  considerably 
more  distant.  This  parallel  is  formed  by  approaching  the  place  secretly 
in  the  night  with  a  body  of  men ;  part  carrying  intrenching  tools,  and 
the  remainder  armed.  The  former  dig  a  trench  in  the  ground  parallel 
to  the  fortifications  to  be  attacked,  and  with  the  earth  excavated  from 
the  trench  raise  a  bank  on  the  side  next  the  enemy,  while  the  latter 
remain  under  arms,  usually  in  a  recumbent  posture,  in  readiness  to 
protect  the  working  party,  should  the  garrison  sally  out.  During  the 
night,  this  trench  and  bank  are  made  of  sufficient  depth  and  extent  to 
cover  from  the  missiles  of  the  place  the  number  of  men  requisite  to  cope 
with  the  garrison,  and  the  besiegers  remain  in  the  trench  throughout 
the  following  day,  in  despite  of  the  fire  or  of  the  sorties  of  the  besieged. 
This  trench  is  afterwards  progressively  widened  and  deepened,  and  the 
bank  of  earth  raised  till  it  forms  a  covered  road,  called  a  parallel,  em- 
bracing all  the  fortifications  to  be  attacked  ;  and  along  this  road,  guns, 
wagons,  and  men  securely  and  conveniently  move,  equally  sheltered 
from  the  view  and  the  missiles  of  the  garrison.  So  soon  as  the  first 
parallel  is  established,  the  engineers  select  positions  for  the  batteries  to 
silence  the  defensive  artillery.  In  the  positions  of  these  batteries  lies 
one  of  the  principal  advantages  of  the  besiegers. 

Batteries  of  guns  and  mortars  are  now  constructed  a  little  in  ad- 
vance of  this  parallel,  in  positions,  such  that  their  guns  enfilade  all  the 
faces  of  the  works  attached.  The  crest  lihes  of  these  batteries  are 
therefore  made  perpendicular  to  the  prolongations  of  the  faces  of  the 
ravelins  and  bastions  of  the  fronts  attacked,  and  so  great  is  the  advan- 
tage to  the  besieger  arising  from  such  positions  of  his  batteries,  that 
with  an  equal  or  sometimes  smaller  number  of  guns  he  is  able  speedily 
to  subdue  the  artillery  fire  of  the  defence.  These  enfilading  batteries 
on  the  first  parallel  should  be  completed  and  ready  to  open  fire  on  the 
third  morning  after  breaking  ground. 

After  the  fire  of  the  defensive  artillery  has  been  sufficiently  sub- 
dued, the  approaches  are  commenced.  These,  like  the  first  parallel, 
are  trenches  dug  in  the  ground  and  protected  by  a  parapet  formed  of 
the  excavated  earth,  thrown  up  on  the  side  of  the  enemy's  works.  The 
approaches  are  made  on  the  capitals  of  the  ravelins  and  bastions  at- 
tacked, but  not  in  a  straight  line  directly  towards  the  salients,  as  in 
that  case  they  could  be  enfiladed  from  end  to  end,  but  in  a  zigzag  direc- 
tion, alternately  to  the  right  and  to  the  left  of  the  capitals,  in  such  a 
manner  that  their  prolongations  fall  clear  of  the  fortress,  and  the  pos- 
sibility of  enfilading  them  is  entirely  removed. 

The  heads  of  these  approaches  are  pushed  forward  by  small  parties 


554  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [Six. 

of  men,  who,  from  their  great  numerical  inferiority,  are  quite  unable  to 
contend  with  sorties  issuing  from  the  place.  To  prevent  the  repeated 
destruction  of  the  approaches,  and  the  continual  loss  of  the  working 
parties  engaged  in  their  construction,  a  guard  of  sufficient  strength  must 
always  be  stationed  within  a  distance  from  these  works  not  exceeding 
the  distance  of  these  works  from  the  covered-way  of  the  place :  so  that 
a  sortie  issuing  from  the  place  for  the  purpose  of  destroying  the  ap- 
proaches may  be  met  and  repulsed  by  the  guard  of  the  trenches  before 
they  can  have  time  to  carry  their  object  into  effect ;  and  as  the  ap- 
proaches themselves,  from  their  limited  dimensions,  afford  no  accom- 
modation for  a  guard  of  the  trenches,  a  parallel  must  always  be 
established  at  least  as  near  to  the  head  of  the  approaches  as  the  heads  of 
approaches  to  the  covered-way  of  the  place. 

It  may  then  be  considered  a  general  principle  of  the  attack  that  a 
new  parallel  or  place  of  arms  becomes  necessary  when  the  approaches 
have  advanced  half  way  between  the  last  formed  parallel  and  the 
covered-way  of  the  fortress.  So  soon,  therefore,  as  the  approaches 
have  advanced  half  the  distance  between  the  first  parallel  and  covered- 
way  of  the  fortress,  a  second  parallel  must  be  established  to  accom- 
modate a  guard  of  the  trenches,  or  the  working  parties  at  the  heads  of 
the  approaches  will  be  liable  to  be  swept  off  by  parties  of  cavalry 
issuing  from  the  covered-way,  before  aid  can  reach  them  from  the  first 
parallel.  The  approaches  are  then  pushed  forward,  parallels  being 
made  according  to  the  principles  just  laid  down,  wherever  required, 
until  they  reach  nearly  the  crest  of  the  covered  way.  Here  a  trench 
of  greater  magnitude  is  formed,  and  in  it  batteries  of  heavy  guns  are 
constructed  to  silence  the  remaining  artillery  of  the  defence,  and  to 
breach  in  certain  selected  spots  the  escarp  revetment  wall,  thus  de- 
stroying the  formidable  obstacle  to  assault  presented  by  the  high  per- 
pendicular sides  of  the  ditches  of  the  fortress. 

The  order  for  the  assault  is  given  when  the  breach  has  been  ren- 
dered practicable  by  the  overthrow  of  the  parape$  upon  the  ruins  of  its 
walls;  and  after  a  gallery  has  been  opened  for  descending  into  the 
ditch,  across  which  a  good  epaulcment  has  been  made  joining  the  breach 
to  the  gallery.  The  troops  for  the  assault  are  held  in  the  ditch,  in 
the  crowning  of  the  covered- way,  and  in  the  third  parallel.  These  de- 
tachments are  to  sustain  each  other  and  to  do  it  with  strong  arms.  At 
the  concerted  signal,  the 'first  detachment  mounts  the  breach,  driving 
back  the  defenders,  and  seeking  to  establish  themselves  firmly  upon 
the  height  by  constructing  with  gabions  a  lodgement  in  the  angle  of  the 
bastion.  This  is  a  little  intrenchment,  called  by  the  French  nid  de  pie, 


SIE.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  555 

which  crowns  the  breach,  and  under  shelter  of  which  the  soldiers  fire 
upon  all  who  present  themselves.  The  sappers  are  charged  with  its 
construction,  and  in  sufficient  numbers  for  this  purpose,  accompany  the 
assaulting  party,  each  carrying  a  shovel,  a  pick-axe,  and  a  gabion. 
The  second  detachment  aids  the  first  in  surmounting  the  breach,  and 
relieves  it  if  the  struggle  is  obstinate.  The  third  detachment  lines  the 
trenches  upon  the  glacis,  and  sweeps  with  its  fire  the  parapets  and  top 
of  the  breach,  and  wherever  else  there  is  resistance,  but  care  must  also 
be  taken,  before  coming  to  close  quarters,  to  facilitate  the  assault  by 
directing  upon  the  work  attacked,  as  many  pieces  of  artillery  as  possible. 
When  the  close  combat  begins,  the  artillery  ceases,  as  it  would  other- 
wise fire  upon  friend  and  foe. 

Frequently  the  taking  of  the  first  works  brings  about  the  sur- 
render of  the  place,  but  again  it  often  happens  that  their  resistance  is 
but  a  foretaste  of  the  obstinate  defence  to  be  made,  and  it  is  necessary 
to  grasp,  step  by  step,  the  fortifications  of  the  besieged.  Sometimes, 
again,  the  possession  of  the  ramparts  does  not  put  an  end  to  the  fight- 
ing, but  courageous  citizens,  willing  to  sacrifice  their  property  to  the 
honor  and  independence  of  their  country,  dispute  inch  by  inch  the 
possession  of  the  streets  and  houses.  The  defence  of  Saragossa  in  1808 
is  a  heroic  instance  of  such  devotedness.  The  Spaniards,  after  losing 
ttteir  fortifications,  sustained  during  twenty-three  days  attacks  in  streets 
and  from  houses.  They  capitulated  for  want  of  powder,  and  only 
after  the  enormous  loss  of  fifty-four  thousand  persons  of  all  ages  and 
sexes. 

A  commanding  officer,  defending  the  approaches  of  a  fortress  threat- 
ened by  armed  enemies,  declares  it  in  a  state  of  siege,  and  from  that 
moment  martial  law  prevails  ;  or,  in  other  words,  the  military  author- 
ity alone  governs.  Every  thing  is  brought  into  the  place  necessary  for 
defence,  in  the  shape  of  wood,  fascines,  gabions,  animals,  grain,  and 
eatables  of  all  kinds.  All  useless  mouths  are  sent  out  of  the  place, 
and  those  inhabitants  who  remain  are  required  to  provide  themselves 
with  wheat,  dried  vegetables,  oil,  salt  meats,  &c.,  for  many  months,  in 
order  that  the  garrison  may  not  be  obliged  to  share  their  provisions 
with  them.  The  place  is  put  in  a  state  of  defence  by  arming  and  re- 
pairing the  fortifications,  planting  palisades,  clearing  away  the  incum- 
brances  in  the  communications,  &c.,  &c. 

"When  the  garrison  is  sufficiently  numerous,  and  that  is  the  case 
here  supposed,  it  guards  against  being  entirely  shut  up  in  the  place,  by 
disputing  all  approaches.  Positions  are  taken  in  advance  of  the  sub- 
urbs, and  far  from  destroying  the  suburbs  as  a  smaller  garrison  must 


556  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [Si*. 

do,  they  should  be  covered  by  intrenchments,  in  the  double  aim  of 
preserving  them,  and  sparing  the  rear  as  long  as  possible. 

Besides  the  preceding  intrenchments,  advantageous  points  are  se- 
lected for  solid  redoubts  and  small  posts.  The  most  exposed  passages 
are  closed  by  abatis  or  deep  cuts.  Walls  are  pierced  with  embrasures, 
the  different  stories  of  houses  made  defensible,  and  all  means  whatever 
resorted  to  that  can  prolong  the  defence. 

Upon  a  field  of  battle  thus  prepared,  a  long  resistance  may  be  ex- 
pected, and  the  attacking  force  will  experience  great  losses  before  they 
can  open  their  trenches  and  begin  the  ordinary  labors  of  the  siege. 
Perhaps  even  during  this  exterior  struggle,  political  events  or  other 
warlike  operations  may  extricate  the  garrison  from  the  impending 
siege,  and  its  glorious  struggle  will  then  have  freed  the  place  com- 
mitted to  it  from  many  horrors. 

If  the  moment  at  last  comes  when  it  is  necessary  for  the  garrison 
to  shut  itself  up,  then  follows  that  series  of  operations  properly  called 
a  siege.  The  defence  has  a  thousand  means  of  prolonging  its  duration, 
because  his  exterior  defence  has  given  time  to  prepare  them.  Knowing 
the  point  of  attack  indicated  by  the  first  operations,  the  defence  will 
have  redoubled  his  intrenchments.  The  garrison  will  have  been 
made  warlike  by  frequent  combats.  It  occupies,  it  is  true,  a  post  hard 
pressed,  but  its  force  is  the  more  concentrated  from  that  cause,  and  is 
still  imposing  notwithstanding  the  losses  that  it  has  experienced. 

It  is  by  sorties  that  we  retard  the  operations  of  the  besiegers. 
Large  sorties  are  executed  by  numerous  corps,  and  are  generally  made 
by  day  to  avoid  confusion.  Small  sorties  are  made  at  night,  and  con- 
sist of  but  few  men.  The  first  are  designed  to  overthrow  the  trenches, 
fire  the  batteries,  and  spike  the  pieces,  and  they  are  consequently  al- 
ways followed  by  a  sufficient  number  of  workmen,  provided  with  the 
necessary  instruments.  The  smaller  sorties  are  only  directed  against 
the  workers  of  the  sap ;  they  present  themselves  unexpectedly  and 
frequently  drive  away  the  workmen,  and  break  up  the  gabions.  The 
sap  thus  interrupted  progresses  but  slowly. 

Defensive  mines  are  also  a  powerful  means  of  prolonging  the  de- 
fence, as  they  force  the  besieger  to  make  works  that  require  much  time 
in  their  preparation.  As  soon  as  the  point  of  attack  is  known  the  be- 
sieged prepare  under  the  glacis  chambers  of  mines,  which  threaten  the 
batteries  of  the  besieger  and  constrain  him  to  dig  under  the  ground. 
The  defence  has  in  this  subterranean  war  a  great  advantage,  as  he  ex- 
pects the  attack  in  galleries  previously  prepared.  The  attack  has  no 
other  resource  than  to  prepare  his  chambers  at  a  great  distance  in  order 


SIE.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  557 

to  destroy  those  of  .the  defenders,  and  for  this  purpose  globes  of  com- 
pression are  employed.  These  overcharged  chambers,  however,  re- 
quire a  great  deal  of  powder,  and  also  much  time  for  their  preparation. 

The  besieged  has  also  an  advantage  in  the  defence  of  breaches,  be- 
cause the  attacking  force  may  be  surrounded,  and  can  only  reach  their 
object  by  a  narrow  and  difficult  ascent.  In  defending  a  breach,  there- 
fore, all  the  energies  of  the  defence  should  be  brought  into  action. 
Preparations  should  be  made  in  advance  for  this  period  of  the  siege, 
and  some  pieces  of  artillery  should  be  carefully  preserved,  to  arm  at 
the  moment  of  the  assault  these  works  which  take  in  flank  and  reverse 
the  columns  of  attack.  At  the  top  of  the  breach  loaded  shells  are  kept 
ready  to  roll  down  upon  the  assailants ;  a  large  fire  should  be  lighted 
at  the  foot  of  the  breach,  and  kept  up  by  fagots.  Or,  if  the  enemy 
has  only  partially  beaten  down  the  wall,  the  foothold  may  be  cleared 
away  during  the  night  in  such  a  manner  as  to  make  the  breach  imprac- 
ticable. Mines  may  be  dug  under  the  ruins  by  which  the  assailants 
may  be  overthrown.  Long  arms,  as  pikes,  may  be  given  to  the  sol- 
diers who  defend  the  breach,  and  those  in  the  front  ranks  may  be  pro* 
tected  by  cuirasses.  If  the  work  attacked  has  much  capacity,  reserves 
may  be  held  in  the  interior  to  charge  the  enemy  when  he  shows  him- 
self, and  cavalry  may  also  be  brought  up  at  this  decisive  moment. 

Such  are,  in  general,  the  steps  to  be  taken  to  defend  a  work ;  but 
success  will  at  last  depend  upon  the  character,  firmness,  and  skill  of 
the  governor,  and  upon  the  intrepidity  of  his  soldiers. 

The  army  of  observation  ought  not  to  be  too  far  from  that  engaged 
in  the  siege,  because  it  may  be  necessary  to  call  for  reinforcements 
from  the  latter,  and  they  should  be  able  to  return  to  their  camps  after 
the  action.  Such  aid  furnished  at  the  opportune  moment  is  precious, 
and  may  contribute  powerfully  to  defeat  or  repulse  an  enemy.  When 
Napoleon  covered  the  siege  of  Mantua  he  did  not  confine  himself  to 
drawing  battalions  from  the  besieging  army,  in  order  to  fight  the  nu- 
merous troops  striving  to  surround  him,  but  he  marched  the  whole 
besieging  army,  and  uniting  it  with  the  army  of  observation,  he  gained 
the  celebrated  battle  of  Castiglione. 

Besides,  if  the  army  of  observation  be  too  far  off,  there  is  nothing 
to  prevent  the  enemy  from  unexpectedly  attacking  the  besieging  army, 
which,  occupying  a  long  line  of  investment,  is  rarely  in  a  condition  to 
repulse  such  an  attack,  and  may  therefore,  without  aid,  be  compelled 
to  raise  the  siege,  with  the  loss  of  ordnance  and  otfter  materiel.  General 
rules  cannot  be  laid  down  for  the  position  to  be  taken  by  an  army  of 
observation.  It  must  possess  mobility  of  action,  and  seek  concentra- 


558  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [Sit 

tion  as  much  as  circumstances  admit.  It  must  not  consider  itself  tied 
to  the  besieging  army,  and  yet  be  always  ready  to  succor  the  latter 
as  well  as  repel  a  succoring  army  :  conditions  which  demand  much 
consideration,  and  which  will  be  fulfilled  only  by  varying  dispositions 
according  to  circumstances. 

In  1C40,  Prince  Thomas  of  Savoy  and  the  Spaniards  held  the  city 
of  Turin,  whose  citadel  was  defended  by  a  French  garrison.  At  the 
beginning  of  May,  the  Count  d'Harcourt,  celebrated  for  his  courage 
and  his  military  talents,  set  himself  down  before  the  place,  but  it  was 
scarcely  invested  before  the  Marquis  de  Lenages  arrived  with  heavy 
forces  to  blockade  him  in  his  lines.  Turin,  invested  in  this  manner, 
presented  the  singular  spectacle  of  a  citadel  besieged  by  the  city,  of  the 
city  besieged  by  a  French  army,  and  the  latter  surrounded  by  a 
Spanish  army.  In  this  position  the  Prince  of  Savoy  corresponded  with 
Lenages  by  means  of  shells  without  fuzes,  in  which  letters  were  en- 
closed. The  same  means  were  used  to  introduce  into  the  city  a  little 
salt  and  medicine,  of  which  they  were  much  in  want.  Count  d'llar- 
court,  obliged  to  defend  himself  from  continual  sorties  made  by  Prince 
Thomas,  as  well  as  from  reiterated  attacks  of  the  Spanish  army,  covered 
himself  by  double  lines  as  a  protection  against  both.  At  length  after 
a  siege  of  four  months  and  a  half,  after  having  endured  in  his  camp 
every  privation,  he  forced  the  city  to  capitulate.  Tho  Prince  of  Savoy 
marched  out  with  the  honors  of  war,  and  the  Spanish  army  retired  ; 
(Memoirs  of  the  House  of  Savoy,  par  le  Marquis  DE  COSTA.) 

Marshal  Soult,  at  the  siege  of  Badajoz,  being  occupied  with  an 
army  larger  than  his  own,  nevertheless  found  an  occasion  by  which  he 
ably  profited  to  establish  an  equilibrium  of  forces.  Ten  thousand 
Spaniards,  to  avoid  being  an  encumbrance,  went  oat  from  Badajoz  to 
encamp  upon  the  heights  separated  from  the  French  army  by  the 
Gaudiana,  and  covered  by  the  Gebora.  Howitzers  of  long  range  were 
fired  by  the  French  army  upon  the  Spanish  camp,  in  order  to  drive  it 
as  far  as  possible  from  the  works  of  Badajoz,  from  which  it  was  sep- 
arated by  a  valley  of  600  toises  in  breadth.  An  hour  before  day,  the 
Gaudiana  was  crossed  in  boats,  the  torrent  of  Gebora  forded,  and  while 
Marshal  Mortier  directed  a  front  attack  upon  the  heights  and  sent  his 
cavalry  to  turn  the  right,  two  or  three  thousand  infantry  placed  them- 
selves in  the  valley  between  the  fortress  and  the  camp,  and  facing  both 
ways  cut  off  all  communication.  Complete  success  crowned  these  beauti- 
ful dispositions.  Eight  thousand  Spaniards  grounded  their  arms,  five  or 
six  hundred  were  killed,  arid  the  remainder  escaped.  Such  was  the  bril- 
liant combat  of  Gebora  fought  Feb.  10,  1811 ;  (Victoires  et  conquetes.) 


Sio.] 


MILITARY  DICTIONARY. 


559 


FIG.  209. 


These  dissimilar  instances,  with  hundreds  that  might  be  cited,  show 
that  no  rules  can  determine  the  conduct  of  an  army  in  the  field,  but 
genius  in  war  may  derive  instruction  from  the  memoirs  of  able  com- 
manders. (Consult  DUFOUR  ;  HYDE.  See  BATTARDEAU;  BATTERY; 
DITCH  ;  FIELD-WORKS  ;  FORTIFICATIONS.) 

SIGHT.  A  small  piece  of  brass  or  iron,  fixed  on  a  gun  at  its 
muzzle,  to  serve  as  a  point  of  direction,  and  also  to  hold  fast  the  bayonet 
on  the  firelock.  (See  HAUSSE.) 

SIGNAL.  To  attract  the  notice  of  a  division  of  your  party,  five 
or  even  ten  miles  off,  glitter  a 
bit  of  looking-glass  in  the  sun 
towards  where  you  expect  them 
to  be,  (Fig.  209.)  It  is  quite 
astonishing  at  how  great  a  dis- 
tance its  flashes  will  catch  the 
sharp  eyes  of  a  bushman  who 
has  learnt  to  know  what  it  is. 
It  is  now  a  common  signal  in 
American  prairies.  The  sparks 
from  a  well-struck  flint  and  steel 
can  be  seen  at  an  equal  distance. 

If,  instead  of  flashing  with 
the  mirror,  the  glare  be  stead- 
ily directed  to  where  the  party 
are,  it  will  be  seen  at  a  far 
greater  distance,  and  appear  as 
a  brilliant  star ;  but  it  requires 
some  practice  to  do  this  well. 
The  rays  from  the  mirror,  what- 
ever its  size  may  be,  form  a  cone 
whose  vertical  angle  is  no  greater  than  that  subtended  by  the  diameter 
of  the  sun,  and  it  is  therefore  necessary  that  the  signaller  should  be 
satisfied  that  he  throws  his  flash  within  that  degree  of  accuracy.  More- 
over, a  rapidly  passing  flash  has  far  less  brilliancy  than  one  that  dwells 
steadily  for  a  fraction  of  a  second. 

An  instrument,  called  a  "  hand  heliostat,"  has  been  contrived  by 
Galton  for  ascertaining  the  direction  of  the  flash.  Mr.  Galton  says : 
The  instrument  is  perfectly  easy  to  manage,  and  letters  can  be  signalled 
by  a  combination  of  flashes,  which  I  need  not  here  describe.  Its  power 
is  perfectly  marvellous.  On  a  day  so  hazy  that  colors,  on  the  largest 
scale — such  as  green  fields  and  white  houses — are  barely  distinguishable 


560  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [Sm. 

at  seven  miles'  distance,  a  looking-glass  no  larger  than  the  finger-nail, 
transmits  signals  clearly  visible  to  the  naked  eye. 

The  result  of  several  experiments  in  England  showed  that  the  small- 
est mirror  visible  (under  atmospheric  conditions  such  that  the  signaller's 
station  was  discernible,  but  dim)  subtended  an  angle  of  one-tenth  of  a 
second.  It  is  very  important  that  the  mirror  should  be  of  truly  parallel 
glass,  such  as  instrument-makers  procure.  There  is  loss  of  power  in 
more  than  one  way  from  a  slight  irregularity.  A  plane  mirror  only 
three  inches  across,  reflects  as  much  of  the  sun  as  a  globe  of  120  feet 
diameter,  and  looks  like  a  dazzling  star  at  10  miles'  distance. 

There  are  makeshift  ways  of  directing  the  flash  of  the  mirror ;  as, 
by  observing  its  play  on  an  object  some  paces  off,  nearly  in  a  line  with 
the  station  it  is  wished  to  communicate  with.  In  doing  this,  be  careful 
to  bring  the  eye  to  the  very  edge  of  the  mirror ;  there  should  be  as 
little  "  dispart "  as  possible,  as  artillerymen  would  say.  The  aim  must 
be  a  very  true  one,  or  the  flash  will  never  be  seen.  An  object,  in 
reality  of  a  white  color  but  apparently  dark,  owing  to  its  being  shaded, 
shows  the  play  of  a  mirror's  flash  better  than  any  other.  The  play  of  a 
flash,  sent  through  an  open  window,  on  the  walls  of  a  room,  can  be  seen 
at  upwards  of  100  yards.  It  is  a  good  object  by  which  to  adjust  the 
above-mentioned  instrument.  Two  bits  of  paper  and  a  couple  of  sticks, 
arranged  as  in  Fig.  210,  serve  pretty  well  to  direct  a  flash.  Sight  the 

distant  object  through  the  holes  in  the 
two  bits  of  paper,  A  and  B,  at  the  ends 
of  the  horizontal  stick ;  and,  when  you 
are  satisfied  that  the  stick  is  properly 
adjusted  and  quite  steady,  take  your 
mirror  and  throw  the  shadow  of  A  upon 
B,  and  further  endeavor  to  throw  the 
white  speck  in  the  shadow  of  A,  corre- 
sponding to  its  pin-hole  in  it,  through 
the  centre  of  the  hole  in  B.  Every  now 

and  then  lay  the  mirror  aside,  and  bend  down  to  see  that  A  B  con- 
tinues to  be  properly  adjusted. 

In  short  reconnoitring  expeditions  with  a  small  detachment  of  a 
party,  the  cattle  or  dogs  are  often  wild,  and  certain  to  run  home  to 
their  comrades  on  the  first  opportunity  ;  and,  in  the  event  of  not  being 
able  to  watch  them,  owing  to  accident  or  other  cause,  advantage  may 
be  taken  of  their  restlessness,  by  tying  a  note  to  one  of  their  necks,  and 
letting  them  go  and  serve  instead  of  postmen  or  carrier-pigeons. 

Fire-beacons,  hanging  up  a  lantern,  setting  fire  to  an  old  nest  high 


SlG.] 


MILITARY  DICTIONARY. 


561 


up  in  a  tree — make  night-signals ;  but  they  are  never  to  be  depended 
on  without  previous  concert,  as  bushes  and  undulations  of  the  ground 
may  often  hide  them  entirely.  The  smoke  of  fires  by  day  is  seen  very 
far,  and  green  wood  and  rotten  wood  make  the  most  smoke.  It  is  best 
to  make  two  fires  100  yards. apart.  In  the  old-fashioned  semaphores, 
or  telegraphs,  with  arms  to  them,  it  is  a  common  rule  to  allow,  for  the 
length  of  the  arms,  one  foot  for  every  mile  it  is  intended  to  be  seen 
from,  and  the  eye  is  supposed  to  be  aided  by  a  telescope. 

A  line  of  men  can  be  turned  into  a  line  of  semaphores,  by  making 
them  each  hold  a  cap  or  something  black  and  large  in  their  hands,  and 
mimic  the  movements  of  one  another.  Only  a  few  simple  signals  could 
be  transmitted  in  this  way  with  any  certainty.  There  are  four  elemen- 
tary signals,  which  deserve  general  adoption.  I  fear  the  use  of  more 
would  perplex.  Men  should  be  practised  at  these  four,  (Fig.  211.) 

Fio.  211. 


No.  1. 


No.  2. 


No.  3. 


No.  4. 


KO.  SIGNAL. 

1.  Attend  to  me ;  or,  come  to  me Wave. 

2.  All  right ;  or,  yes.    Affirmation  signal Both  arms  raised. 

8.   All  wrong ;  or,  no.     Negation  signal Both  arms  lowered. 

4   Stop Both  arms  spread. 

Energetic  movements,  of  course,  intensify  the  meaning.  To  use 
the  signals,  wave  until  you  are  answered ;  then  make  your  signal  while 
you  count  five,  and  wait  five.  Continue  this  till  your  friend  does  the 
same,  then  make  a  rapid  "  all  right ; "  he  does  the  same,  and  all  is 
concluded.  In  order  that  you  may  be  seen,  try  and  stand  in  a  position 
where  your  friend  would  see  you  against  the  sky  ;  (GALTON'S  Art  of 
Travel.) 

A  kite  has  been  suggested  as  a  day-signal ;  and  also  a  kite  with 
some  kind  of  squib  let  off  by  a  slow-light  and  attached  to  its  tail,  as 
one  by  night ;  (Col.  JACKSON.) 

A  common  signal  for  a  distant  scout  is,  that  he  should  ride  or  walk 

round  and  round  in  a  circle  from  right  to  left,  or  else  in  one  from  left 

to  right.     "  At  other  times  they  will  lie  concealed  near  a  road,  with 

scouts  in  every  direction  on  the  look-out ;    yet  no  one  venturing  to 

36 


562  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [Sia 

speak,  but  only  making  known  by  signs  what  he  may  have  to  com- 
municate  to  his  companions  or  leader.  Thus  he  will  point  to  his  ear 
or  foot  on  hearing  footsteps,  to  his  eyes  on  seeing  persons  approach, 
or  to  his  tongue  if  voices  be  audible ;  and  will  also  indicate  on  his 
fingers  the  number  of  those  coming,  describing  also  many  particulars 
as  to  how  many  porters,  beasts  of  burden  or  for  riding,  there  may  be 
with  the  party ;  (PARKYNS.)  Balloons,  rockets,  flags,  &c.,  may  be  used 
to  signal.  (See  TELEGRAPH  ;  RECONNOISSANCE.) 

SIGNAL  OFFICER.  By  Act  approved  June,  1860,  there  was 
added  to  the  staff  of  the  army  "  one  signal  officer  with  the  rank,  pay,  and 
allowances  of  a  major  of  cavalry,  who  shall  have  charge,  under  the  direc- 
tion of  the  Secretary  of  War,  of  all  signal  duty,  and  of  all  books  and 
papers,  and  apparatus,  connected  therewith."  (See  SIGNALS;  TELE- 
GRAPH.) 

SINE.  In  trigonometry  the  sine  of  any  arc  of  a  circle  is  the 
straight  line  drawn  from  one  extremity  of  the  arc  perpendicular  to  the 
radius  passing  through  the  other  extremity.  The  sine  of  an  arc  is  half 
of  the  chord  of  the  double  arc.  It  is  positive  in  the  first  and  second 
quadrants  and  negative  in  the  third  and  fourth.  (See  TRIGONOMETRY  ; 
TABLES.) 

SKETCHING.     (See  RECONNOISSANCE  and  SURVEYING.) 

SKIRMISH.  A  loose,  desultory  engagement.  Light  infantry  are 
the  troops  usually  employed  for  such  service ;  (Infantry  Tactics.) 

SLEEPERS.  Small  joists  of  timber,  which  form  the  foundation 
for  the  platform  of  a  battery,  and  upon  which  the  boards  for  the  floor- 
ing are  laid. 

SLING-CARTS.  A  wooden  sling-cart  is  composed  of  two  wheels, 
8  feet  in  diameter,  an  axle-tree,  a  tongue,  and  the  hoisting  apparatus,  and 
is  used  to  transport  cannon  and  their  carriages.  The  hoisting  apparatus 
is  a  screw,  which  passes  through  the  axle-tree,  and  is  worked  by  a  nut 
with  long  handles.  The  lower  part  of  this  screw  is  terminated  with 
two  hooks,  to  which  are  fastened  the  chains  and  trunnion  rings ;  the 
breech  of  the  piece  being  supported  by  the  cascable  chain.  Or,  if  a 
chain  be  passed  around  the  piece  to  be  raised,  it  may  be  fastened 
to  the  hooks.  The  iron  sling-cart  is  smaller  than  the  wooden,  and  is 
used  to  transport  cannon  in  the  siege  trenches. 

SLUICE — is  a  strong  vertical  sliding  door  to  regulate  the  flow  of 
water. 

SOLDIER.  Whoever  belonging  to  the  military  service  of  the 
State  receives  pay  is  a  soldier.  The  term  is  derived  from  solde.  It  is 
an  appellation,  however,  which  a  soldier  proudly  claims ;  and  it  is  on 


SPH.] 


MILITARY  DICTIONARY. 


563 


the  contrary  an  outrage  to  a  brave  man  to  say  to  him,  "you  are  no 
soldier."  "  Every  means  (says  Napoleon)  should  be  taken  to  attach  a 
soldier  to  his  colors.  This  is  best  accomplished  by  showing  considera- 
tion and  respect  to  the  old  soldier.  His  pay  likewise  should  increase 
with  his  length  of  service.  It  is  the  height  of  injustice  riot  to  pay  a 
veteran  more  than  a  recruit."  "  There  are  five  things  a  soldier  should 
never  be  without — his  musket,  his  ammunition,  his  knapsack,  his  pro- 
visions, (for  at  least  four  days,)  and  his  intrenching  tool." 
SOLID  SHOT.  (See  SHOT.) 

SORTIE.  An  attack  by  a  besieged  garrison.  (See  SIEGE.) 
SPHERICAL-CASE  SHOT.  A  spherical-case  shot  consists  of  a 
thin  shell  of  cast  iron,  containing  a  number  of  musket  balls,  and  a 
charge  of  powder  sufficient  to  burst  it ;  a  fuze  is  fixed  to  it  as  in  an  ordi- 
nary shell,  by  which  the  charge  is  ignited  and  the  shell  burst  at  any 
particular  instant.  A  spherical  case-shot,  when  loaded  ready  for  use, 
has  about  the  same  specific  gravity  as  a  solid  shot,  and  thereforenwhen 
fired  with  the  service  charge  of  powder,  its  range,  and  its  velocity  at 
any  point  in  its  range,  is  about  equal  to  that  of  a  solid  shot  of  the  same 
calibre.  The  spherical  case  mostly  used  for  field-service  is  the  12-pdr., 
and  contains,  when  loaded,  90  bullets.  Its  bursting  charge  is  1  oz.  of 
powder,  and  it  weighs  11.75  Ibs.  Its  rupture  maybe  made  to  take 
place  at  any  point  in  its  flight,  and  it  is  therefore  superior  to  grape  or 
canister.  The  attrition  of  the  balls  with  which  it  is  loaded,  formerly 
endangered  the  firing  of  the  bursting  charge.  This  is  now  obviated, 
in  making'  one  mass  of  the  balls,  by  pouring  in  melted  sulphur.  It 
is  also  prevented  by  Captain  Boxer's  improved  spherical-case  shot, 
two  forms  of  which  are  shown  in  Fig.  212. 

FIG.  212. 


In  either  case,  it  is  evident  that  the  bursting  charge  of  powder  is  kept 
separate  from  the  balls.     In  one  fig.,  it  is  contained  in  a  cylindrical  tin 


564  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [Spi. 

box,  attached  to  a  brass  socket  which  receives  the  faze,  and  which  is 
screwed  into  the  shell.  In  the  other,  the  part  of  the  shell  containing  the 
bursting  charge  is  separated  from  that  containing  the  bullets,  by  a 
diaphragm  of  sheet  iron,  E,  cast  into  the  shell ;  (i.  e.,  the  shell  is  cast  on 
to  the  diaphragm  which  is  inserted  into  the  core.)  The  bullets  are  in- 
troduced into  the  shell  by  a  second  orifice  F,  and  are  kept  in  their 
places  by  a  composition  afterwards  poured  in.  The  present  12-pounder 
spherical-case  shot,  fired  with  a  charge  of  2£  Ibs.  of  powder,  is  effective 
at  1,500  yards.  The  proper  position  of  the  point  of  rupture  varies  from 
50  to  130  yards  in  front  of,  and  from  15  to  20  feet  above,  the  object. 
The  mean  number  of  destructive  pieces  from  a  12-pdr.  spherical-case 
shot,  which  may  strike  a  target  9  feet  high  and  54  feet  long,  at  a  dis- 
tance of  800  yards,  is  30.  The  spherical-case  shot  from  rifle  cannon  is 
said  to  be  effective  at  over  2,000  yards.  Spherical  case  should  not  be 
used  at  a  less  distance  than  500  yards. 

SPIES.  In  time  of  war  all  persons  not  citizens  of,  or  owing  alle- 
giance to  the  United  States,  who  shall  be  found  lurking,  as  spies,  about 
the  fortifications  or  encampments  of  the  armies  of  the  United  States, 
shall  suffer  death  by  sentence  of  a  general  court-martial ;  (Act  April  10, 
1806,  SEC.  2.) 

SPIKE.  To  spike  guns,  is  to  drive  large  nails,  or  a  piece  of  small 
rod,  into  the  vent,  so  as  to  render  guns  unserviceable.  To  do  this 
effectually  drive  into  the  vent  a  jagged  and  hardened  steel  spike  with  a 
soft  point,  or  a  nail  without  a  head ;  break  it  off  flush  with  the  outer 
surface,and  clinch  the  point  inside  by  means  of  the  rammer.  Wedge  a 
shot  in  the  bottom  of  the  bore  by  wrapping  it  with  felt  or  by  means  of 
iron  wedges,  using  the  rammer  to  drive  them  in ;  a  wooden  wedge 
would  be  easily  burnt  by  means  of  a  charcoal  fire  lighted  with  a  bellows. 
Cause  shells  to  burst  in  the  bore  of  brass  guns,  or  fire  broken  shot  from 
them  with  high  charges.  Fill  a  piece  with  sand  over  the  charge  to 
burst  it.  Fire  a  piece  against  another,  muzzle  to  muzzle.  Light  a  fire 
under  the  chase  of  brass  guns  and  strike  on  it  to  bend  it.  Break  off  the 
trunnions  of  iron  guns,  or  burst  them  by  firing  with  heavy  charges  and 
full  of  shot,  at  great  elevations. 

To  unspike  a  piece. — If  the  spike  is  not  screwed  in  or  clinched,  and 
the  bore  is  not  impeded,  put  in  a  charge  of  £  the  weight  of  the  shot,  and 
ram  junk  wads  over  it  with  a  hard  spike,  laying  on  the  bottom  of  the 
bore  a  strip  of  wood  with  a  groove  on  the  under  side  containing  a  strand 
of  quick-match  by  which  fire  is  communicated  to  the  charge ;  in  a  brass 
gun  take  out  s&me  of  the  metal  at  the  upper  orifice  of  the  vent,  and  pflur 
sulphuric  acid  into  the  groove  for  some  hours  before  firing.  If  this 


SQU.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  505 

method,  several  times  repeated,  is  not  successful,  unscrew  the  vent 
piece,  if  it  be  a  brass  gun,  and  if  an  iron  one,  drill  out  the  spike  or 
drill  a  new  vent. 

To  drive  out  a  Shot  wedged  in  the  Bore. — Unscrew  the  vent  piece  if 
there  be  one,  and  drive  in  wedges  so  as  to  start  the  shot  forward,  then 
ram  it  back  again  in  order  to  seize  the  wedge  with  a  hook ;  or  pour  in 
powder  and  fire  it,  after  replacing  the  vent  piece.  In  the  last  resort, 
bore  a  hole  in  the  bottom  of  the  breech,  drive  out  the  shot,  and  stop 
the  hole  with  a  screw ;  ( Ordnance  Manual.) 

SPLINTER-PROOF.  Strong  enough  to  resist  the  splinters  of 
bursting  shells. 

SPRING.     (See  ARMS  for  the  springs  in  the  musket  lock.) 

SQUAD.  A  small  party  of  men.  A  company  should  be  divided 
into  squads,  each  under  a  responsible  officer  or  non-commissioned  officer ; 
the  whole  under  the  superintendence  of  the  captain  or  company  com- 
mander. 

SQUADRON.     Two  companies  or  troops  of  cavalry. 

SQUARES.  My  opinion  (says  Marshal  Bugeaud)  is  that  a  large 
square  has  not  proportionally  a  greater  fire  than  a  small  one,  and  that 
it  is  no  stronger.  In  a  charge  of  cavalry,  that  portion  only  which  at- 
tacks the  face  of  a  square  is  to  be  feared.  In  extending  the  face  of  a 
square,  therefore,  if  its  fire  is  augmented,  the  number  of  cavalry  that 
can  bear  down  against  it  is  augmented  in  the  same  proportion.  A 
square  of  three  thousand  men  is  not  then  any  stronger  than  a  square  of 
one  thousand.  It  would  therefore  be  absurd  to  form  three  thousand 
men  in  one  square,  because  they  can  be  more  readily  formed  into  three 
or  four  squares,  which  will  mutually  protect  each  other,  and  form,  as  it 
were,  a  system  of  redoubts.  And  if  one  of  these  combined  squares  is 
broken  by  cavalry,  the  cavalry  becomes  disordered  in  the  act,  and  the 
remaining  squares  are  left  intact.  Besides,  in  presenting  a  small  front 
to  the  attack  of  cavalry,  horses,  fearing  to  charge  against  the  shower  of 
balls  which  welcome  them,  are  apt  to  oblique  to  the  right  or  to  the 
left.  If  the  face  of  the  square  is  extended  they  cannot  do  so,  and  the 
shock  must  fall  on  some  part  of  the  face,  but  the  smaller  the  faces  of 
combined  squares  the  greater  will  be  the  intervals,  and  the  more  certain 
the  success  of  the  defence. 

From  these  considerations,  it  is  apparent  that  large  squares  ought 
not  to  be  used,  but  that  squares  of  a  single  battalion  are  worthy  of  all 
commendation.  The  formation  of  troops  in  two  ranks  is  the  prescribed 
order  of  the  United  States  infantry  tactics.  Marshal  Marmont  says : 
u  Nothing  can  be  said  in  favor  of  a  third  rank.  Persons  of  experience 


506  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [STA. 

know  that  if  one  can,  at  a  review,  fire  a  volley  in  three  ranks,  it  is  im- 
possible in  war.  It  is  better,  therefore,  to  adopt  the  two-deep  forma- 
tion, and  to  render  it  permanent."  The  tactics  direct  that  the  divi- 
sions, as  a  general  rule,  shall  always  be  formed  before  forming  square. 
Marshal  Bugeaud  is  of  opinion  that  the  square  formed  from  the  column 
by  company,  which  would  give  a  depth  of  four  or  six  men  to  the  differ- 
ent faces  of  the  square,  is  greatly  to  be  preferred.  Apart  from  the  fact 
that  such  squares  are  more  expeditiously  formed,  the  face  of  the  square 
is  reduced  one-half,  and  the  square  is  strengthened  by  the  reduction. 

STABLES  AND  STABLE  DUTIES.  The  following  arrangement 
of  stables  is  recommended : 

As  far  as  possible,  the  horses  of  the  same  squadron  should  be  placed 
in  the  same  building,  divided  by  partition  walls  or  staircases  into 
stables  of  equal  capacity.  When  windows  can  be  arranged  in  both 
long  walls,  place  the  horses  head  to  head,  separating  the  two  rows  of 
stalls  by  a  longitudinal  partition,  which  should  not  be  more  than  1' 
higher  than  the  top  of  the  hay  rack,  between  the  pillars  which  support 
the  roof.  The  interior  width  of  a  stable,  for  1  row  of  stalls,  is  20' ;  for 
2  rows,  it  is  40',  when  they  are  head  to  head;  34'  8",  when  they  are 
tail  to  tail;  height  of  ceiling,  16'  8".  Doors  should  be  pierced  in  the 
gable  ends,  and  in  the  transverse  partition  walls,  to  secure  a  longitudinal 
ventilation  during  the  absence  of  the  horses.  The  doors  for  ordinary 
use  should  be  pierced  in  the  long  walls;  width,  6'  8"  ;  height,  at  least 
8'  8". 

There  should  be  a  window,  with  an  area  of  about  16  square  feet,  for 
every  3  stalls ;  the  sill  10'  above  the  floor ;  the  sash  revolving  around 
a  horizontal  axis  at  the  bottom,  and  opening  by  the  simplest  mechan- 
ism ;  wooden  shutters  to  be  provided,  if  necessary.  The  recesses  for 
the  windows  should  extend  to  the  floor,  and  be  provided  with  hooks 
and  racks  for  suspending  the  horse  equipments ;  in  these  recesses  open- 
ings 3'  4"  X  2'  4"  should  be  made  through  the  wall,  for  throwing  out 
the  litter.  If  necessary,  ventilators  may  be  cut  through  the  roof  in  the 
middle  of  the  passage  ways  behind  the  stalls ;  ventilators  near  the  floor 
should  be  employed  only,  in  cases  of  absolute  necessity. 

The  floor  ought  to  be  of  hard  stones,  laid  on  a  firm  foundation,  and 
the  joints  filled  with  hydraulic  mortar,  cement,  or  asphalt ;  slope  of  floor 
of  stall  from  two  to  three-tenths  of  an  inch  in  ten  inches.  Mangers  of 
wood,  stone,  or  cast  iron,  placed  on  a  mass  of  masonry,  the  front  sur- 
face of  which,  as  well  as  that  of  the  manger,  has  a  reversed  slope  of  f  . 
The  wooden  mangers  are  divided  by  partitions ;  those  of  stone  or  iron 
are  hollowed  out  to  the  length  of  2'  for  each  horse,  being  solid  between 


STA.]  .  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  507 

the  hollows;  depth  8",  width  at  top  1',  at  bottom  9"  .6;  top  of 
manger  3'  8"  above  the  floor.  The  hay  racks  of  wood  and  continuous, 
3'  4"  high,  and  placed  5'  4"  above  the  floor.  The  bars  round  and 
capable  of  turning  in  their  sockets,  each  bar  1"  .2  in  diameter,  and 
placed  4"  apart;  racks  of  iron  may  be  authorized.  The  system  of  se- 
curing the  horse  consists  of:  1st,  a  bar  of  round  iron  bent  at  both  ends, 
placed  up  and  down,  parallel  to  the  face  of  the  manger,  the  upper  end 
secured  to  the  manger,  the  lower  built  into  the  masonry ;  2d,  a  ring 
sliding  on  this  bar,  and  having  a  chain  2'  long,  with  a  T  at  the  free 
end,  attached  to  it ;  this  T  toggles  to  the  halter  ring.  Fig.  213  shows 
this  arrangement. 

Each  horse  is  allowed  a  width  of  4'  10", 
never  less  than  4'  8",  so  that  he  may  have 
the  allowance  of  70  cubic  feet,  and  the  space 
necessary  for  stable  guards,  utensils,  &c.,  may 
be  preserved.  Stables  which  are  less  than 
29'  wide  and  12'  high  can  be  used  for  two 
rows  of  horses  only  as  a  temporary  arrange- 
ment. 

The  French  have  stables  of  all  dates  and 
varieties ;  one  recently  completed  at  Saumur, 
and  the  new  ones  at  Lyons  are  justly  regarded 
as  models  of  excellence.  Their  dimensions  and  general  arrangements 
are  in  conformity  with  the  regulations  given  above ;  there  are,  how- 
ever, some  details  worthy  of  notice ;  that  at  Saumur  being  the  most 
perfect  will  be  described  in  preference.  The  stalls  are  4'  10"  wide  in 
the  clear,  and  10'  long  to  the  heel  posts ;  they  are  separated  by  suspend- 
ed swinging  planks. 

The  floors  are  of  cubical  blocks  of  stone,  laid  in  cement.  A  shallow 
gutter  in  the  rear  of  each  row  of  stalls  allows  the  stale  to  drain  off. 
The  longitudinal  partition  is  of  masonr^,  and  about  10'  high.  The  in- 
terior of  the  stable  is  plastered ;  the  woodwork  painted  oak  color.  In 
the  window  recesses  there  are  racks,  on  which  to  hang  the  horse  equip- 
ments when  saddling  and  unsaddling.  The  equipments  are  kept  in 
rooms  in  the  loft,  where  the  saddles  are  placed  on  horizontal  wooden 
pins,  the  bridles  hung  on  hooks.  The  racks  are  continuous,  and  of  wood ; 
the  string-pieces,  and  each  bar,  are  bound  with  narrow  strips  of  sheet 
iron.  The  lower  string-piece  rests  upon  iron  hooks,  let  into*the  wall, 
the  upper  one  is  held  firm  by  iron  bars,  also  let  into  the  wall.  The 
manger  is  a  continuous  mass  of  stone,  with  an  excavation  for  each  ani- 
mal; these  excavations  are  22"  long,  12"  deep,  and  12"  wide  at  top. 


568  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [STA. 

The  building  is  divided  into  apartments,  for  about  20  horses  each,  by 
transverse  partitions  and  stairway  halls ;  there  are  large  doors  in  these 
partitions.  In  a  central  hall  there  are  water  tanks. 

The  openings  mentioned  in  the  regulations  for  removing  the  litter 
do  not  exist.  The  halter  bars  are  arranged  as  described  in  the  regula- 
tions ;  but  there  is  another  ring  and  chain,  above  the  manger,  for  use  in 
the  day  time.  Forage  for  3  or  4  days  is  kept  in  the  loft,  where  there 
are  also  rooms  for  a  few  non-commissioned  officers.  In  the  floor  of  the 
loft  there  are  trap  doors,  so  that  hay  and  straw  may  be  thrown  down 
into  the  halls  below.  The  oats  run  down  from  the  bin,  through  a  wooden 
pipe,  into  a  large  box  on  wheels.  On  the  outride  of  the  walls  there 
are  rings  for  attaching  the  horses  while  being  groomed.  At  Lyons, 
some  of  the  stables  had  quarters  in  the  second  story;  this  is  stated  by 
many  officers  to  be  an  admirable  arrangement,  and  attended  with  no 
inconvenience  whatever ;  there  are  a  few  who  object  to  it.  The  hospital 
stables  are  always  separate  from  the  others,  and  have  box  stalls. 

Stable  Duty. — In  each  squadron,  the  stable  guard  generally  consists 
of  a  corporal  and  1  man  for  every  20  horses.  It  is  their  duty  to  feed 
the  horses,  watch  over  their  safety  during  the  night,  and  attend  to  the 
general  police  of  the  stables,  being  assisted  by  an  additional  detail  at 
the  hours  of  stable  call. 

About  one-half  the  litter  is  usually  kept  down  during  the  day. 
The  oats  are  given  in  two  feeds :  .one-half  at  morning  stable  call,  the  rest 
in  the  evening.  The  hay  is  divided  into  three  equal  portions — at  morn- 
ing, noon,  and  night ;  in  the  forage  magazine  it  is  put  up  in  trusses  of  1 
ration  each,  and  thus  received  in  the  stable  loft ;  at  each  feed  the  stable 
guard  receive  these  trusses,  and  divide  each  one  among  three  horses.  If 
straw  is  fed,  it  is  given  either  just  before  or  just  after  the  hay,  always 
in  tlie  same  order.  The  horse  is  watered  twice  a  day,  either  just  before 
or  after  his  grain.  The  horse  is  cleaned  principally  with  a  bouchon  of 
straw  and  with  the  brush ;  the  comb  is  used  only  to  clean  the  brush. 

In  the  Crimea,  the  cavalry  usually  encamped  in  line,  with  two  rows 
of  picket  ropes  and  a  line  of  shelter  tents  in  front  of  and  behind  the 
picket  ropes ;  the  arms  and  equipments  between  the  shelters  and  the 
picket  ropes. 

The  picket  rope  is  stretched  on  the  ground,  and  the  horses  secured 
to  it  by  a  hobble  on  the  right  fore-foot ;  the  hobble  is  of  leather,  and 
about  3'«long ;  it  buckles  around  the  pastern  joint ;  sometimes  the 
hobble  is  attached  to  a  picket  pin,  instead  of  a  picket  rope.  Fig. 
214  shows  this  arrangement;  it  is  spoken  of  by  the  French  officers 
as  being  the  best  manner  of  securing  the  horses.  Officer's  horses 


STA]. 


MILITARY  DICTIONARY. 


569 


are  on  the  flanks  of  the  squadron  picket  ropes ;  those  of  the  field  and 
staff  are  near  the  tents  of  their  owners.  For  the  latter,  rude  stables 
are  usually  formed,  by  excavating  to  the  depth  of  a  couple  of  feet,  bank- 
ing up  the  earth  around  three  sides,  and  then  forming  a  roof  and  walls 
of  brush. 

FIG.  214 


When  time  and  circumstances  permitted,  the  same  was  done  for  the 
horses  of  the  men,  especially  in  the  winter.  It  was  stated  that  a  very 
slight  protection  of  this  kind  produced  very  marked  beneficial  results. 
In  this  connection,  it  may  be  said,  that  companies  of  cavalry  ought 
always  to  be  provided  with  a  sufficient  number  of  tools  to  enable  them 
to  improvise  some  such  shelter  in  any  camp  at  all  permanent ;  any  thing 
which  partially  protects  the  horses  from  the  cold  winds  is  of  great 
service.  The  French  horses  were  blanketed  in  camp.  (Consult  Mc- 
CLELLAN.) 

STADIA.  A  very  simple  aid  in  estimating  distances,  consists  of  a 
small  stick,  held  vertically  in  the  hand  at  arm's  length,  and  bringing 
the  top  of  a  man's  head  in  line  with  the  top  of  the  stick,  noting  where  a 
line  from  the  eye  of  the  observer  to  the  feet  of  the  man  cuts  the  stick, 
or  stadia,  as  it  is  called. 

To  graduate  the  stadia,  a  man  of  the  ordinary  height  of  a  foot-sol- 
dier, say  5  ft.  8  in.,  is  placed  at  a  known  distance,  say  50  yards ;  and 
the  distance  on  the  stick  covered  by  him  when  it  is  held  at  arm's  length 
is  marked  and  divided  into  8  equal  parts.  If  the  distance  is  now  in- 
creased, until  the  man  covers  only  one  of  these  divisions,  we  know  he 
is  at  a  distance  equal  to  50  yds.  X  8  =  400  yards.  This  instrument  is 
not  very  accurate,  except  for  short  distances. 

A  much  more  accurate  stadia  is  constructed  by  making  use  of  a 


570  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [Six 

metal  plate,  having  a  slit  in  it  in  the  form  of  an  isosceles  triangle,  the 
base  of  which,  held  at  a  certain  distance  from  the  edge,  subtends  a  man, 
(5  ft.  8  in.)  say  at  the  distance  of  100  yards.  A  slider,  ab,  (Fig.  215,) 
moves  along  the  triangle,  being  always  parallel  to  the  base,  AB,  and 

the  length  of  it  comprised  between  the  two 
sides  of  the  triangle,  represents  the  height 
of  men  at  different  distances,  which  are 
marked  in  yards  on  the  side  of  the  tri- 
angle, above  or  below,  according  as  the 
object  looked  at  is  a  foot  soldier  or  horse- 
man. In  order  to  keep  the  stadia  always 
at  the  same  distance  from  the  eye,  a  string  is  attached  to  the  slider,  the 
opposite  end  having  a  knot  tied  in  it,  which  is  held  between  the  teeth 
while  using  the  instrument,  which  is  held  in  the  right  hand,  the  slider 
being  moved  with  the  left-hand  finger.  The  string  should  always  be 
kept  stretched  when  the  instrument  is  used,  and  the  line  AB  in  a  verti- 
cal position. 

It  must  be  graduated  experimentally,  by  noting  the  positions  in 
which  the  slider  a  b  represents  the  height  of  the  object.  The  instrument 
used  is  not,  however,  reliable.  Its  uncertainty  increases  in  an  equal 
ratio  with  the  distance  of  the  object  observed.  At  the  extreme  ranges 
it  is  quite  useless.  At  the  school  for  firing  at  Vincennes,  therefore, 
they  rely  entirely  on  the  eye  alone  for  the  judgment  of  distances,  and 
great  pains  by  careful  practice  and  instruction  is  taken  to  perfect  that 
judgment.  A  simple  instrument  by  which  distances  can  be  determined 
is,  therefore,  still  a  great  desideratum.  The  prismatic  teliometer  of 
M.  Porro,  of  the  Sardinian  army,  is  however  the  best  measurer  of  dis- 
tances that  has  been  yet  invented.  It  is  described  in  WILCOX'S  Rifle 
Practice. 

STAFF.  The  staff  of  an  army  may  be  properly  distinguished 
under  three  heads  : — 

1.  The  General  Staff,  consisting  of  adjutants-general  and  assistant- 
adjutants-general  ;    aides-de-camp ;    inspectors-general  and  assistant-in- 
spectors-general.    The  functions  of  these  officers  consist  not  merely  in 
distributing  the  orders  of  commanding  generals,  but  also  in  regulating 
camps,  directing  the  march  of  columns,  and  furnishing  to  the  command- 
ing general  all  necessary  details  for  the  exercise  of  his  authority.     Their 
duties  embrace  the  whole  range  of  the  service  of  the  troops,  and  they 
are  hence  properly  styled  general  staff-officers. 

2.  Staff  Corps,  or  staff  departments.     These  are  special  corps  or  de- 
partments, whose  duties  are  confined  to  distinct  branches  of  the  service. 


STA.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  571 

The  engineer  corps  and  topographical  engineers  are  such  staff  corps. 
The  ordnance,  quartermasters',  subsistence,  medical  and  pay  depart- 
ments are  such  staff  departments. 

3.  The  Regimental  Sta/  embraces  regimental  officers  and  non- 
commissioned officers  charged  with  functions,  within  their  respective 
regiments,  assimilated  to  the  duties  of  adjutant-generals,  quarter- 
masters and  commissaries.  Each  regiment  has  a  regimental  adjutant, 
and  a  regimental  quartermaster,  appointed  by  the  colonel  from  the 
officers  of  the  regiment.  Ideas  concerning  the  utility,  organization,  and 
duties  of  the  staff  may  be  found  in  many  writers.  Until  the  end  of 
the  reign  of  Louis  XIV.,  feudal  manners  and  arbitrary  notions  accom- 
modated themselves  badly  to  written  rules  ;  but  about  this  period  more 
wholesome  ideas  began  to  prevail ;  mathematics  made  some  progress ; 
its  application  spread ;  the  military  art  felt  its  effects ;  it  was  admitted 
that  a  single  head  was  not  sufficient  for  all  the  details  necessary  to  con- 
duct an  army.  It  was  agreed  that  the  general-in-chief  should  have 
assistants  to  perform  various  duties.  Hence  certain  military  grades 
and  financial  employments  were  created.  Those  thus  invested  with 
authority  were  associated  under  the  same  designation.  But  this  STAFF 
was  far  from  being  a  special  permanent  corps.  It  was  only  a  tempo- 
rary assemblage  of  officers,  and  later  took  the  name  of  staff,  to  indicate 
that  they  were  AIDES  of  the  general  in  regulating  and  supplying  troops. 
Frederick  the  Great  and  Bonaparte  undertook  and  gloriously  terminated 
more  than  one  war  with  the  aid  of  staff-officers,  but  without  a  staff 
corps.  At  the  beginning  of  the  last  century  there  existed  in  regard  to 
the  staff  a  few  traditions,  or  customs,  which  differed  in  different  armies. 
Neither  laws,  regulations,  nor  instructions  had  yet  been  established  de- 
fining the  rights,  powers,  and  duties  of  the  staff.  Staff-officers  were 
principally  employed  in  reconnoissances ;  and  on  duties  connected  with 
lodging  troops  as  aides  of  the  quartermaster-general ;  in  the  prepara- 
tion and  distribution  of  the  orders  of  the  day,  &c.  ;^and  as  bureau 
officers.  The  war  of  the  French  Revolution  wras  finished  by  the  French 
army  without  a  staff  corps.  The  French  army  had  staff-officers  under 
the  names  of  adjutants-general,  commandants,  adjunct-captains,  and 
orderly  officers ;  but  such  officers  were  rather  a  momentary  aggrega- 
tion of  officers  of  divers  corps,  than  a  special  and  permanent  corps. 
Officers  of  cavalry,  artillery,  engineers,  and  infantry,  if  they  had  not 
the  title,  often  exercised  the  functions  of  general  staff-officers,  and  made 
reconnoissances.  But  in  1818,  upon  the  return  of  the  Bourbons,  in  imi- 
tation of  the  Austrians,  Prussians,  and  Russians,  a  staff  corps  was  formed 
in  France.  The  corps  was  recruited  from  pupils  leaving  the  school  of 


572  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [S"^ 

St.  Cyr ;  after  study  they  were  admitted  to  the  school  of  the  staff; 
they  subsequently  served  in  regiments  of  infantry  and  cavalry.  After 
having  been  advanced  a  grade,  they  were  definitely  admitted  as  lieuten- 
ants of  the  staff,  and  became  entitled  to  cavalry  pay,  with  the  title  of 
aide-major. 

It  is  necessary  that  a  general  staff-officer  should  have  a  knowledge 
of  horsemanship — that  he  should  not  be  ignorant  of* the  sword  exercise; 
he  should  have  some  knowledge  of  topography ;  he  should  be  familiar 
with  foreign  languages,  should  have  studied  military  administration  and 
castrametation ;  but  above  all,  he  should  possess  a  complete  knowledge 
of  tactics,  and  be  able  to  judge  skilfully  of  military  positions.  An 
officer  grown  old  in  the  silence  of  a  bureau  would  hardly  in  the  tumult 
of  battle,  or  under  critical  circumstances,  second  his  general  by  aiding 
him  intelligently  concerning  warlike  operations.  Can  he  interrogate 
spies,  watch  over  the  observance  of  order  in  military  trains ;  draw  up 
orders  and  instructions,  mark  out  military  positions ;  improvise  a  forti- 
fication ;  organize  and  conduct  foraging  parties,  direct  markers  for  grand 
manoeuvres  1  Open  the  march  of  armies  ?  Vault  at  the  head  of  the 
light  cavalry  ?  Stimulate  and  enlighten  the  troops  by  his  interpretation 
of  the  orders  he  carries,  by  his  intuitive  knowledge  of  their  tactical 
position,  by  his  coup  d'ceil,  by  the  propriety  of  his  counsels,  and  by  the 
vigor  of  his  impulsions  1  None,  but  officers  whose  experience  has  been 
gained  by  service  with  troops,  can  do  these  things  with  promptitude  and 
effect ;  but  these  are  the  important  duties  of  the  general  staff,  and  service 
with  troops  therefore  is  the  true  criterion  of  merit  in  such  staff-officers. 
In  organizing  a  permanent  general  staff  corps,  it  consequently  becomes 
necessary  either  to  employ  in  peace  that  large  body  of  officers  necessary 
in  war  for  staff  duties,  upon  duties  entirely  foreign  to  their  functions  in 
war,  or  else  leave  them  in  idleness.  Either  course  must  unfit  them  for 
the  services  required  of  them  on  campaign,  and  it  therefore  follows,  that 
a  permanent  general  staff  involves  a  useless  number  of  officers  in  time  of 
peace,  and  a  deficiency  of  experience,  instruction,  and  aptitude  for  their 
duties  in  time  of  war.  It  is  impossible  to  avoid  this  vicious  circle  with  a 
permanent  general  staff.  The  only  true  system  of  staff  organization,  then, 
is  that  which  admits  of  supernumerary  general  and  regimental  officers, 
selected  temporarily  for  staff  duties  by  commanders  of  troops,  as  pro- 
vided by  the  Act  of  Congress  of  1799,  drawn  by  Alexander  Hamilton. 
"  The  leading  qualifications  which  should  distinguish  an  officer  selected 
for  the  head  of  the  staff  (says  Napoleon)  are :  to  know  the  country 
thoroughly ;  to  be  able  to  conduct  a  reconnaissance  with  skill ;  to  super- 
intend the  transmission  of  orders  promptly ;  to  lay  down  the  most  com- 


STO.] 


MILITARY  DICTIONARY. 


573 


plicated  movements  intelligibly,  but  in  few  words,  and  with  simplicity." 
(See  ADJUTANT-GENERAL;  AIDES-DE-CAMP;  ENGINEERS;  INSPECTOR-GEN- 
ERAL ;  LINE  ;  MEDICAL  DEPARTMENT  ;  ORDNANCE  DEPARTMENT  ;  PAY 
DEPARTMENT  ;  QUARTERMASTER'S  DEPARTMENT  ;  SECRETARY  OF  WAR  ; 
SUBSISTENCE  DEPARTMENT.) 

STANDARDS.  Flags,  standards,  and  colors,  taken  by  the  army 
and  navy  of  the  United  States  from  their  enemies,  to  be  delivered  with 
all  convenient  despatch  to  the  President  of  the  United  States,  for  the 
purpose  of  being,  under  his  direction,  preserved  and  displayed  in  such 
public  place  as  he  shall  deem  proper  ;  (Act  April  18,  1814.) 

STATE  TROOPS.     (See  MILITIA.) 

STOCKADE.  A  work  which  may  be  substituted  with  advantage 
for  earthen  works  of  very  small  profile,  if  it  can  be  covered  from  the 
fire  of  artillery ;  (Fig.  216.)  The  stockades  or  picket  works  usually 

FIG.  216. 


employed  against  Indians  are  composed  of  rough  trunks  of  young  trees 
cut  into  lengths  of  12  or  14  feet,  and  averaging  10  or  12  inches  in 
diameter.  They  should  be  firmly  planted  close  together.  A  banquette 
or  step  will  generally  be  required,  and  the  loopholes  so  arranged  that 
they  cannot  be  used  from  the  outside.  If  necessary,  such  a  work  can 
be  strengthened  by  ditch  and  abatis,  and  flanked  by  block-houses.  The 
figures  show  the  manner  of  planting  the  pickets. 

STOPPAGE  OF  PAY.  Where  pay  is  stopped  on  account  of 
arrears  to  the  United  States,  the  party  whose  pay  is  stopped  may  de- 
mand a  suit,  and  the  agent  of  the  treasury  is  required  to  institute  a 
suit  within  sixty  days  thereafter;  (Act  Jan.  25,  1828.)  (See  DE- 
FAULTER ;  SUIT.) 


574  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [Sio. 

STORE-KEEPERS.  (See  ARMY  ORGANIZATION  for  the  number.) 
Military  store-keepers  and  paymasters  receive  twelve  hundred  dollars 
per  annum  ;  other  military  store-keepers  receive  eight  hundred  dollars 
per  annum  ;  (Act  Aug.  2,  1842.) 

STORES.  All  public  stores  taken  in  the  enemy's  camp,  towns, 
forts,  or  magazines,  whether  of  artillery,  ammunition,  clothing,  forage, 
or  provisions,  shall  be  secured  for  the  service  of  the  United  States  ;  for 
the  neglect  of  which  the  commanding  officer  is  to  be  answerable.  (See 
BOOTY  ;  EMBEZZLEMENT  ;  SALE.) 

STORM.  To  storm  is  to  make  a  vigorous  assault  on  any  fortified 
place,  or  on  its  outworks.  The  storming  party  is  a  select  body  of  men, 
who  first  enter  the  breach,  and  are,  of  course,  imminently  exposed  to 
the  fire  of  the  enemy. 

STRAGGLERS.  Individuals  who  wander  from  the  line  of  march. 
It  is  part  of  the  rear  guard's  duty  to  pick  up  all  stragglers. 

STRATAGEM — is  a  scheme  or  plan  devised  to  cover  designs 
during  a  campaign,  or  to  deceive  and  surprise  the  enemy. 
.  STRATEGY — is  the  art  of  concerting  a  plan  of  campaign,  com- 
bining a  system  of  military  operations  determined  by  the  end  to  be 
attained,  the  character  of  the  enerny,  the  nature  and  resources  of  the 
country,  and  the  means  of  attack  and  defence.  The  theatre  of  opera- * 
tions  selected,  embraces  the  territory  we  seek  to  invade  or  that  to  be 
defended.  It  comprehends  a  base  of  operations  ;  the  objective  point  of 
the  campaign ;  the  front  of  operations^  that  is,  the  extent  of  the  line 
occupied  by  the  army  in  advance  of  its  base  ;  lines  of  operations,  the 
routes  followed  to  reach  the  objective  point  or  end  proposed  ;  lines  of 
communication  which  unite  the  different  lines  of  operation  together ; 
obstacles,  natural  or  artificial,  and  places  of  refuge. 

STREET-FIGHTING.  In  an  enemy's  country  the  case  is  much 
simplified  :  a  town  so  occupied  is  all  inimical,  and  under  the  most  des- 
perate state  of  opposition ;  consequently  in  the  attack  there  is  no  re- 
spect to  person  or  property.  If  the  Jiouses  are  combustible,  a  ready 
means  of  subduing  the  place  is  within  reach ;  and  if  not,  it  is  forced  in 
different  directions  by  siege  operations,  as  practised  by  the  French  at 
Saragossa. 

On  occasions  of  internal  dissensions  and  insurrectionary  movements, 
the  case  is  different ;  the  efforts  of  the  troops  and  of  the  well-disposed 
citizens  are  greatly  impeded  by  the  difficulty  of  distinguishing  between 
friend  and  foe,  or  of  the  premises  or  property  with  which  it  may  be 
justifiable  to  interfere.  This,  and  the  very  natural  and  proper  anxiety 
to  avoid  bloodshed  and  injury  to  one's  own  countrymen,  frequently 


STK.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  575 

lead  to  a  habit  of  temporizing  with  the  circumstances,  and  by  this  in- 
dication of  timidity  and  weakness  give  such  confidence  to  th<3  rebels  as 
to  enable  them,  and  perhaps  with  comparatively  insignificant  numbers, 
to  gain  in  moral  effect  as  the  others  lose ;  by  degrees  the  wavering  and 
the  timid  are  led  to  join  them  ;  the  troops  themselves  imagine  that 
there  is  a  declared  power  manifested  that  is  not  to  be  opposed,  and 
thus  the  former  obtain  a  complete  ascendency,  which  the  exertion  of 
more  firmness  and  system  at  first  would  effectually  have  prevented. 

The  best  institutions  of  any  country  become  endangered  by  such  a 
state  of  things ;  but  a  remedy  may  be  found  in  a  more  systematic 
manner  of  proceeding.  The  troops  should  never  be  brought  into  the 
presence  of  the  insurrectionists  until  fully  authorized  to  act — the  con- 
sequence would  be  that  the  very  appearance  of  the  soldiers  would  be  a 
warning  to  every  one  of  the  immediate  consequences  of  prolonged  op- 
position, which  would  prevent  further  conflict,  or  make  it  very  short. 
In  order  to  promote  the  power  of  vigorous  action  by  the  military,  and 
to  prevent  the  innocent  from  suffering,  the  most  solemn  warning  should 
be  issued,  in  case  of  tumult,  against  the  presence  in  the  streets  of  women, 
children,  and  persons  who  do  not  join  in  the  troubles,  intimating  that 
the  consequences  of  any  bad  result  from  their  being  thus  incautiously 
exposed  must  rest  on  themselves.  These  are  necessary  preliminaries 
to  the  consideration  of  the  means  of  attacking  an  insurrectionary  force. 
When  disturbances  are  to  be  quelled  in  a  town,  cavalry,  artillery,  and 
infantry  can  act  with  full  effect,  and  with  every  advantage  of  organiza- 
tion, so  long  as  their  opponents  occupy  the  open  streets.  If  barricades 
are  constructed  across  them,  the  cavalry  become  unserviceable ;  the 
infantry,  however,  have  still  full  force  ;  for  one  side  of  an  ordinary  bar- 
ricade is  as  good  as  the  other,  and  the  infantry  can  cross  any  of  them 
without  difficulty. 

But  when  it  is  found  that  the  insurgents  have  had  recourse  to  the 
most  determined  means  of  resistance,  by  occupying  the  interior  of 
houses  in  support  of  barricades,  the  mode  of  attack  must  be  adapted  to 
the  circumstances.  The  operation  should  be  conducted  under  due  de- 
liberation, nor  would  any  triumph  be  conceded  by  care  being  taken 
that  the  use  of  cover  shall  not  give  the  impression  of  defeat.  It  will 
be  readily  ascertained  what  part  or  parts  of  the  town  are  so  occupied 
as  to  render  the  movement  of  the  troops  through  the  open  streets  un- 
advisable.  An  endeavor  should  be  made  to  isolate  those  portions  by 
detachments  of  troops  posted  at  all  the  approaches  to  them.  This  of 
itself  would  throw  the  rioters  into  a  most  uncomfortable  and  false  po- 
sition :  they  would  find  themselves  shut  up  without  any  internal  organ- 


576  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [SIR. 

ization  to  enable  them  to  act  to  any  useful  purpose,  or  to  make  any 
combined  forcible  effort  for  their  release ;  or,  indeed,  if  they  could  do 
so,  it  would  have  all  the  effect  of  an  escape  instead  of  a  victory. 

Nor  would  it  be  necessary,  under  such  circumstances,  that  these 
detachments  should  be  at  all  large,  numbers  of  them  being  supported 
by  some  general  reserve.  Active  measures,  however,  might  at  the  same 
time  be  carried  on  against  any  portions  of  the  houses  that  it  may  be 
considered  advisable  to  force,  for  the  purpose  of  confining  the  resistance 
within  narrower  limits,  or  for  subduing  it  at  once  altogether.  Although 
in  towns  the  attack  of  a  mass  of  houses  is  formidable,  and  almost  im- 
practicable to  troops  unprepared  for  such  an  operation,  it  will  not  pre- 
sent much  difficulty  to  a  systematic  proceeding.  One  great  defect  for 
defence  in  a  house  or  street  is  its  want  of  a  flanking  fire,  although  every 
part  may  obtain  a  support  from  the  opposite  houses  in  the  same  street. 
If,  therefore,  only  one  side  of  the  street  is  occupied,  individuals  or  par- 
ties moving  close  along  that  side  are  in  security,  except  from  the  chance 
missiles  that  may  be  blindly  thrown  down  from  the  windows.  Nothing 
of  that  kind  could  prevent  two  or  three  soldiers,  under  cover  of  a  par- 
tial fire  on  the  windows,  from  passing  up  and  breaking  open  the  doors ; 
by  which  means,  the  troops  being  admitted,  possession  of  the  entire 
building  would  soon  be  obtained. 

When,  however,  from  any  peculiarity  of  the  building,  or  of  others 
contiguous,  or  from  the  circumstance  of  both  sides  of  the  street  being 
occupied  in  force,  such  a  mode  of  proceeding  would  be  too  hazardous, 
the  soldiers  might  make  an  entrance  into  the  nearest  available  house  in 
the  same  block  of  buildings,  and,  supported  by  detachments  of  troops, 
work  their  way,  through  the  partition  walls,  from  one  house  to  another  ; 
or  by  the  roofs  or  the  back  premises,  where  the  defenders  will  be  quite 
unprepared  to  oppose  them,  or,  if  they  make  the  attempt,  would  not 
have  the  same  advantages  as  in  front :  small  parties,  if  necessary,  keep- 
ing up  a  fire  on  the  windows  from  the  walls  of  the  back  yards,  or  from 
the  opposite  houses,  would  effectually  cover  these  advances  of  the 
troops.  To  carry  on  such  approaches,  the  men  should  be  provided 
with  an  assortment  of  crowbars,  sledge-hammers,  short  ladders,  and, 
above  all,  some  bags  of  powder  not  less  than  5  or  6  Ibs.  weight. 

In  these  desultory  operations  in  the  defiles  of  streets  and  houses, 
the  troops  should  not  be  in  heavy  columns,  but  in  small  detachments 
well  supported  ;  and  by  acting  thus  in  order,  and  on  system,  the  effect 
will  be  the  more  certain,  as  a  popular  movement  is,  necessarily,  with- 
out subordination  or  unity  of  action,  and  peculiarly  subject  to  panics  at  any 
proceeding  differing  from  what  had  been  anticipated  ;  (Aide  Memoire.) 


SUB.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  577 

STRIPES  AND  LASHES— infliction  of,  allowed  only  in  case  of 
desertion ;  (Act  May  16,  1812,  and  March  2,  1833.) 

SUBALTERN.     Commissioned  officer  below  captain. 

SUBSCRIBING-.  Every  officer  must  subscribe  the  Articles  of 
War;  (ART.  1.) 

SUBSISTENCE  DEPARTMENT.  (See  ARMY  for  its  organiza- 
tion.) Provides  subsistence  stores  for  the  army,  either  by  contract 
or  purchase.  Assistant  commissaries  subject  to  do  duty  as  assistant- 
quartermasters.  The  President,  under  authority  of  law,  has  fixed  the 
ration  at  f  Ib.  of  pork  or  bacon,  or  l£  Ibs.  of  fresh  or  salt  beef,  18  oz.  of 
bread  or  flour,  or  12  oz.  of  hard  bread,  or  1^  Ibs.  of  corn  meal ;  and  at  the 
rate  to  100  rations  of  8  qts.  of  peas  or  beans,  or  10  Ibs.  of  rice ;  6  Ibs. 
o*f  coffee,  12  Ibs.  sugar,  4  qts.  of  vinegar,  1£  Ibs.  of  tallow,  l£  Ibs.  adaman- 
tine or  1  Ib.  of  sperm  candles,  4  Ibs.  of  soap  and  2  qts.  of  salt.  In  different 
climates  and  on  different  kinds  of  service,  soldiers  require  different  ar- 
ticles of  diet ;  some  latitude  should  therefore  be  given  to  commanders 
of  armies  and  military  departments  in  making  variations  from  the  pre- 
scribed ration. 

A  conscientious  administrator  should  acquaint  himself  with  the 
peculiar  properties  of  different  kinds  of  food,  their  relative  nutriment, 
and  the  differences  of  food  best  suited  to  promote  health  under  the 
various  circumstances  incident  to  field-service.  The  following  extract 
from  some  observations  made  by  an  eminent  Scotch  chemist,  is  worthy 
of  every  attention  on  the  part  of  the  student  of  military  administration : 

"  In  consequence  of  the  advances  made  in  physiology  and  chemis- 
try the  nutritive  value  of  any  dietary,  deduced  from  practical  experience, 
may  be  tested  with  care  and  certainty  by  reference  to  its  chemical 
composition.  As  this  fact  is  little  known  to  practical  men,  it  may  be 
well  to  explain  the  principles  on  which  the  method  is  founded. 

"  1.  All  articles  of  food  used  by  man  consist  of  one  or  more,  and 
generally  several  nutritive  principles  ;  and  most  of  them  contain  water 
and  an  indigestible  cellular  tissue.  The  two  latter  must,  of  course,  be 
deducted  in  estimating  nutritive  value. 

"  2.  The  nutritive  principles  consist  of  two  sets,  one  of  which  main- 
tains respiration,  and  the  other  repairs  the  waste  constantly  incurred 
by  the  animal  textures  in  the  exercise  of  their  functions.  As  the  re- 
spiratory principles  commonly  abound  in  carbon,  they  are  sometimes 
called  carboniferous,  while  the  reparative  principles,  because  they  all 
contain  nitrogen,  are  termed  nitrogenous. 

37 


578 


MILITARY  DICTIONARY. 


[SUB. 


STANDARD  TABLE  OF  NUTRIMENT. 


NAME  OF  ARTICLES. 

Percentage  of  Nutriment. 

Carboniferous. 

Nitrogeneous. 

Total 

Wheat  flour                        .                        .    . 

71-25 
51-5 
65-75 
67-0 
55-5 
24-5 
8-5 
5-7 
6-7 

o-o 
100-0 

15-0 
62-5 
0-4 

o-o 

8-0 
5-5 
1-0 

o-o 

o-o 

16-25 
10-5 
16-25 
15-0 
24-5 
2-5 
1-5 
0-3 
0-3 
27-0 

o-o 

20-25 
8-36 
64-6 
21-0 
4-5 
4-5 
6-0 
1-44 
0-72 

87-5 
6-2-0 
82-0 
82-0 
80-0 
27-0 

10-0 

6-0 
7-0 
27-0 
100-0 
35-25 
70-86 
65-0 
21-0 
12-5 
10-0 
7-0 
1-44 
0-72 

J3read        

Barley  (pearl)  

Pease  

Carrots           

Lean  of  beef  and  mutton  

Average  beef  and  mutton 

Skimmed  milk  cheese  

White  fish  

Skimmed  milk          .            

Buttermilk    

Beef  tea  and  nieut  decoction  of  broth 

"  3.  Experience  has  shown  that  the  most  successful  dietaries  for 
bodies  of  men,  deduced  from  practical  observation,  contain  carbonifer- 
ous and  nitrogenous  food  in  the  proportion  of  about  three  of  the  former 
to  one  of  the  latter,  by  weight.  During  two-and-twenty  years  that  my 
attention  has  been  turned  to  the  present  subject,  not  a  single  exception 
has  occurred  to  me. 

"  4.  Hence  it  is  obvious  that  the  least  weight  of  food  in  the  rough 
state  will  be  required,  first,  when  there  is  least  moisture  and  cellular 
tissue  in  it";  and  secondly,  when  the  carboniferous  and  nitrogeneous  prin- 
ciples are  nearest  the  proportion  of  three  to  one. 

"  5.  Of  the  various  nutritive  principles  belonging  to  each  set,  some 
may  replace  one  another  ;  some  are  better  than  others ;  some  are 
probably  essential.  This  branch  of  the  science  of  the  subject  is  unfor- 
tunately still  imperfect. 

"  6,  Two  things,  however,  are  certain,  that  nitrogenous  may  replace 
carboniferous  food,  for  supporting  respiration,  though  at  a  great  loss ; 
but  that  carboniferous  food  (without  nitrogen)  cannot  replace  nitroge- 
neous food,  for  repairing  textural  waste. 

"7.  The  daily  amount  of  nutritive  principles  of  both  sets  must 
increase  with  exercise  and  exposure,  otherwise  the  body  quickly  loses 
weight,  and  ero  long  becomes  diseased.  If  the  above  proportion  be- 


SUB.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  579 

tween  the  two  sets  be  maintained,  the  weight  of  real  nutriment  per  day 
varies,  for  adults  at  an  active  age,  between  seventeen  and  thirty-six 
ounces ;  the  former  being  enough  for  prisoners  confined  for  short 
terms,  the  latter  being  required  for  keeping  up  the  athletic  constitution, 
or  that  which  is  capable  of  great  continuous  muscular  efforts,  as  in  prize- 
running  and  other  similar  feats. 

"  8.  Dietaries  ought  never  to  be  estimated  by  the  rough  weight  of 
their  constituents,  without  distinct  reference  to  the  real  nutriment  in 
these,  as  determined  by  physiological  and  chemical  inquiry. 

"  Keeping  these  principles  in  view,  and  with  the  help  of  a  simple 
table,  it  is  not  difficult  to  fix  the  dietary  advisable  for  any  body  of 
men,  according  to  their  occupation.  It  is,  also,  in  general,  easy^  to  de- 
tect the  source  of  error  in  unsuccessful  dietaries.  For  example,  any 
scientific  person  conversant  with  the  present  subject  could  have  fore- 
told, as  a  certain  consequence,  sooner  or  later,  of  their  dietary,  that  the 
British  troops  would  fall  into  the  calamitous  state  of  health  which  befell 
them  last  winter  in  the  Crimea. 

"  Soldiers  in  the  field  will  be  the  more  efficient  the  nearer  they  are 
brought  to  the  athletic  constitution.  But  as  the  demand  for  protracted, 
unusual  exertion  occurs  only  at  intervals,  the  highly  nutritive  athletic 
dietary  is  not  absolutely  necessary.  On  the  whole,  from  experience  in 
the  case  of  other  bodies  of  men  somewhat  similarly* circumstanced,  28 
ounces  of  real  nutriment,  of  which  7  are  nitrogeneous  or  reparative,  will 
probably  prove  the  most  suitable.  Any  material  reduction  below  28 
ounces  will  certainly  not  answer  ;  and  under  unusual  exertion  kept  up 
for  days  continuously,  as  in  forced  marches,  or  forced  siege  labor,  the 
quantity  should  for  the  time  be  greater,  if  possible." 

Biscuit,  particularly  when  salted  meat  is  the  principal  article  of  diet, 
is  very  apt  to  produce  dysentery  and  scrofulous  complaints  ;  it  becomes, 
moreover,  unpalatable  when  continuously  used  ;  and  so  eager  were  Eng- 
lish soldiers  in  the  Crimea  for  soft  bread  that  they  used  to  exchange  5 
Ibs.  of  biscuit  for  1  Ib.  of  bread  with  the  French  soldiers,  whose  first  work, 
after  pitching  their  camps,  was  generally  to  construct  field-bakeries,  and 
whose  supply  of  soft  bread  seldom  failed.  Sallust  tells  us  (De  bello 
Jugurth.  44)  that  the  Roman  soldiers  used  to  sell  their  ration  of  grain 
for  a  trifle  in  order  to  purchase  bread,  which  at  that  time  they  had  not 
the  means  of  manufacturing.  Mills  and  ovens  exist  in  some  form  or 
other  in  all  countries,  and  they  should  be  made  available  whenever  an 
army  halts  for  a  sufficiently  long  period  to  admit  of  their  being  worked ; 
but  as  the  enemy  frequently  destroys  these  means  of  contributing  to 
the  soldier's  comfort,  the  use  of  hand  mills  and  field-ovens  must  under 


580  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [Sun. 

such  circumstances  be  resorted  to ;  and  to  construct  these  in  the  most 
rapid  and  at  the  same  time  the  most  effectual  manner,  should  always 
be  done  where  circumstances  permit.  The  description  of  camp  ovens 
must  necessarily  depend  upon  the  permanency  of  the  encampment.  If 
the  army  be  likely  to  remain  in  position  for  any  length  of  time,  they 
should  be  constructed  of  durable  materials,  such  as  bricks ;  but  for 
hurried  operations  a  mere  excavation  of  the  earth  suffices  in  the  course 
of  a  very  short  time  to  produce  an.  oven  capable,  with  a  little  care,  of 
baking  bread.  The  impromptu  ovens  used  by  the  American  back- 
woodsmen, as  described  by  Sir  Randolph  Routh,  are  usually  raised 
upon  a  platform  about  3  feet  high,  and  5  or  G  feet  long,  by  4  feet  broad, 
and  on  this  they  construct  the  circular  form  of  the  oven  by  means  of 
forest  twigs  and  boughs  of  sufficient  strength  to  receive  arid  support 
the  cement,  which  is  made  of  common  clay  soil  and  water,  mixed  to  a 
proper  consistence,  and  put  on  in  successive  layers  until  it  acquires  the 
necessary  thickness.  An  opening  is  left  to  introduce  the  bread,  and  a 
common  piece  of  wood  with  a  handle  supplies  the  place  of  a  door  until 
it  is  baked.  (See  also  article  OVEN  for  the  ovens  made  by  French 
soldiers ;  and  TRAVELLING  KITCHEN,  for  a  suggested  improvement  for 
field-service.)  It  is  very  important  that  soldiers  should  be  instructed 
in.  making  field-ovens. 

Nothing  is  more  important  in  the  field,  than  to  keep  up  the  supply 
of  fresh  meat.  It  is  the  only  article  of  the  soldier's  ration  that  pro- 
vides its  own  transport,  and  though  a  supply  of  salted  provisions  is 
indispensable  as  a  reserve  in  case  of  accidents,  and  to  provision  fortified 
places  in  the  event  of  a  siege  or  blockade,  it  should  be  economized  as 
much  as  possible,  and  issued  only  in  cases  of  necessity,  not  only  as  be- 
ing more  expensive  and  absorbing  a  great  deal  of  transport,  but  because 
the  frequent  use  of  salted  provisions  is  invariably  detrimental  to  the 
health  of  the  troops. 

,The'  importance  of  providing  the  soldier  with  vegetables  is  now 
universally  admitted.  When  salted  provisions  are  much  used,  it  is 
essentially  desirable  to  counteract  the  tendency  to  scrofulous  complaints 
induced  by  such  diet  by  means  of  vegetable  food  ;  to  obtain  fresh  vege- 
tables in  the  field  is,  however,  a  matter  of  considerable  difficulty,  their 
liability  to  spoil  and  their  bulk  are  obvious  objections  to  their  use  by 
an  army  in  movement ;  but  the  process  of  compressing  vegetables, 
which  has  now  been  brought  to  perfection,  enables  a  commissariat  to 
keep  up  this  supply  at  the  cost  of  but  little  transport,  and  in  the  most 
convenient  form  for  immediate  use.  Rice  is  an  admirable  article  of" 
diet,  more  particularly  when  there  is  any  tendency  to  bowel  complaints. 


SUB.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  581 

It  contains  more  nutriment  than  wheat  flour,  is  easily  conveyed  and 
cooked,  and  is  not  liable  to  suffer  from  exposure.  There  would,  prob- 
ably, be  no  difficulty  in  making  a  preparation  of  rice  which  would  greatly 
reduce  its  bulk  and  still  further  facilitate  its  cooking.  Corn  meal  and 
pease  are  likewise  excellent  articles  of  food ;  but  the  latter  should,  if 
possible,  be  issued  in  a  ground  state,  as  it  otherwise  requires  more 
soaking  to  render  it  fit  for  use  than  there  is  time  for  on  the  march. 
The  supply  of  coffee  or  tea  should  never  be  allowed  to  fail.  Dr.  Chris- 
tison  says  : — "  It  is  difficult  to  over-value  the  proposed  addition  of  tea 
and  coffee  to  the  men's  rations.  They  possess  a  renovating  power,  in 
circumstances  of  unusual  fatigue,  which  is  constantly  experienced  in 
civil  life,  and  which  I  have  often  heard  officers,  who  served  in  the  Span- 
ish campaigns,  as  well  as  in  the  late  Burmese  war,  describe  in  the 
strongest  terms.  This,  however,  is  not  all,  for  it  has  been  recently 
shown  by  a  very  curious  physiological  inquiry,  that  both  of  them,  and 
especially  coffee,  possess  the  singular  property  of  diminishing  mate- 
rially the  wear  and  tear  of  the  soft  textures  of  the  body  in  the  exercise 
of  its  functions  in  an  active  occupation.'* 

The  object  of  accounts  is  to  insure  the  application  of  public  re- 
sources to  their  prescribed  ends,  and  within  regulated  limits.  This  is 
perfectly  feasible  under  ordinary  circumstances ;  but  on  active  service 
it  is  not  always  possible  to  procure  vouchers  and  receipts  according 
to  the  established  forms,  and  it  is  far  better  to  establish,  by  means  of 
a  well-organized  department  of  control,  a  strict  and  efficient  local  su- 
pervision over  the  conduct  of  supply  duties  in  the  field  than  to  exact 
accounts,  which,  however  correct  in  their  outward  form,  can  but  rarely 
represent  the  actual  transactions  as  conducted  during  the  hurried  and 
ever-changing  events  of  active  warfare.  A  judicious  system  of  musters 
and  inspections  would  do  more  to  check  waste  or  malversation  in  the 
field  than  the  most  ingenious  accountability  that  could  be  devised ;  and 
if  a  commissariat  officer  were  simply  required  to  furnish  the  head  of 
his  department  with  a  periodical  "  state  of  supplies,"  showing  where  and 
how  obtained  and  issued ;  and  officers  commanding  corps  a  return  of 
the  number  of  men  fed,  noting  any  deficiency  of  supply  ;  both  reports 
being  subject  to  verification  by  means  of  personal  inspections  and  mus- 
ters, the  object  in  view  would  be  attained  with  far  greater  certainty 
than  under  the  present  complicated  system  of  returns,  abstracts,  and 
vouchers,  the  preparation  of  which  occupies  much  of  the  time  of  a  com- 
missariat officer  that  might  be  more  profitably  employed  for  the 
benefit  of  the  troops,  while  their  subsequent  examination,  probably 
,'ifter  a  lapse  of  one  or  two  years,  answers  no  possible  purpose  except 


582  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [Sci. 

to  find  employment  for  a  large  number  of  clerks.  (Consult  FON- 
PLANQUE.) 

SUIT.  In  all  cases  where  the  pay  or  salary  of  any  person  is 
withheld,  in  consequence  of  arrears  to  the  United  States,  (and  salary  can 
be  legally  withheld  from  no  other  cause  except  by  sentence  of  court- 
martial,)  it  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  accounting  officers,  if  demanded  by 
the  party,  his  agent,  or  attorney,  to  report  forthwith  to  the  agent  of  the 
Treasury  Department,  the  balance  due ;  and  it  shall  be  the  duty  of  tho 
said  agent,  within  sixty  days  thereafter,  to  order  suit  to  be  commenced 
against  such  delinquent  and  his  sureties ;  (Act  January  25,  1828.) 

SUMMING  UP.     (See  JUDGE-ADVOCATE.) 

SUPERINTENDENT.  The  chief  of  the  corps  of  engineers  present 
at  the  Military  Academy  is  the  superintendent;  (Act  March  16,  1802.) 
The  selection  of  the  commander  of  the  corps  of  engineers  shall  not  be 
confined  to  said  corps ;  (Act  April  29,  1812.)  Officers  of  engineers 
may  be  transferred  at  the  discretion  of  the  President  from  one  corps  to 
another,  regard  being  paid  to  rank  ;  (ART.  G3.)  The  superintendent, 
"  while  serving  as  such  by  appointment  from  the  President,  shall  have 
the  local  rank,  paj,  and  allowances  of  colonel  of  engineers ;  and  the 
commandant  of  cadets,  while  serving  as  such  by  appointment  from 
the  President,  shall  have  the  local  rank,  pay,  and  allowances  of  lieu- 
tenant-colonel of  engineers  ;"  (Act  June  12,  1858.) 

SUPERIOR.     (See  OBEDIENCE.) 

SUPERNUMERARY.  Graduates  of  Military  Academy,  where 
there  are  no  vacancies  among  the  commissioned  officers  of  the  army, 
may  be  attached  as  supernumeraries  by  brevet  of  the  lowest  grade  of 
commissioned  officer,  not  exceeding  one  to  each  company  ;  (Act  April 
29,  1812.) 

By  Act  March  3,  1847,  the  President  was  authorized  to  attach  in 
the  same  manner  as  supernumerary  officers  of  the  lowest  grade  in  any 
corps  in  the  army,  any  non-commissioned  officer  who  should  distinguish 
himself  in  service,  and  be  recommended  by  the  commanding  officer  of 
his  regiment. 

SUPPLIES.  The  departments  of  supply  to  the  army  are  1.  The 
Ordnance  Department,  which  provides  ordnance  and  ordnance  stores ; 
2.  The  Quartermaster's  Department,  which  furnishes  quarters,  forage, 
transportation,  clothing,  camp  and  garrison  equipage ;  3.  The  Subsist- 
ence Department,  which  furnishes  subsistence;  and  4.  The  Medical 
Department,  which  provides  medicines  and  hospital  stores.  The 
Ordnance  and  Medical  Departments,  requiring  special  knowledge  for 
their  peculiar  duties,  could  not  be  relieved  of  any  part  of  the  duties  be- 


Prp.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  583 

longing  to  them  respectively  ;  but  the  want  of  connection  between  the 
Quartermaster's  and  Subsistence  Departments  may  in  war  be  attended 
with  serious  inconvenience,  and  no  good  reasons  whatever,  it  is  believed, 
exist  for  not  uniting  the  two  departments  in  one.  Under  the  orders  of 
one  chief  in  the  field,  acting,  of  course,  in  subordination  to  the  com- 
mander of  the  army,  such  a  department  might  originate  and  direct  such 
measures  for  the  supply  of  the  army  as  had  not  been  provided  for ;  con- 
trol expenditures ;  insure  a  prompt  and  correct  accountability  for  alt 
disbursements  and  distributions,  and  do  away  with  all  antagonism  of  in-, 
terest  caused  by  the  requirement  that  one  department  shall  furnish  sub- 
sistence stores,  and  the  other  transports.  These  with  clothing  and 
other  supplies  furnished  by  the  Quartermaster,  Ordnance,  and  Medical 
Departments,  are  the  great  wants  of  the  soldier  in  active  service.  A 
well-armed  and  well-equipped  soldier  cannot  dispense  with  food,  trans- 
portation, and  clothing,  and  the  means  of  providing  such  necessities  in 
war  demand  earnest  thought,  and  are  happily  suggested  in  the  follow- 
ing passages  from  the  work  of  M.  VAUCHELLE,  Cours  d  Administration 
Militaire : 

"  We  have  seen  military  administration  in  times  of  peace  con- 
ducted upon  complete  principles  and  regulations;  services  regularly 
organized,  and  efficiently  supported  by  the  natural  resources  of  a 
fertile  and  industrious  country ;  sufficient  funds  always  available ;  the 
immediate  supervision  and  protection  of  the  war  ministry ;  inde- 
pendence assured  to  the  control  of  military  expenditure  and  consump- 
tion by  well-defined  laws ;  nothing  wanting,  in  short,  to  satisfy  all  the 
wants  of  the  army,  and  to  provide  them  with  regularity,  order,  and 
economy. 

"  It  is  not  so,  it  cannot  be  so,  in  a  state  of  war.  In  the  field  the 
frequency  of  movements,  the  rapidity  of  marches,  the  uncertainty  of 
events,  the  ever-varying  chances,  the  imperfection  of  means,  the  insuf- 
ficiency of  resources — the  time  ever  too  short  for  all  that  has  to  be 
provided  and  done — embarrass,  retard,  and  paralyze  administrative 
action.  Every  emergency  exacts  its  immedic  iy  appropriate  measure, 
and  the  least  foreseen  accident  may  in  a  moment  frustrate  the  most 
wise  arrangement,  and  upset  the  surest  calculations.  The  duties  of 
administration  now  assume  an  entirely  new  character ;  they  become  im- 
mense in  their  extent,  limited  only,  indeed,  by  the  intelligence  of  the 
administrator  himself,  who  is  charged  with  their  execution. 

"  The  first  of  all  rules,  that  which  the  greatest  captains,  and  the 
most  enlightened  administrators  have  never  failed  to  enforce  in  their 
writings,  and  of  which  experience  has  everywhere  proclaimed  the  value, 


584  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [Sup. 

is  the  formation  of  depots  beforehand,  and  to  such  an  extent  that  the 
army  may  not  only  be  subsisted  during  the  opening  of  the  campaign, 
but  as  long  after  as  the  interests  of  military  operations  may  require,  or 
as  distance  may  permit.  A  certain  mistrust  of  the  country  about  to 
become  the  seat  of  war  is  indeed  prudent,  for  it  is  generally  a  country 
unknown  to  administration,  or  perhaps  little  or  ill  known,  and  which 
cannot  fail  to  be  opposed  to  its  operations,  since  they  are  so  apt  to 
wound  it  in  its  interests  or  in  its  feelings.  The  subjects  of  which  a 
knowledge  appears  the  most  important  are:  1.  The  divisions  of  the 
territory  into  governments,  provinces,  counties,  or  departments,  into 
districts,  cantons,  &c.  2.  The  organization  of  its  territorial,  military, 
civil,  and  financial  administration.  3.  Its  natural  products.  4.  The 
periods  of  seed  time  and  harvest  of  every  description  of  grain,  and  the 
proportion  between  (local)  produce  and  consumption.  5.  The  localities 
of  large  markets  and  fairs,  the  periods  of  these  commercial  gatherings, 
and  the  more  important  objects  of  their  traffic.  6.  The  subsistence  which 
might  most  conveniently  be  substituted  in  lieu  of  those  established  by  our 
regulations,  and  the  relative  proportion  to  be  established  in  such  substi- 
tution. 7.  The  different  branches  of  commerce  and  industry.  8.  Tho 
means  of  re-mount,  both  as  regards  cavalry  and  general  transport. 
9.  The  manufacture  of  cloth,  leather,  and  other  material,  suitable  for 
the  preparation  of  clothing,  equipments,  harness,  &c.  10.  The  articles 
of  consumption  drawn  from  other  countries,  the  designation  of  those 
countries,  and  the  objects  of  exchange  in  importations  and  exportations. 
11.  The  weights,  measures,  and  coinage,  with  relative  value  to  our 
own.  12.  The  current  prices  of  articles  of  consumption.  13.  Bar- 
racks, quarters,  hospitals,  magazines,  and  other  establishments  of  ad- 
ministration, and  their  capacities,  throughout  the  various  towns  and 
fortresses.  14.  The  most  convenient  spots  for  forming  temporary 
establishments.  15.  The  principal  points  of  communication  by  land 
and  sea,  with  the  distances  between  them,  distinguishing  the  different 
routes,  and  indicating,  as  regards  the  roads,  the  spots  at  which  they 
cease  to  be  passable  for  carriages  ;  and  as  regards  rivers  and  canals,  the 
places  where  they  cease  to  be  navigable.  16.  In  the  large  towns  or 
fortresses  the  nature  and  quantities  of  the  provisions  stored  therein,  the 
means  of  grinding  corn  and  baking,  the  principal  mercantile  firms,  and 
the  heads  of  large  manufactories  or  workshops  with  whom  it  would  be 
safe  to  deal  for  military  supplies. 

"  One  may  easily  conceive  how  useful  such  admirable  statistics 
would  be.  On  the  outbreak  of  war  the  minister  would  feel  no  uncer- 
tainty either  as  to  the  nature  or  the  extent  of  the  arrangements  he 


SUP.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY. 

^>>       "^> 

should  have  to  make  for  himself,  or  as  to  the  instruction^  tq^e  giv<! 
to  his  commissary-general.  How  many  false  moves  would/^kus  be 
avoided  ;  how  many  useless  and  heavy  expenses  saved ;  howx  fowiy 
unknown  and  lost  resources  would  thus  be  discovered  and  emplo^d 
for  the  benefit  of  the  army  and  the  relief  of  the  country  which  has  to 
support  it.  A  commissariat  should  regulate  its  arrangements  on  the 
double  chances  of  presumed  success  or  failure,  according  to  the  peculiar 
nature  of  the  war  to  be  undertaken.  In  the  case  of  success,  then  in 
proportion  to  the  advance  into  the  enemy's  country,  it  should  form  its 
depots  in  the  rear  of  the  army,  and  establish  by  stages,  on  the  line  of 
operations,  bakeries,  magazines,  hospitals,  convalescent  stations,  regu- 
lar convoys,  &c.,  always  taking  care  to  select  localities  with  reference 
to  the  most  favorable  means  of  communication  and  of  defence.  In  the 
case  of  a  reverse,  the  army  falling  back  upon  itself  will  thus  find  its 
administrative  services  secured  by  means  of  the  supplies  which  prudence 
shall  thus  have  collected.  The  rights  of  war,  which  are  but  the  rights 
of  the  most  powerful,  tempered  only  by  the  interests  of  him  who 
wields  them,  render  an  army,  whatever  it  may  be,  absolute  master  of 
the  provisions  and  other  useful  resources  which  exist,  whether  they  have 
been  provided  as  depots  by  the  enemy,  or  destined  for  other  purposes. 
Administration  requires  a  numerous  personnel,  active,  intelligent,  and 
faithful,  always  ready  to  avail  themselves  of  supplies  for  future  use,  for 
transmission  elsewhere,  or  for  immediate  distribution  to  the  troops, 
wherever  they  may  be  stationed.  A  commissariat  requires  an  ex- 
tensive and  perfectly  organized  transport ;  this  is  the  sine  qua  non  to 
enable  an  army  to  subsist  in  the  field.  Transport  is  indispensable,  and 
must  be  obtained  at  any  price  ;  it  must,  moreover,  be  well  adapted  to 
the  locality,  in  order  to  be  able  to  follow  or  rejoin  bodies  of  troops  in 
all  directions.  Thus  it  is  to  be  understood  that  the  country  occupied 
must  be  expected  to  furnish  a  large  proportion  of  the  requisite  trans- 
port. Although  acting  in  the  midst  of  a  state  of  things  essentially  inim- 
ical to  fixed  regulations  and  established  forms,  the  commissariat  should 
prescribe  for  itself  a  strict  and  scrupulous  system.  In  the  face  of  so 
many  pressing  and  urgent  wants,  which,  if  not  supplied  with  regularity, 
may  disturb  the  discipline  and  compromise  even  the  honor  of  the  army, 
it  is  not  enough  for  the  administrator  to  prove  himself  intelligent  and 
economical  in  the  dispensation  of  resources  obtained  with  difficulty  and 
labor  ;  he  should  further,  courageously  attacking  all  abuses  and  repress- 
ing with  severity  all  wastefulness  and  fraud,  secure  to  himself  the  means 
of  justifying  his  expenditure  and  distribution  by  authentic  accounts,  a 
duty  but  too  rarely  accomplished,  but  which  should  never  be  permitted 
to  be  neglected. 


586  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [Sup. 

"  War,  it  is  said,  should  feed  war ;  the  axiom  may  be  true,  if  not 
just,  but  in  no  case  should  it  be  pushed  to  extremes ;  circumstances 
may  occur,  indeed,  to  render  its  application  impolitic  and  dangerous. 
Under  no  circumstances,  however,  can  the  enemy's  country  under  occu- 
pation be  altogether  relieved  from  the  charges  of  war ;  it  must  inevi- 
tably bear  a  large  share,  even  though  its  contributions  may  occasionally 
be  considered  as  advances  only.  But  whatever  their  nature,  these  ex- 
actions from  an  enemy's  country  should  be  imposed  with  discernment 
and  moderation,  with  reference  to  the  population  and  the  nature  of  the 
produce,  the  geographical  position  and  the  wealth  of  the  country  and, 
when  possible,  with  consideration  for  the  feelings  of  the  vanquished. 
Pillage  a  country  and  you  reduce  the  inhabitants  to  misery,  to  despair, 
to  flight,  and  thus  not  only  deprive  yourself  of  assistance,  but  in  the 
day  of  reverse  find  implacable  and  cruel  adversaries." 

All  that  can  be  done  when  a  country  yields  nothing  is  to  form 
depots  wherever  bodies  of  troops  are  likely  to  be  stationed ;  to  have 
the  largest  possible  reserves  at  head-quarters  ;  and  to  be  prepared  with 
a  sufficient  land  transport  establishment  to  carry  all  requisite  supplies 
in  the  event  of  an  advance  or  a  change  of  position.  But  this  is  an  ex- 
ceptional state  of  things ;  in  general  the  country  can  be  placed  under 
contribution,  either  voluntary  or  coercive,  for  the  supply  of  provisions 
and  forage,  and  the  commissariat  officer  then  enters  upon  his  legitimate 
functions.  Several  measures  are  open  to  his  adoption ;  he  may  avail 
himself  of  the  enterprise  of  local  contractors ;  he  may  make  his  purchases 
directly  from  the  owners  at  the  market  price  ;  he  may  fix  an  arbitrary 
rate  for  the  different  articles  of  supply ;  and  lastly,  he  may  levy  con- 
tributions on  the  people  and  compel  them  to  furnish  according  to  their 
means  the  provisions  required  for  the  army.  His  own  judgment  must 
guide  him  in  the  choice  of  these  measures.  The  employment  of  con- 
tractors, in  time  of  peace  undoubtedly  advantageous,  is  attended  with 
certain -objections  during  a  period  of  war.  Sir  Randolph  Routh  says 
truly,  "  the  best  and  surest  contractor  is  the  country  occupied  by  the 
troops  and  its  natural  resources  carefully  and  duly  economized  ;  "  and 
he  proceeds  to  cite  instances  within  his  experience  of  the  inconvenience 
arising  from  too  great  a  confidence  in  contractors  "  who  swarm  about 
an  army  when  it  is  prosperous  to  prey  upon  its  wants,  but  are  the  first 
to  fly  in  the  event  of  a  reverse." 

The  commissariat  has  to  consult  at  once  the  wants  of  the  army,  the 
economy  of  the  state,  and  the  resources  and  feelings  of  the  country  in 
which  he  is  acting.  To  seize  supplies,  unless  from  an  enemy  in  arms, 
is  to  be  deprecated ;  to  pay  for  them  more  than  their  value,  is  equally 


SUP.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  587 

objectionable  ;  unnecessary  force  creates  an  ill  feeling  which  may  defeat 
the  objects  of  administration  ;  to  submit  to  imposition  enhances  the 
difficulty  of  the  service ;  but  conciliation  and  fair  dealing,  backed  by 
decision,  will  never  fail  to  prove  a  good  policy  and  enable  the  army  to 
procure  supplies  without  unnecessary  expense  to  the  public  or  uselessly 
exasperating  the  population.  If  the  territory  be  that  of  a  friendly  or  a 
neutral  power,  every  effort  should  be  made  by  the  commissariat  to 
arrive  at  a  just  estimate  of  its  resources  in  grain,  cattle,  fuel,  and  other 
articles  of  supply,  to  ascertain  their  current  market  value,  and  having 
obtained  all  possible  information  o"n  these  points,  the  people  should  be 
invited,  either  through  the  local  authorities,  or  the  agency  of  private 
individuals,  to  furnish  whatever  is  required,  with  the  understanding  that 
the  usual  price  will  be  paid  for  the  supplies  brought  in,  and  that  the 
head-quarters  of  the  army  will  prove  a  profitable  market  to  them. 

When  confidence  in  the  good  faith  of  the  purchaser  has  been  once 
established,  the  population  of  a  country  occupied  by  a  military  force 
will  be  willing  enough  to  sell,  and  should  a  disposition  to  hold  back 
supplies  in  the  hope  of  enhancing  their  value  be  shown,  the  interposition 
of  the  local  authorities  should  be  sought  in  preference  to  the  adoption 
of  arbitrary  measures.  Conciliation  and  firmness,  temper  and  justice 
combined,  will  seldom  fail  to  induce  the  inhabitants,  even  when  their 
sympathies  tend  in  another  direction,  to  contribute  to  the  extent  of  their 
means  to  the  maintenance  of  the  army  quartered  upon  them. 

Amid  a  hostile  population  a  conquering  army  should  exercise  its 
power  with  every  possible  regard  to  justice.  Fair  treatment  may 
reconcile  a  people  to  the  presence  of  a  conqueror,  and  induce  it  to  sub- 
mit to  superior  strength.  No  effort  should  be  left  untried  to  produce 
such  a  result,  since  a  resort  to  force,  although  it  may  provide  for  im- 
mediate want,  inevitably  destroys  the  sources  of  supply.  The  best 
course  to  be  adopted  in  levying  supplies  in  an  enemy's  country  is,  hav- 
ing first  ascertained  the  resources  of  the  district,  to  demand,  through  the 
local  authorities,  the  head  men  of  villages,  or  other  channels,  that  cer- 
tain quantities  of  provisions  should  be  brought  at  a  given  time  to  the 
head-quarters  of  the  army,  care  being  taken  that  the  demand  be  not  be- 
yond the  means  of  the  district,  and  a  fair  price  should  be  paid  whenever 
a  disposition  is  shown  to  comply  promptly  with  these  requisitions. 
Such  a  measure  will  rarely  fail  of  effect,  and  when  the  inhabitants  feel 
certain  that  there  is  no  alternative  between  selling  their  produce  and 
having  it  seized,  they  will  submit  to  the  necessities  of  war  in  its  least 
aggravated  form,  and  yield  to  a  compulsion  which,  though  it  do  violence 
to  their  national  feelings,  consults  their  individual  interests.  Nor  is  it 


588  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [Sun. 

• 

only  in  the  supply  of  provisions  that  the  theatre  of  war  should  be  laid 
under  contribution ;  labor  and  transport  may  likewise  be  attained  by 
means  of  judicious  administrative  arrangement.  The  stern  rules  of  war 
justify  the  exaction  of  all  the  resources  within  its  influence ;  it  is  for 
administration  to  render  these  exactions  as  little  oppressive  as  possible 
when  dealing  with  a  class  of  people  which,  as  a  rule,  is  the  most  inno- 
cent of  the  causes  of  war,  the  most  exposed  to  its  ravages,  and  the 
least  benefited  by  its  results.  In  proportion  as  tact  and  moderation 
are  displayed  by  the  agents  employed  in  levying  supplies  upon  the 
population,  so  will  the  resources  of  the  country  become  available  and 
productive.  Violence  and  wrong  will  convert  the  peaceable  peasant 
into  a  desperate  and  implacable  foe  ;  conciliation  and  fair  dealing  may 
make  him,  if  not  an  ally,  at  least  a  profitable  neutral.  Interests  far 
beyond  the  hour  may  be  involved  in  the  action  of  military  administra- 
tion under  such  circumstances,  and  the  seeds  of  rancor  or  good-will,  sown 
to-day  on  the  scene  of  contending  armies,  may  bring  forth  fruit  to  in- 
fluence the  destinies  of  nations  long  after  the  combatants  themselves 
have  ceased  to  struggle. 

If  it  be  necessary  at  established  stations  that  a  prompt  settlement 
should  be  effected  for  all  services  rendered  to  the  army,  and  that  every 
engagement  entered  into  by  the  commissariat  should  be  most  scrupu- 
lously complied  with,  how  much  more  so  is  this  the  case  in  the  field. 
The  love  of  gain — that  mainspring  of  human  ffction  under  all  circum- 
stances, and  in  all  places — is  seldom  appealed  to  in  vain  ;  but  the  feel- 
ing must  be  supported  by  confidence  ;  for  one  man  who  will  run  a  risk 
for  a  remote  prospect  of  reward,  a  hundred  will  toil  for  a  certain  re- 
muneration, and  it  should  be  one  of  the  first  aims  of  administration  to 
inspire  all  classes  among  which  it  is  called  upon  to  act,  with  a  full  and 
entire  confidence  in  its  good  faith.  A  breach  of  faith  involves  more 
than  immediate  consequences  :  it  permanently  destroys  credit ;  (FoN- 

BLANQUE.) 

SURGEON.  A  staff-officer  of  the  medical  department.  He  has 
the  rank  of  major,  but  "  shall  not  in  virtue  of  such  rank  be  entitled  to 
command  in  the  line  or  other  staff  departments  of  the  army ; "  (Act 
Feb.  11,  1847.  See  ARMY  for  the  organization  of  the  Medical  De- 
partment.) 

SURGEON-GENERAL.  The  chief  of  the  Medical  Department, 
with  the  rank  of  colonel,  but  subject  to  the  same  restriction  of  com- 
mand as  other  officers  of  the  Medical  Department. 

SURGERY,  (Military.)  Restricted  to  its  rigorous  signification, 
military  surgery  is  the  surgical  practice  in  armies ;  but  in  its  broad  and 


SUR.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  589 

ordinary  acceptation  embraces  many  other  branches  of  art,  compre- 
hending the  practice  of  medicine,  sanitary  precautions,  hospital  admin- 
istration, ambulances,  &c.  The  military  surgeon  must  not  only  be  a 
skilful  physician  and  surgeon,  but  he  must  have  a  constitution  suffi- 
ciently strong  to  resist  the  fatigues  of  war,  and  all  inclemencies  of 
weather;  a  solid  judgment  and  a  generous  activity  in  giving  prompt 
assistance  to  the  wounded  without  distinction  of  rank  or  grade,  and 
without  even  excluding  enemies.  lie  must  have  the  courage  to  face 
dangers  without  the  power,  in  all  cases,  of  combating  them  ;  he  must 
have  great  coolness  in  order  to  act  and  operate  in  the  most  difficult  po- 
sitions, whether  amidst  the  movement  of  troops,  the  shock  of  arms,  the 
cries  of  the  wounded  when  crowded  together,  in  a  charge,  in  a  retreat,  in 
intrenchments,  under  the  ramparts  of  a  besieged  place,  or  at  a  breach. 
He  must  have  inventive  ingenuity  which  will  supply  the  wants  of  the 
wounded  in  extreme  cases,  and  a  compassionate  heart,  with  strength  of 
will  which  will  inspire  confidence  in  those  with  whom  he  is  brought  so 
closely  in -contact.  The  military  surgeon,  with  his  flying  ambulance, 
throws  himself  into  the  field  of  battle,  through  the  melee,  under  the 
fire  of  the  enemy,  runs  the  risk  of  being  taken  prisoner,  being  wounded, 
or  being  filled,  and  is  worthy  of  all  the  honors  that  should  be  bestowed 
on  bravery  and  skill  in  the  performance  of  his  high  functions.  Addi- 
tional grades,  as  hospital-surgeons,  surgeons  of  divisions,  surgeons-in- 
chief,  and  inspector-generals  of  hospitals,  &c.,  are  required  for  every 
army  in  the  field. 

SURVEYS,  {Military  or  Expeditious.')  In  military  surveys  the 
first  thing  done  is  to  determine  by  triangulation,  the  principal  points, 
to  which  surveys  of  details  are  subsequently  referred. 

Triangulation. — A  base  is  chosen  from  the  extremities  of  which  a 
large  extent  of  the  ground  to  be  surveyed  may  be  seen.  The  length 
of  the  base  ought  to  be  in  proportion  to  the  extent  of  the  triangle  to 
be  constructed ;  the  equilateral  form  being  preferable.  This  base  is 
sometimes  furnished  by  the  regular  charts  from  the  topographical 
bureau.  If  not,  it  is  measured  by  chain  or  by  paces.  From  the  base, 
pass  by  the  fewest  possible  stations  to  two  points  occupying  central 
positions  in  the  survey,  and  suitable  for  stations;  from  these  two 
points  let  lines  radiate,  cutting  those  that  are  known,  and  their  intersec- 
tions serve  as  points  of  data  in  details ;  multiply  in  this  way  the 
number  of  triangles,  always  diminishing  the  length  of  their  sides ;  in- 
termediate details  may  be  determined  by  paces.  Such  is  the  process. 

Plane  Table. — For  these  operations  a  plane  table  and  the  ALIDADE 
are  sufficient.  The  plane  table  used  is  of  small  dimensions.  Com- 


590 


MILITARY  DICTIONARY. 


[Sun. 


mander  Salneuve  advises  a  plane  table  made  of  several  rulers  equal  in 
length  and  breadth,  united  by  parchment  and  strong  cloth,  upon  which 
they  are  folded.  When  the  plane  table  is  used,  the  rulers  are  kept  in 
the  same  plane  by  means  of  two  other  rulers  which  take  a  rectan- 
gular position  towards  the  others  by  being  revolved  on  one  of  their 
extremities  and  are  then  kept  in  place  by  means  of  a  little  hook  at  the 
other  extremity  of  each.  (See  Fig.  217.) 

When  the  work  is  ended  or  suspended,  these  two  rulers  are  un- 
hooked and  turned  so  as  to  cover  the  last  two  of  the  parallel  rulers,  and 
the  whole  may  then  be  folded  and  put  in  a  pistol-holster.  This  plane 
table  has  besides  an  upright  stick  with  an  iron  ferrule  which  supports  the 
table  horizontally  on  being  stuck  in  the  ground.  If  such  a  plane  table 
has  not  been  provided,  however,  it  is  easy  to  procure  a  small  flat  board, 
which  will  answer  the  same  purpose. 

Alidade. — For  an  alidade,  a  triangular  rule  of  a  double  decimetre  may 
be  used,  upon  which  are  fastened  two  nails  or  pins  which  serve  as  sights. 
The  problems  resolved  by  means  of  the  plane  table  and  alidade  arc  the 
following :  1.  To  determine  the  projection  of  an  accessible  point  by 
means  of  two  other  points  R  and  P  given  and  also  accessible.  2.  To 
determine  the  same  thing  by  means  of  two  other  points,  only  one  of 
which,  R,  is  accessible.  3.  To  determine  the  same  thing  by  means  of 
two  others,  R  and  P,  which  are  inaccessible,  but  upon  whose  direction  we 
can  find  stations.  4.  To  determine  the  same  thing  by  means  of  two 
others  not  only  inaccessible,  but  upon  whose  direction  it  is  impossible  to 
find  a  station.  5.  The  same  determination  by  means  of  three  points, 
R,  P,  Z,  inaccessible. 

FIG.  218. 


FIG.  217. 


Adjusting. — The  first  thing  to  be  done  at  each  station  is  to  adjust 
the  plane  table.  Let  R  P  be  the  base,  (Fig.  218.)  Assume  r  h  arbi- 
trarily as  its  projection  on  a  sheet  of  paper  corresponding  to  the  scale 


SUB.] 


MILITARY  DICTIONARY. 


591 


of  say  2T  io-o-'  At  the  station  R  place  the  instrument  horizontally  by 
means  of  a  plumb-line,  and  let  one  of  the  sides  of  the  alidade  (using 
the  same  side  for  all  operations)  rest  upon  the  projection,  turning  it 
until  the  side  covers  r  h.  Turn  then  the  plane  table  until  P  is  seen  in 
the  prolongation  of  the  sights.  The  plane  table  is  then  adjusted,  and  it 
must  be  maintained  in  that  position  while  at  the  station. 

To  adjust  with  reference  to  the  meridian — trace  this  line  upon  the 
leaf  and  afterwards  turn  the  side  of  the  frame  until  it  has  the  same 
direction  ;  the  problem  is  resolved  by  means  of  corresponding  heights 
of  the  sun.  Let  R  P  be  a  side 

upon  the  ground,  and  rp  its  pro-  Fl°-  219- 

visional  projection  ;  (Fig.  219.) 
Erect  upon  the  horizontal  plane 
a  vertical  stile  terminated  by  a 
plate  of  blackened  iron,  pierced 
with  a  little  hole  at  its  centre  m, 
and  disposed  in  such  manner  as 
to  receive  nearly  perpendicular- 
ly the  rays  of  the  sun  at  noon. 
Project  the  centre  m  in  m'  upon 
the  plan  by  a  plumb-line,  and 

from  m'  as  centre  describe  sev-      

eral  circumferences  n  o'  n'  p  o"  * 

p'.  Observe  the  march  of  the  sun  a  little  before  and  a  little  after 
noon.  Divide  in  two  equal  parts  the  circumferences  intercepted  by  the 
solar  spectrum  :  the  middle  points  belong  to  the  meridian,  whose  pro- 
jection we  thus  have.  Measure  then  the  angle  o  made  with  the  side  of 
the  frame  A  B  ;  lay  off  by  the  line  r  p'  an  equal  angle  ;  then  turning 
the  plane  table  until  this  line  r  p'  corresponds  in  direction  with  the 
line  that  it  represents :  the  side  of  the  frame  indicates  the  meridian  of 
the  place.  The  questions  may  then  be  thus  resolved  : 

First  Question,  (Fig.  218.) — Take  a  station  at  R;  adjust  upon  P; 
look  at  #,  the  point  sought,  by  turning  the  alidade  around  the  point  r,  the 
projection  of  R,  and  trace  r  x  the  projection  of  R  x.  Go  to  P ;  operate 
in  the  same  manner,  and  the  intersection  of  the  two  right  lines  r  x  and  h  x 
gives  the  projection  of  the  point  sought.  This  is  the  method  of  intersection. 

Second  Question. — Take  a  station  at  R ;  adjust  upon  P  :  radiate  on 
X ;  go  to  X  ;  adjust  upon  R,  following  the  indefinite  projection  already 
traced  ;  turn  the  alidade  around  p  until  P  is  seen  :  the  intersection  of 
the  right  line  thus  traced  with  the  first  gives  X.  This  is  a  method  of 
offset.  (Fig.  220.) 


592 


MILITAKY  DICTIONARY. 


[SUR. 


FIG.  220.  Third    Question. — As- 

sume upon  r  h  a  point  a', 
(Fig.  218  ;)  supposed  pro- 
jection of  A  any  point 
whatever  ;  look  at  X  ; 
draw  the  assumed  line 
through  a'*:  this  line  of 
direction  will  serve  for 
adjusting  when  at  X ;  for, 

although  not  the  true  projection  of  A  X,  it  is  necessarily  parallel 
to  it ;  go  to  X,  adjust  upon  A ;  it  is  only  necessary  to  draw  two  lines 
passing  through  R  and  P,  turning  the  alidade  on  h  and  r  :  the  point  of 
intersection  of  these  lines  is  the  projection  sought. 

Fourth  Question. — Take  a  fourth  point  Y,  (Fig.  221,)  at  which  the 


observer  may  place  himself,  and  from  which  the  other  three  may  be 
seen  ;  construct  afterwards  upon  the  leaf  a  quadrilateral  similar  to  that 
made  upon  the  ground,  and  then  construct  an  equal  quadrilateral  upon 
r  p  :  for  this  purpose,  go  to  X,  of  which  we  have  the  arbitrary  projec- 
tion x1 ;  look  at  R,  P,  and  Y,  tracing  these  directions  upon  paper ;  go 
to  Y,  of  which  we  have  also  the  projection  y'  upon  the  line  leaving  X 
and  drawn  through  a?' ;  adjust  upon  x1  y'  and  look  at  R  and  P ;  the 
points  of  intersection  determine  two  angles  r'  and  p1  of  a  quadrilateral, 
of  which  the  two  others  are  x1  and  y',  similar  to  that  made  upon  the 
ground  by  R,  P,  X,  and  Y,  and  similar  also  to  the  projection  sought ; 
nothing  more  is  necessary  than  to  establish  the  relation  on  r  p. 

Fifth  Question. — Measure  at  x  (Fig.  222)  the  angles  r  x  p,  p  x  z, 
and  make  at  r  and  z  two  angles  a  r  p}  b  z  p,  which  shall  be  respectively 


SUR.] 


MILITARY  DICTIONARY. 


593 


equal ;  through  the  middle  of  the  lines  r  p  and  z  p  erect  perpendicu- 
lars j  at  z  and  r  raise  also  perpendiculars  to  a  r  and  b  z ;  the  points  of 

FiO.  222. 


meeting  o  and  o1  are  the  centres  of  two  circumferences  which  will  inter- 
sect in  x  the  projection  sought :  this  is  the  method  by  capable  segments. 
Or  (Fig.  223)  let  r,  p,  z  be  the  projections  on  the  plan  of  three  points 

FIO.  223. 


of  ground  R,  P,  Z.  To  determine  X  without  change  of  station,  adjust 
partially  the  plane  table  with  reference  to  X.  Afterwards,  through 
R  P  Z  or  their  projections,  draw  three  right  lines  which  will  cut  each 
other  and  form  a  triangle  a  b  c.  If  the  plan  had  been  perfectly  adjusted, 


38 


504  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [Sen. 

the  three  lines  would  have  cut  each  other  at  the  same  point  x,  the  pro- 
jection of  X.  It  is  necessary,  then,  to  turn  the  plane  table  so  that  the 
three  lines  by  their  intersections  will  form  another  triangle  af  b'  c' 
smaller  than  the  first.  Continue  thus  until  the  triangle  is  reduced  to  a 
point.  The  intersection  of  the  three  curves  a  a1  aff,  b  bf  bfl,  and  c  cf  c", 
gives  the  projection  sought.  These  are  the  different  means  employed  to 
determine  the  points  of  stations.  When  each  is  obtained,  all  details  to 
the  right  and  left  of  a  direction  may  be  filled  up  by  sight  and  by  paces ; 
one  of  the  sides  of  the  triangle  being  taken  for  the  direction,  an  angle 
made  with  it  may  be  traced  by  means  of  the  alidade,  or  else  observed  in 
number  and  degree  with  an  instrument,  and  subsequently  drawn  with  a 
protractor. 

Observations  of  Angles. — A  pocket  sextant  may  be  employed;  or, 
in  the  survey  of  details,  the  operation  may  be  accelerated  by  a  compass. 
This  instrument  may  be  even  used  in  the  first  triangulation,  if  the 
sides  of  the  triangle  are  not  too  great.  Time  is  gained,  and  the  re- 
sults are  sufficiently  satisfactory  for  an  expeditious  survey.  The  com- 
pass is  nothing  more  than  a  magnetic  needle  in  a  rectangular  box,  at 
the  bottom  of  which  a  limb  turns  in  such  a  manner  that  the  north  and 
south  line  is  exactly  parallel  to  the  larger  side  of  the  box.  This  instru- 
ment, when  adapted  to  the  plane  table,  greatly  abridges  the  operations 
by  the  facility  it  gives  for  adjusting  the  survey.  Thus  the  magnetic 
needle  or  magnetic  meridian  makes  with  the  astronomical  meridian  an 
angle  called  the  declination.  If  O  be  the  declination,  put  the  compass 
on  the  plane  table  in  such  a  manner  that  the  needle  coincides  with  the 
north  and  south  line.  Turn  it  afterwards  until  the  needle  passes  over 
the  number  of  degrees  equal  to  the  declination  O.  Then  the  long  side 
of  the  box  is  parallel  to  the  meridian,  and  if  it  is  wished  that  one  of  the 
sides  of  the  survey  should  have  this  meridian  direction,  the  needle  is 
made  to  describe,  by  turning  the  plane  table,  an  angle  equal  to  that 
made  by  the  side  of  the  triangle  with  the  side  of  the  compass. 

When  without  instruments,  the  adjustment  of  a  survey  may  be  de- 
termined by  setting  up  vertically  upon  the  plane  table  a  pin  or  needle, 
and  tracing  by  means  of  a  watch  the  shadow  of  this  pin  at  different 
hours  of  the  day.  The  solar  spectrum  thus  formed  serves  on  subse- 
quent days  to  adjust  the  plane  table  in  the  same  manner.  It  is  suffi- 
cient to  do  so  to  look  at  your  watch  and  turn  the  table  until  the  shade 
of  the  pin  corresponds  to  the  same  indication  of  the  hour.  Or,  the  sides 
of  hills  in  expeditious  surveys  are  obtained  as  in  regular  surveys,  by 
calculating  them  by  means  of  the  base  and  the  angle  of  fall. 

To  level  and  measure  angles  without  any  instrument. — We  may  ob- 


SUB.] 


MILITARY  DICTIONARY. 


595 


tain  the  principal  angles  graphically  as  follows :  plant  a  staff  vertically 
in  the  ground  by  means  of  a  plumb-line ;  trace  upon  a  leaf  of  the 
sketch  book  a  vertical  line  representing  the  height  of  the  staff;  rest 
upon  the  paper  a  rule,  directing  it  upon  the  object  whose  relative  height 
is  to  be  determined  ;  trace  this  line  with  a  pencil,  and  the  angle  of  de- 
pression or  ascension  is  concluded  from  that  made  by  the  two  lines,  and 
the  right  angle  formed  by  the  vertical  and  horizontal.  The  difference  of 
level  between  two  points  may  also  be  determined  by  means  of  two 
staves  of  different  heights  :  let  the  shorter  be  placed  at  the  station 
and  the  other  upon  the  direction  of  the  point  whose  elevation  is 
sought  in  such  a  position  that  the  point  of  sight  and  the  tops  of  the 
two  staves  may  be  on  the  same  line.  The  difference  of  level  is  deter- 
mined by  the  similitude  of  the  two  triangles.  The  angle  of  depression 
is  found  by  placing  the  longer  staff  at  the  station.  With  the  angle 
of  elevation  or  depression,  the  height  is  always  found  approximately 
by  means  of  a  table  of  tangents  :  let  h  be  the  height,  b  the  base,  c  the 
angle ;  then  h  —  b  tan.  c  in  right-angled  triangles. 

Or,  when  the  angle  of  ascension  or  depression  is  known,  differences 
of  level  may  be  determined  graphi- 
cally as  follows :  let  A  B  (Fig.  224) 
represent  a  length  of  1,000m.  by 
the  scale — lay  off  the  line  A  C, 
making  an  angle  of  25°  with  A  B  ; 
draw  the  perpendicular  B  C :  B  C, 
multiplied  by  the  denominator  of 
the  scale,  will  give  a  height  corre- 
sponding to  a  base  of  1,000m.  at  an  angle  of  ascension  of  25°.  If  lines 
then  radiate  from  A,  making  angles  of  5°  with  their  adjacent  radii,  and 
the  base  is  divided  into  parts  of  50m.,  and  perpendiculars  are  erected  at 
the  points  of  division,  a  figure  is  obtained  by  which  all  differences  of 
level  will  be  approximately  determined. 

FIG.  225. 


Fio.  224. 


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Scale. — All  plans  are  accompanied  by  a  graphic  scale  which  makes 


596  MILITARY  DICTIONARY,  [Sus. 

known  the  length  of  lines  on  the  ground  by  means  of  their  representa- 
tions upon  the  plan  and  reciprocally  ;  (Fig.  225.)  This  figure  repre- 
sents a  scale  of  ^inr?  tnat  is  to  sav>  a  sca^e  by  which  1  metre  on  paper 
is  equivalent  to  20,000  metres  on  the  ground. 

Reduction  of  Plans. — It  may  be  necessary  to  copy  a  plan  and  re- 
duce the  scale.  This  is  done  by  tracing  an  outline  in  which  the  desired 
relation  is  preserved.  The  different  parts  are  then  reduced  by  means 
of  an  angle  of  reduction.  This  angle  is  constructed  by  tracing  a  line 
a  b  ;  (Fig.  226.)  From  b  as  a  centre  describe  an  arc  of  a  circle  with 

the  radius  b  c  so  chosen  that  — -    =  — ,  being  the  relation  between  the 

a  b  n1 

two  scales  ;  draw  then  the  tangent  a  c.  It  results  from  this  that  if  a  c?, 
for  example,  is  a  line  to  be  reduced,  in  describing  from  the  point  d  an 
arc  of  a  circle  tangent  to  a  c,  e  being  the  point  of  tangency,  d  e  will  be 
the  desired  reduction. 

FIG.  227. 


To  trace  a  meridian  at  night. — The  means  of  establishing  the  merid- 
ian by  the  solar  spectrum  have  been  indicated.  The  meridian  may  be 
determined  at  night  by  passing  a  plane  through  a  plumb-line  and  the 
north  star.  The  trace  of  this  plane  on  a  horizontal  plane  will  be  the 
projection  of  the  meridian  sought;  the  north  star  being  only  1£°  from 
the  true  pole.  It  is  easy  to  recognize  the  north  star  ;  it  is  the  seventh 
star  of  the  little  bear,  and  is  found  precisely  in  the  prolongation  of  the 
two  first  stars  of  the  Great  Bear,  ( Grande  Ourse,)  a  constellation  disposed 
in  symmetrical  order  as  in  Fig.  227;  (Aide  Memoire  d'Etat  Major.) 

SUSPENSION.  In  cases  where  a  court-martial  may  think  proper 
to  sentence  a  commissioned  officer  to  be  suspended  from  command,  they 


TAB.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  597 

shall  have  power  to  suspend  his  pay  and  emoluments  for  the  same  time, 
according  to  the  nature  and  heinousness  of  the  offence ;  (ART.  84.)  Rank 
and  command  are  distinct. 

SUTLERS.  All  sutlers  and  retainers  to  the  camp,  and  all  persons 
whatsoever,  serving  with  the  armies  in  the  field  though  not  enlisted 
soldiers,  are  to  be  subjected  to  orders,  according  to  the  rules  and  disci- 
pline of  war ;  (ART.  60.)  All  officers  commanding  in  the  field,  forts, 
barracks,  or  garrisons  of  the  United  States,  are  hereby  required  to  see 
that  the  persons  permitted  to  sutle  shall  supply  the  soldiers  with  good 
and  wholesome  provisions  or  other  articles  at  a  reasonable  price ;  (ART. 
30.)  Sutlers  not  to  sell  or  keep  their  shops  open  after  nine  at  night, 
or  on  Sundays  during  divine  service  or  sermon ;  (ART.  29.)  Exorbi- 
tant prices  not  to  be  exacted  from  sutlers  by  commanding  officers  for 
the  hire  of  stalls  or  houses  let  out. 

SWORD.  The  foot  artillery  sword  resembles  the  Roman  sword. 
The  BLADE  is  19  in.  long,  straight,  two-edged ;  Body  (or  blade  proper) — 
shoulder  rounding,  ridges,  point  bevels,  edges ;  Tang,  its  riveting  and 
rounding,  three  holes  for  the  gripe  rivets ;  HILT,  (brass,  in  one  piece,) 
cross,  knob,  and  pommel  of  the  cross ;  SCABBARD  (harness  leather  jacked) 
blackened  and  varnished  with  mountings  and  ferrule. 

The  Infantry  Sword. — BLADE,  (straight,  cut,  and  thrust,)  back,  edge, 
groove,  bevel  point ;  HILT  (surmounting  brass) — covering  of  gripe  brass 
with  grooves  and  ridges  ;  GUARD  in  one  piece ;  SCABBARD,  (leather.)  This 
sword  is  for  the  non-commissioned  officers  of  foot  troops ;  a  similar  one, 
without  the  guard  plate,  and  with  a  blade  26  inches  long,  for  musicians. 
The  sword  for  officers  not  mounted  is  also  of  the  same  pattern,  with 
ornamented  gilt  mountings,  and  a  silver  gripe ;  the  inner  half  of  the 
guard  plate  is  made  with  a  hinge.  (See  SABRE.) 

SWORD-BAYONET.  Short  arms,  as  carbines,  are  sometimes  fur- 
nished with  a  bayonet  made  in  the  form  of  a  sword.  The  back  of  the 
handle  has  a  groove,  which  fits  upon  a  stud  upon  the  barrel,  and  the 
cross-piece  has  a  hole  which  fits  the  barrel.  The  bayonet  is  prevented 
from  slipping  off  by  a  spring-catch ;  the  sword-bayonet  is  ordinarily 
carried  as  a  side  arm,  for  which  purpose  it  is  well  adapted,  having  a 
curved  cutting  edge  as  well  as  sharp  point. 

T 

TABLES.  (See  Articles  ARTILLERY  ;  FIRING  ;  RIFLED  ORDNANCE  ; 
RATION  ;  WEIGHTS.)  (Consult  A  Collection  of  Tables  and  Formula 
useful  in  Surveying,  Geodesy,  and  Practical  Astronomy,  including  Ele- 
ments for  the  Projection  of  Maps,  by  Capt.  T.  J.  LEE,  Top.  Engineer ; 
also  Ordnance  Manual  for  numerous  useful  tables.) 


598 


MILITARY  DICTIONARY. 
TABLE  OF  NATURAL  8INE9  AND  TANGENTS. 


[TAB. 


Deg. 

Min. 

Sine. 

Tangent 

Deg. 

Min. 

Sine. 

Tangent. 

0 

10 

0029089 

0029089 

14 

00 

2419219 

2493280 

15 

0043633 

0043634 

15 

2461533 

2539676 

30 

0087265 

0087269 

30 

2503800 

2586176 

45 

0130896 

013090.7 

45 

2546019 

2632780 

1 

00 

0174524 

0174551 

15 

00 

2588190 

2679492 

15 

0218149 

0218201 

15 

2630312 

2726313 

30 

0261769 

0261859 

30 

2672384 

2773245 

45 

0305385 

0305528 

45 

2714404 

2820292 

2 

00 

0348995 

0349208 

16 

00 

2756374 

2867454 

15 

0392598 

0392901 

15 

2798290 

2914734 

30 

0436194 

0436609 

30 

2840153 

2962135 

45 

0470781 

0480334 

45 

2881963 

3009658 

3 

00 

0523360 

0524078 

17 

00 

2923717 

3057307 

15 

0566928 

0567841 

15 

2965416 

3105083 

30 

0610485 

0611626 

30 

3007058 

3152988 

45 

0654031 

0655435 

45 

3048643 

3201025 

4 

00 

0697565 

0699268 

18 

00 

8090170 

3249197 

15 

0741085 

0743128 

15 

3131638 

3297505 

30 

0784591 

0787017 

30 

3173047 

3345953 

45 

0828082 

0830936 

45 

3214395 

3394543 

5 

00 

0871557 

0874887 

19 

00 

3255682 

3443276 

15 

0915016 

0918871 

15 

3296906 

3492156 

30 

0958458 

0962890 

30 

3338069 

8541186 

45 

1001881 

1006947 

45 

3379167 

3590367 

6 

00 

1045285 

1051042 

20 

00 

3420201 

3639702 

15 

1088669 

1095178 

15 

3461171 

3689195 

30 

1132032 

1189356 

30 

3502074 

3738847 

45 

1175374 

1183578 

45 

3542910 

3788661 

7 

00 

1218693 

1227846 

21 

00 

3583679 

3838640 

15 

1261990 

1272161 

15 

3624380 

3888787 

30 

1305262 

1316525 

30 

36G5012 

3939105 

45 

1348509 

1360940 

45 

3705574 

3989595 

8 

00 

1391731 

1405408 

22 

00 

3746066 

4040262 

15 

1434926 

1449931 

15 

3786486 

4091108 

30 

1478094 

1494510 

30 

3826834 

4142136 

45 

1521234 

1539147 

45 

3867110 

4193348 

9 

00 

1564345 

1583844 

23 

00 

3907311 

4244748 

15 

1607426 

1628603 

15 

3947439 

4296339 

30 

1650476 

1673426 

30 

3987491 

4348124 

45 

1693495 

1718314 

45 

4027467 

4400105 

10 

00 

1736482 

1763270 

24 

00 

4067366 

4452287 

15 

1779435 

1808295 

15 

4107189 

4504672 

30 

1822355 

1853390 

30 

4146932 

4557263 

45 

1865240 

1898559 

45 

4186597 

4610063 

11 

00 

1908090 

1943803 

25 

00 

4226183 

4663077 

15 

1950903 

1989124 

30 

4305111 

4769755 

30 

1993679 

2034523 

26 

00 

4383711 

4877326 

45 

2036418 

2080003 

30 

4461978 

4985816 

12 

00 

2079117 

2125566 

27 

00 

4539905 

6095254 

15 

2121777 

s  2171213 

30 

4617486 

5205671 

30 

2164396 

2216947 

28 

00 

4694716 

5317094 

45 

2206974 

2262769 

30 

4771588 

6429557 

13 

00 

2249511 

2308682 

29 

00 

4848096 

5543091 

15 

2292004 

2354687 

30 

4924236 

6657728 

30 

2334454 

2400788 

30 

00 

6000000 

5773503 

45 

2376859 

2446984 

30 

5075384 

6890450 

TAB.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY. 

TABLE  OF  NATURAL  SINES  AND  TANGENTS— (Coxrixmro.) 


599 


Deg. 

Min. 

Sine. 

Tangent. 

Deg. 

Mia.  j     Sine. 

Tangent. 

31 

CO 

5150381 

6008606 

53 

00 

7986355 

13270448 

30 

5224986 

6128008 

30 

8038569 

13514224 

32 

00 

5299193 

6248694 

54 

00 

8090170 

13763819 

30 

5372906 

6370703 

30 

8141155 

14019483 

33 

00 

6446390 

6494076 

55 

00 

8191520 

14281480 

30 

5519370 

6618856 

30 

8241262 

14550090 

84 

00 

5591929 

6745085 

56 

00 

8290376 

14825610 

30 

5664062 

6872810 

30 

8336858 

15108352 

35 

00 

5735764 

7002075 

57 

00 

83867C6 

15398650 

30 

5807030 

7132931 

30 

8433914 

15696856 

36 

00 

5877853 

7265425 

58 

00 

8480481 

16003345 

30 

5948228 

7399611 

30 

8526402 

16318517 

37 

00 

6018150 

7535541 

59 

00 

8571673 

16642795 

30 

6087614 

7673270 

30 

8616292 

16976631 

38 

00 

6156615 

7812856 

60 

00 

8660254 

17320508 

30 

6225146 

7954359 

61 

00 

8746197 

18040478 

39 

00 

6293204 

8097840 

62 

00 

8829476 

18807265 

30 

6360782 

8243364 

63 

00 

8910065 

19626105 

40 

00 

6427876 

8390996 

64 

00 

8987940 

20503038 

30 

6494480 

8540807 

65 

00 

9063078 

21445069 

41 

00 

6560590 

8692867 

66 

00 

9135455 

22460368 

30 

6626200 

8847253 

67 

00 

9205049 

23558524 

42 

00 

6691306 

9004040 

68 

00 

9271839 

24750869 

30 

6755902 

9163312 

69 

00 

9335804 

26050891 

43 

00 

6819984 

9325151 

70 

00 

9396926 

27474774 

30 

6883546 

9489646 

.71 

00 

9455186 

29042109 

44 

00 

6946584 

9656888 

72 

00 

9510565 

30776835 

30 

7009093 

9826973 

73 

00 

9503048 

32708526 

45 

00 

7071068 

10000000 

74 

00 

9612617 

34874144 

30 

7132504 

10176074 

75 

00 

9659258 

37320508 

46 

00 

7193398 

10355303 

76 

00 

9702957 

40107809 

30 

7253744 

10537801 

77 

00 

9743701 

43314759 

47 

00 

7313537 

10723687 

78 

00 

9781476 

47046301 

30 

7372773 

10913085 

79 

00 

9816272 

51445540 

48 

00 

7431448 

11106125 

80 

00 

9848078 

56712818 

30 

7489557 

11302944 

81 

00 

9876883 

63137615 

49 

00 

7547096 

11503684 

82 

00 

9902681 

71153697 

30 

7604060 

1  1708496 

83 

00 

9925462 

81443464 

50 

00 

7660444 

11917536 

84 

00 

9945219 

95143645 

30 

7716246 

12130970 

85 

00 

9961947 

114300520 

51 

00 

7771460 

12348972 

86 

00 

9975641 

143006660 

30 

7826082 

12571723 

87 

00 

9986295 

190811370 

52 

00 

7880108 

12799416 

88 

00 

9993908 

286362530 

30 

7933533 

13032254 

89 

00 

9998477 

572899620 

90 

00 

10000000 

Infinite. 

Frigorific  Mixtures. 

Nitrate  of  ammonia  1,  water  1  ;  ^thermometer  falls  from  50°  to        4 

Sulph.  soda  8,  muriatic  acid  5       .         .         .         .         .  50  to        0 
Phosphate  of  soda  9,  nitrate  of  ammonia  6,  diluted  nitric 

acid,  4 50  to  — 21 

Common  salt  1,  snow  or  ice  2       .         .         .         .         .  32  to  —  4 

Cry st.  chloride  of  lime  3,  snow  2  .         .         .  32  to  — 50 


600 


MILITARY  DICTIONARY. 


[TAB. 


Mastic  Force  of  Steam  at  Different  Temperatures. 

[From  experiments  of  Committee  of  Franklin  Institute.] 

The  unit  is  the  atmospheric  pressure,  or  1  atmosphere  =  30  in.  of  mercury. 


Temp. 

Press. 

Temp. 

Press. 

Temp. 

Press. 

Temp. 

Press. 

Temp. 

Press. 

212 

1 

275 

3 

304-fc 

5 

326 

7 

345 

9 

235 
250 

H 

2 

284 
29H 

4 

310 
815-J 

H 

6 

331 

336 

n 

8 

349 

H 
10 

264 

2| 

298£ 

4 

321 

6* 

340i 

8* 

Olive  oil    . 

Water    . 

Milk . 

Vinegar . 

Spirits  of  turpentine 


Freezing  Points  of  Liquids. 
.     36°  Fahr. 

32 
.     30 

28 

16 


Strong  wines 

20°  Fahr. 

Sulphuric  acid 

1 

Brandy  . 

IV 

Mercury 

—39 

Nitric  acid 

—55 

Boiling  Points  of  Liquids!    (Bar.  30  in.) 


Sulphuric  ether  .  .  .98° 
Ammonia  .  .  .  140 
Alcohol  ....  174 
Water,  and  essential  oils  212 
Water,  saturated  with  salt .  224 
Nitric  acid  248 


Phosphorus 
Spirits  of  turpentine 
Sulphur     . 
Sulphuric  acid 
Linseed  oil 
Mercury 


554° 

560 

570 

590 

600 

660 


Liquids  boil  at  a  much  lower  temperature  in  vacuo,  or  under  dimin- 
ished pressure  of  the  atmosphere.  At  the  altitude  of  about  17,500  feet 
above  the  sea,  where  the  barometer  stands  at  15.35  in.,  water  boils  at  180°. 

EELATIVE  STRENGTH  OF  THE  ENGLISH,  FRENCH,  AND  RUSSIAN  NAVIES. 
ENGLISH  NAVY. 


Steam. 

Sailing. 

Total  of 

Class  of  Ship. 

Afloat 

Building  or 
Converting. 

Total. 

Afloat. 

Steam  and 
Sailing. 

48 

12 

60 

16 

*7fi 

34 

16 

60 

13 

63 

Block  Ships                  

g 

9 

4 

4 

'     4 

Corvettes  

16 

6 

21 

3 

24 

Sloops         

80 

15 

95 

95 

Small  Vessels  

27 

27 

27 

Gun  Vessels  and  Gun  Boats... 
Floatin^  Batteries 

171 

3 

21 

192 

3 

... 

192 
3 

Transports    

15 

15 

15 

4 

4 

4 

Total  

412 

73 

485 

32 

517 

TAG.] 


MILITARY  DICTIONARY. 
FRENCH  NAVY. 


G01 


Steam. 

Sailing. 

Total  of 

Class  of  Ship. 

Afloat. 

Building. 

Total. 

Afloat. 

Steam  and 
Sailing. 

33 

4 

37 

9 

46 

34 

13 

47 

28 

75 

Iron-cased  Ships      

2 

3 

6 

5 

Corvettes  

17 

2 

19 

13 

32 

86 

3 

89 

46 

135 

39 

29 

68 

68 

Floatin0"  Batteries  

5 

4 

9 

9 

31 

31 

31 

Total  

247 

68 

305 

96 

401 

RUSSIAN  NAVY. 


v 


Steam. 

Sailing. 

Total  of 

Class  of  Ship. 

Afloat. 

Building. 

Total. 

Afloat. 

Steam  and 
Sailing. 

13 

9       J 

22 

16 

38 

18 

3 

21 

21 

Corvettes  

11 

11 

22 

22 

Small  Vessels  

30 

30 

30 

112 

25 

137 

137 

8 

8 

8 

Total  

192 

48 

240 

16 

256 

TACTICS — as  distinguished  from  strategy,  is  the  art  of  handling 
troops.  Sect.  7  Act  May  8,  1792,  prescribes  the  tactics  established 
by  Congress  in  1779,  as  the  rules  for  the  exercise  and  training  of  the 
militia. 

Act  of  March  3,  1813,  requests  the  President  to  cause  to  be  pre- 
pared and  laid  before  Congress  a  military  system  of  discipline  for  the 
infantry  of  the  army  and  militia  of  the  United  States. 

Act  of  May  12,  1820,  prescribes  that  the  system  of  discipline  and 
field-exercise,  that  is  or  may  be  ordered  for  the  infantry,  artillery,  and 
riflemen  of  the  regular  army  shall  be  the  same  for  the  respective  corps 
of  the  militia. 

Act  of  May  18,  1826,  authorizes  the  Secretary 'of  War  to  have  pre- 
pared a  complete  system  of  cavalry  tactics,  and  also  a  system  of  exer- 
cise and  instruction  of  field-artillery,  including  manoeuvres  for  light  or 
horse  artillery,  for  the  use  of  the  militia  of  the  United  States,  to  be 
reported  for  consideration  or  adoption  by  Congress  at  its  next  session. 


602  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [TAG. 

Act  of  March  2, 1829,  provides  for  the  distribution  of  60,000  copies 
of  the  abstract  of  infantry  and  light  infantry  and  rifle  tactics,  and  also 
5,000  copies  of  the  system  of  instruction  for  field-artillery  prepared 
pursuant  to  Act  of  1826. 

Tactics  of  Gustavus  Adolphus  and  his  contemporaries. — Gustavus 
Adolphus,  the  greatest  captain  of  his  time,  originated  new  principles  iu 
the  art  of  war,  which  in  their  essence  still  subsist.  Ilis  advent  marks  a 
fixed  and  certain  epoch  in  the  history  of  tactics.  There  are  four  ideas 
originated  by  him,  which  overthrew  the  tactics  of  his  predecessors. 
1.  He  gave  in  combats  a  greater,  but  not  an  absolute  influence  to  the 
musket ;  and  united  in  order  of  battle  heavy  and  small  arms.  2.  He 
increased  the  mobility  of  his  troops  by  breaking  up  heavy  masses,  and 
thus  also  diminished  the  destructive  effects  of  an  enemy's  fire.  3.  He 
ranged  the  different  arms  according  to  their  intention,  and  thus  estab- 
lished facility  in  manoeuvring  as  well  as  their  mutual  capacity  to  aid 
each  other.  4.  He  restored  individual  activity,  which  had  all  but 
ceased  to  exist,  particularly  in  cavalry,  since  the  invention  of  powder. 

Gustavus  Adolphus  conceived  and  executed  all  his  projects  him- 
self. He  was  at  the  same  time  an  infantry,  cavalry,  and  artillery 
soldier.  He  was  a  lover  of  mathematics  and  natural  philosophy,  and 
did  not  disdain  to  hold  a  pencil  and  compass.  The  order  of  battle  of 
the  Swedes  consisted,  according  to  circumstances,  in  a  formation  of  two 
or  three  lines  ranged  parallel  to  each  other  or  in  echelons  upon  tho 
wings,  the  cavalry  behind  the  infantry  or  upon  its  wings.  The  cavalry 
was  proportionably  very  numerous.  It  fought  in  four  ranks.  The 
infantry  was  ranged  in  six  ranks.  The  batteries  of  artillery  were 
massed  and  masked.  In  assaulting  Germany,  Gustavus  had  two  hun- 
dred pieces. 

Tactics  before  and  during  the  war  of  the  Spanish  Succession. — At 
this  epoch  there  were  great  men,  but  no  one  like  Gustavus  took  a  giant 
step  in  tactics.  The  art  was  at  a  stand  during  more  than  a  hundred 
years  notwithstanding  the  rapid  succession  of  wars,  and  the  reiterated 
occasions  such  wars  offered  to  genius.  In  this  world  it  is  not  events 
which  produce  changes,  but  superior  minds  which  control  events. 
Gradually,  however,  the  musket  became  the  only  arm  of  infantry,  and 
the  pike  was  entirely  discontinued.  Thus  the  possibility  of  infantry,  de- 
fending themselves  against  cavalry  vanished,  and  in  order  to  restore  the 
equilibrium,  the  epicus  or  half-pike  was  introduced.  Each  infantry  man 
carried  one  at  the  beginning  of  the  17th  century.  This  order  was  gen- 
eral. It  succeeded  against  the  Turks,  but  cruelly  impeded  the  mobility 
of  infantry. 


TAC.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  C03 

The  bayonet  appeared  for  the  first  time  in  the  Netherlands  in 
1647,  and  essentially  contributed  to  the  discontinuance  of  the  pike.  At 
first  this  arm  was  very  unhandy,  as  it  was  necessary  to  take  it  from  the 
musket  before  firing.  Under  Charles  XII.  this  was  remedied,  and  in 
the  Prussian  army  in  1732,  the  front  rank  \vas  armed  with  a  bayonet 
during  the  fire.  In  1740  at  the  battle  of  Molwitz  the  three  ranks  \vere 
thus  provided. 

To  appreciate  the  spirit  of  the  tactics  of  this  time,  it  is  necessary  to 
study  the  campaigns  of  Turenne  and  Luxembourg,  and  those  of  Prince 
Eugene  and  Marlborough.  The  principal  characteristic  of  the  tactics 
of  this  epoch  consisted  in  the  attack  of  the  whole  line  at  the  same  time, 
and  consequently  of  the  general  opening  of  a  battle  upon  all  points  at 
once.  A  part  of  a  line  was  rarely  maintained  in  position  during  the 
attack  of  other  portions.  The  importance  of  echelons  was  not  appre- 
ciated, or  it  was  not  known  how  to  use  them  in  the  oblique  order. 
Manoeuvres,  however,  improved,  but  very  slowly.  Hence  open  fields 
of  battle  were  generally  preferred.  If  accidents  of  ground  were  sought, 
it  was  for  the  purpose  of  establishing  lines  of  defence.  Marches  were 
executed,  ordinarily,  by  many  columns,  each  consisting  of  a  single  arm. 
There  was  therefore  little  reciprocity  of  action,  and  even  in  camps  the 
same  marked  separation  was  preserved. 

Tactics  of  Frederick  the  Great  and  his  contemporaries. — Frederick 
found  the  art  of  war  in  a  singular  state.  A  great  man — a  born  captain 
was  indispensable  to  raise  this  art  from  the  dust  under  which  it  had  been 
trampled  and  all  but  stifled  by  a  miserable  formalism.  The  active 
genius,  the  living  courage,  the  free  will  which  had  signalized  the  com- 
bats of  ancient  times  had  disappeared ;  the  musket  had  become  a  power- 
ful arm,  but  pedantry  had  seized  upon  the  order  of  battle ;  all  merit 
consisted  in  forms,  and  cavalry  rendered  useless  in  action  had  become 
only  the  furniture  of  parades. 

The  great  merit  of  Frederick  consisted  in  recognizing  the  spirit  of 
his  age,  and  giving  it  a  new  bent.  When  Frederick  appeared  in  camp, 
he  found  the  musket  in  general  use.  He  occupied  himself  in  perfecting 
it.  He  fixed  the  depth  of  infantry  at  three  ranks,  and  thus  were  seen 
deployed  those  long  and  thin  lines  which  later  took  with  the  art  of 
moving  them  the  denomination  of  tactics  of  lines.  ' 

Frederick  required  of  his  cavalry  but  two  things  :  1,  Promptitude 
in  surprising  an  enemy  ;  and  2,  United  and  violent  attacks  to  overthrow 
and  annihilate  him.  For  these  reasons  he  exacted  the  exclusive  use  of 
the  sabre  in  cavalry,  which  soon  disdained  the  gun  as  useless  and  un- 
worthy of  a  true  cavalier.  All  movements  were  executed  regularly  but 


604  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [TAG. 

rapidly.  Frederick  also  occupied  himself  with  perfecting  artillery.  He 
diminished  the  weight  of  field-pieces,  and  drew  a  marked  line  of  separa- 
tion between  field  and  siege  pieces. 

The  American  Revolutionary  War  fixed  attention  specially  upon  the 
manner  of  fighting  in  dispersed  order.  This  order  of  battle,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  difficulties  of  a  wooded  country,  played  here  the  principal 
part,  and  it  may  be  affirmed  that  skill  as  marksmen — an  important  part 
of  the  true  system  of  light  infantry  or  rifle  tactics — dates  from  that 
period. 

Tactics  during  the  French  Revolution,  and  its  immediate  effects. — This 
epoch  of  tactics  is  distinguished  by  perfecting  individual  action,  and  re- 
newing the  force  of  infantry  in  the  shock  of  battle,  by  dispensing  with  long 
thin  lines  which  were  in  part  replaced  by  the  order  in  mass.  From  the 
French  Revolution  was  born  the  principle  that  all  citizens  are  equal,  and 
all  owe  service  to  their  country.  As  the  first  consequence  of  this  prin- 
ciple arose  the  general  and  legal  obligation  of  devoting  one's  self  to  the 
military  service.  This  obligation  put  in  movement  an  aggregate  of 
moral  forces  which  could  not  otherwise  have  been  collected  in  armies. 
But  in  spite  of  the  enthusiasm  of  the  people,  (at  least  at  first,)  the  absence 
of  military  instruction  and  discipline  was  everywhere  seen.  It  was 
necessary  that  generals  should  endeavor  to  create  a  new  tactics. 

Tactics  then,  for  the  first  time,  adapted  itself  to  the  national  charac- 
ter of  the  soldier,  and  bent  its  forms  to  that  character.  It  was  impos- 
sible to  harmonize  the  heavy  tactics  of  lines  with  republican  ardor. 
Instead,  therefore,  of  losing  their  time  in  making  soldiers  machines,  the 
wise  generals  preferred  the  machines  already  made.  It  was  indispen- 
sable to  create  a  more  easy  mechanism  of  sub-divisions,  and  they  natu- 
rally determined  upon  formations  in  small  masses,  whilst  the  order  in 
lines  was  gradually  abandoned.  Each  republican,  feeling  himself  called 
to  defend  his  country,  considered  national  interests  as  his  own  proper 
interest.  It  was  not  sufficient  for  him  to  occupy  simply  a  place  in  the 
ranks,  he  wished  to  fight  individually  and  with  his  own  proper  hands. 
The  stamp  of  the  tirailleur  was  thus  impressed  on  every  French- 
man by  that  ardent  will,  which  was  carefully  maintained  in  giving 
full  liberty  to  the  highly  pitched  energy  and  courage  of  the  soldier. 
But  where  it  was  necessary  to  break  strength  by  strength,  all  were  re- 
united in  masses,  and  disputed  the  honor  of  dying  in  the  foremost  rank 
for  the  republic.  These  two  systems  (although  they  later  took  the 
name  of  systems)  brought  about  the  simple  mechanism  of  the  new 
French  tactics,  the  essence  of  which  is  concentrated  in  the  system  of 
skirmishers  and  the  system  of  masses. 


TAG.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  605 

A  general  tactics  for  all  arms  is  a  chimera.  An  army  is  com- 
posed of  infantry,  cavalry,  artillery,  and  engineer  soldiers.  The  three 
first  are  separate  arms.  Each  of  these  arms  must  have  its  particular 
tactics.  But  the  tactics  of  those  arms,  *  when  united,  is  simply  the 
proper  use  of  each  arm  by  the  general-in-chief  according  to  ever- 
varying  circumstances.  Each  arm  ought  to  think  itself  invincible. 
This  moral  element,  or,  what  is  the  same  thing,  a  courage  developed 
by  discipline,  is  the  most  essential  quality  of  a  soldier.  No  one  will 
deny  that  this  moral  element  is  increased  in  offensive  movements. 
The  mqre  infantry  attacks  with  the  bayonet,  the  more  cavalry  is 
employed  in  the  charge,  the  more  artillery  is  brought  within  range 
of  grape,  the  greater  will  be  the  valor  of  the  soldiers  of  all  arms. 
Infantry  is  the  great  body  or  nucleus  of  all  armies.  An  army  which 
possesses  good  infantry  may  repair  all  its  losses  in  war.  Light  infantry 
requires  a  more  developed  instruction,  more  corporal  dexterity,  more 
circumspection  and  intelligence  than  infantry  of  the  line.  To  march  in 
masses  is  the  duty  of  the  latter.  To  act  in  isolated  positions  under  all 
circumstances  of  personal  danger,  is  required  of  the  former.  All  good 
infantry,  whether  light  or  heavy,  is  at  home  in  close  or  distant  combats. 
The  distinctive  characteristic  of  infantry  of  the  line  is  a  regular,  bold, 
and  decided  march  upon  an  enemy,  in  closed  ranks,  en  muraille,  with 
a  heavy  fire  when  commanded,  and  sang-froid  under  all  circumstances. 
The  distinctive  characteristic  of  light  infantry  should  be  skilfulness  as 
marksmen,  circumspection,  capacity  to  act  independently,  indefatigability 
in  occupying  an  enemy  for  hours,  and  even  days,  incommoding  him  at 
long  distances,  destroying  him  at  short,  shunning  pressure  and  attacking 
anew  when  pressure  ceases,  knowing  no  difficulties  of  ground,  advancing 
boldly,  but  when  too  adventurous  uniting  smartly  for  safety,  again  to 
resume  the  independent  movements  of  skirmishers  as  soon  as  the  danger 
has  disappeared. 

In  attack  as  in  defence,  infantry  has  three  ways  of  fighting :  1,  as 
skirmishers ;  2,  by  the  fire  in  masses  ;  3,  by  the  bayonet.  All  three 
modes  in  their  reciprocal  action  experience  a  great  number  of  modifica- 
tions, which  mujt  depend  upon  the  skill  of  the  tactician.  He  must 
thoroughly  understand  the  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  the  open 
and  close  order.  He  must  be  able  to  apply  either  the  one  or  the  other, 
according  to  circumstances,  and  always  keep  in  view  the  practicability 
of  passing  from  one  to  the  other.  Soldiers  ranged  in  line  elbow  to 
elbow  are,  as  it  were,  tied  together,  and  the  will  of  the  whole  is  con- 
trolled by  the  commander.  This  is  the  order  in  line  of  battle.  If  the 
line  be  broken  into  companies  or  divisions,  and  ranged  one  behind  the 


GOG  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [TAG. 

other,  we  have  the  order  in  column,  and  this  order  is  important  in 
manoeuvring.     (See  MANOEUVRES  IN  COMBAT.) 

The  combat  as  skirmishers  is  in  open  or  dispersed  order.  Almost 
all  combats  of  infantry  are  begun  by  skirmishers.  It  is  important, 
therefore,  that  infantry  of  the  line  as  well  as  light  infantry  should  be 
instructed  as  skirmishers.  Nothing  is  so  useful  in  concealing  from  an 
enemy  our  force  and  intentions  than  throwing  forward  skirmishers.  If 
the  skirmishers  are  skilful  they  may  for  a  long  time  occupy  an  enemy, 
and  meanwhile  the  great  body  of  the  army  concealed  behind  the  curtain 
thus  formed  may  present  themselves  unexpectedly  at  a  decisive  point. 
(Consult  prescribed  Tactics  for  Manoeuvres  of  Infantry  of  the  Line 
and  Light  Infantry  ;  Cavalry  Tactics;  Artillery  Tactics;  and  DC  la 
Tactique  des  Trois  Armes,  Infanterie,  Cavalerie',  Artillerie,  par  C. 
DECKER.) 

TAKE.  In  a  military  sense,  to  take  is  to  make  prisoner,  or  to 
capture.  It  has  also  a  meaning  in  field  movements,  viz.,  to  adopt  anv 
particular  formation,  as  to  "  take  open  order." 

To  take  ground  to  the  right  or  left,  is  to  extend  a  line,  or  to  move 
troops  in  either  of  those  directions. 

To  take  down,  is  to  commit  to  paper  that  which  is  epoken  by 
another. 

To  take  the  field,  is  to  encamp,  to  commence  the  operations  of  a 
campaign. 

To  take  up  the  gauntlet,  is  to  accept  a  challenge. 

TAMBOUR — is  a  stockade  or  timber  wall,  loopholed,  made  with 
two  faces,  forming  a  salient  angle  at  the  gorge  of  a  work,  to  serve  as  a 
retrenchment  or  to  cover  the  staircase,  with  a  ditch  in  front,  and  some- 
times with  a  half  roof  sloping  to  the  rear,  to  protect  the  defenders  from 
hand-grenades  and  splinters  of  shells.  (See  BUILDINGS,  Defence  of.) 

TAMP.  To  pack  the  excavation  of  a  mine,  after  the  charge  has 
been  deposited. 

TAMPION  OR  TOMPION.  Plug,  stopper— iron  and  copper; 
lead  plate  for  covering  shot  holes ;  muzzle  cover  of  a  mortar ;  small 
circular  bit  of  hard  wood,  sheet  iron,  or  stiff  paper  for  covering  the 
claying  of  a  rocket ;  (BURNS.) 

TANGENT — in  trigonometry,  is  the  straight  line  which  touches  a 
circular  arc  at  one  of  its  extremities,  and  is  terminated  by  the  produc- 
tion of  the  radius  passing  through  the  other  extremity.  The  arc  and  its 
tangent  have  always  a  certain  relation  to  each  other,  and  when  one  is 
given  in  parts  of  the  radius  the  other  can  always  be  computed  by  means 


TAR.] 


MILITARY  DICTIONARY. 


607 


of  an  infinite  series.     Let  <£  denote  an  arc,  and  tan.  <£  the  tangent  of  the 
are  <£  ;  we  have  the  following  series :      % 

<f>  =  tan.  <£  —  i  tan.  8</>  4~  i  tari-  V  —  I  tan-  T<A  -f>  &c-> 

/  3  O       J  5  I  -"r-       i  7  /^f)      J  9 

Y>  16    <p  1  I    <p  U/4  <p 

tan.  9  —  9  -r  rir  H     ^v  T  QO  p;^y    '   QO  n  »y  o    '"'      ' 

o  O.O  o/4.  O.  /  0,4.  O.  / .  <7 

For  the  manner  of  using  sines,  cosines,  and  tangents,  see  LOGARITHMS  ; 
SURVEYING  ;  TABLE  ;  TRIGONOMETRY. 

TANG.  The  tang  of  the  breech  of  a  musket  is  the  projecting  part 
by  which  the  barrel  is  secured  to  the  stock. 

TANGENT-SCALE— (sheet  brass,)  flanch  0.5  inch  wide,  cut  to 
fit  the  base-ring  of  the  piece ;  upper  edge  cut  into  notches  for  each  -J 
degree  of  elevation. 

TABLE  OF  TANGENT-SCALES  FOR  FIELD-GUNS  AND  HOWITZERS. 


ELEVATION. 

GUNS. 

HOWITZERS. 

6-pdr. 

12-pdr. 

12-pdr. 

24-pdr. 

32-pdr. 

1°   15' 
2° 
3° 
4° 

in. 
0.256 
1.025 
2.051 
3.077 

in. 
0.333 
1.334 
2.670 
4.006 

in. 
0.252 
0.945 
1.870 
2.791 

in. 
0.28 
1.138 
2.271 
3.400 

in. 
0.331 
1.310 
2.618 
3.920 

TAH,  &c.  Charcoal  is  made  in  the  simplest  way  by  digging  a 
hole  in  the  earth,  or  choosing  some  old  well  or  gigantic  burrow,  and 
filling  it  with  piles  of  wood,  arranging  them  so  as  to  leave  a  kind  of 
chimney  down  the  centre.  The  top  of  the  well  is  now  covered  over, 
excepting  the  chimney,  down  which  a  brand  is  dropped  to  set  fire  to  the 
wood.  The  burning  should  proceed  very  gradually,  and  be  governed 
by  opening  or  shutting  the  chimney-top  with  a  flat  stone  ;  for  the  wood 
should  smoulder,  and  never  attain  to  a  bright  red  :  it  will  take  from 
two  days  to  a  week  to  make  charcoal.  The  tarry  products  of  the  wood 
drain  to  the  bottom  of  the  well. 

Tar  is  made  by  burning  larch,  fir,  or  pine,  as  though  charcoal  had 
to  be  made ;  dead  or  withered  trees,  and  especially  their  roots,  yield 
tar  most  copiously.  A  vast  deal  is  easily  obtained.  It  collects  at  the 
bottom  of  the  pit,  and  a  hole  should  be  cleanly  dug  there  into  which  it 
may  drain.  Pitch  is  tar  boiled  down.  Turpentine  is  the  juice  that  the 
living  pine,  fir,  or  larch  tree  secretes,  in  blisters  under  the  bark  ;  they 
are  tapped  to  obtain  it.  Resin  is  turpentine  boiled  down.  Tar  is  ab- 
solutely essential  in  a  hot  country  to  mix  with  the  grease  that  is  used 
for  the  wagon-wheels.  Grease,  alone,  melts  and  runs  away  like  water  r 
the  office  of  the  tar  is  to  give  consistence.  A  very  small  proportion  of 
tar  suffices,  but,  without  any  at  all,  a  wagon  is  soon  brought  to  a  stand- 


608  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [TAR. 

still.  It  is,  therefore,  most  essential  to  explorers  to  have  a  sufficient 
quantity  in  reserve.  Tar  is  also  of  very  great  use  in  hot  dry  countries 
for  daubing  over  the  wheels,  and  the  woodwork  generally,  of  wagons. 
During  the  extreme  heat,  when  the  wood  is  ready  to  crack,  all  the 
paint  should  be  scraped  off  it,  and  the  tar  applied  plentifully.  It  will 
soak  in  deeply,  and  preserve  the  wood  in  excellent  condition,  both 
during  the  drought  and  the  ensuing  wet  season.  It  is  not  necessary  to 
take  the  wheels  off,  in  order  to  grease  the  axles.  It  is  sufficient  to  bore 
an  auger-hole  right  through  the  substance  of  the  nave,  between  the  feet 
of  two  of  the  spokes,  and  to  keep  a  plug  in  the  hole.  Then,  in  order 
to  tar  a  wheel,  turn  it  till  the  hole  is  uppermost ;  take  the  plug  out, 
and  pour  the  tar  in ;  (GALTON'S  Art  of  Travel.) 

TARGET.  Practice  at  target-firing  is  essential  to  make  a  soldier. 
To  obtain  from  the  new  small-arms  the  great  results  which  they  prom- 
ise it  is  necessary  :  1.  That  the  soldier  should  know  the  different  parts 
of  the  arm,  or  its  nomenclature,  how  to  take  it  apart  and  put  it  to- 
gether, and  the  best  method  of  keeping  it  in  good  order.  This  instruc- 
tion should  be  given  by  sergeants  and  corporals  under  direction  of  the 
officers  of  the  company ;  (see  ARMS.)  2.  The  soldier  must  be  taught 
the  prescribed  method  of  loading  his  arm.  3.  The  rules  for  firing 
must  be  known  to  him,  that  is  to  say,  he  must  be  taught  the  use  of  the 
hausse,  or  to  regulate  his  arm  according  to  the  distance  of  the  enemy  ; 
(see  HAUSSE.)  4.  lie  must  be  taught  to  estimate  distances  in  order 
to  apply  the  rules  for  firing ;  (see  the  method  practised  at  Vincennes 
given  p.  609.)  5.  lie  must  know  how  to  aim.  6.  He  must  hold  the 
musket  in  the  position  his  instructor  prescribes,  and  aim  with  ease ; 
preserve  the  body  steady,  but  not  constrained  ;  resist  the  recoil ;  and  not 
incline  the  rear  sight  to  the  right  or  to  the  left.  If  the  rear  sight,  when 
raised  and  held  upright,  give  the  proper  elevation  for  say  900  yards, 
and  it  then  be  inclined  to  the  right  although  the  aim  is  in  such  position 
taken  with  the  900  yards'  sight,  yet  the  elevation  is  actually  lowered, 
and  the  bullet  would,  therefore,  not  only  fly  to  the  right  of  the  object, 
but  fall  short  from  want  of  sufficient  elevation.  The  more  the  sight  is 
inclined,  the  greater  will  be  the  loss  of  elevation.  Another  cause  of 
inaccuracy  in  aiming  arises  from  aiming  with  a  coarse  front  sight.  Such 
an  aim  causes  the  line  of  sight  to  pass  to  the  right  or  left  of  the  front 
sight,  and  the  ball  consequently  to  go  to  the  opposite  side  of  the  object 
from  the  side  of  the  coarse  sight  by  which  we  aimed.  The  elevations  for 
different  ranges  being  marked  for  a  fine  sight,  therefore  when  it  is  neces- 
sary to  use  the  coarse  sight  for  a  greater  distance  than  the  elevation 
used,  the  proper  allowance  must  be  made  in  aiming.  7.  In  pulling  the 


TAR.]  MILITAKY  DICTIONARY.  A  609 

trigger,  in  no  manner  to  derange  the  musket.  The  soldier  must  acquire 
the  habit  of  pulling  the  trigger  when,  in  raising  the  piece,  the  sights 
cover  the  bull's-eye.  Most  of  these  details,  it  is  obvious,  will  be  better 
taught  without  wasting  cartridges.  When  the  soldier  has  been,  how- 
ever, sufficiently  instructed  in  the  simulated  fire,  to  accustom  him  to 
the  noise  of  the  actual  fire,  it  is  necessary  to  begin  with  the  explosion  of 
caps,  observing  that  he  preserves  his  arm  immovable  as  previously 
taught.  To  accustom  him  to  the  effect  of  the  recoil,  it  is  necessary  to 
fire  some  blank  cartridges. 

Such  are  the  gradual  steps  to  be  followed  in  practical  firing,  and  by 
taking  them  better  marksmen  will  be  made  than  by  passing  men  with- 
out previous  preparation  from  the  school  of%  the  soldier  to  target  prac- 
tice. After  the  soldier  has  been  practised  at  firing  at  the  target  within 
the  efficacious  range  of  his  arm,  and  has  acquired  the  habit  of  estimating 
distances,  without  great  errors ;  when  he  has  been  taught  to  fire  at  a 
mark  changed  at  every  fire,  the  distance  of  which  he  must  estimate,  he 
may  be  sent  as  a  skirmisher  against  an  enemy.  He  will  know  the 
range  and  use  of  his  arm.  He  will  appreciate  its  great  power.  The  in- 
struction of  the  soldier  would  not,  however,  be  complete  if  he  had  been 
exercised  only  in  firing  singly.  He  must  be  accustomed  to  the  gene 
that  he  experiences  in  the  ranks,  to  movements  of  his  comrades,  to  the 
smoke  which  covers  the  front  of  the  troops,  to  obeying  the  commands 
of  the  officer  who  directs  the  fire.  The  execution  of  the  fire  by  platoon, 
by  rank  and  by  two  ranks,  upon  squares,  which  indicate  the  effect  of 
the  fire,  is  a  necessary  instruction  above  all  to  officers,  who  learn  in  these 
exercises  to  direct  and  command  firing,  to  estimate  the  relative  value 
of  different  fires,  and  to  judge  of  the  importance  of  a  simultaneous  fire 
at  proper  moments.  The  whole  instruction  in  firing  may  be  given  to 
the  sergeants,  corporals,  and  soldiers  of  a  battalion  without  injury  to 
other  necessary  instruction,  and  without  hindrance  of  any  duties  in  the 
course  of  a  year. 

The  means  of  instruction  adopted  at  Vincennes  claim  attention,  in 
consequence  of  the  manifest  advantages  of  practising  at  ranges  judged 
by  the  soldier  himself.  After  attaining  some  proficiency  as  a  marks- 
man at  specified  distances,  the  soldier  is  taught  to  estimate  distances  as 
if  before  an  enemy.  From  a  squad  of  16  men  under  a  non-commis- 
sioned officer,  four  out  of  the  16  men  are  taken  and  posted  at  distances 
of  50,  100,  150,  and  200  metres,  facing  the  remainder  of  the  men,  who 
observe  such  details  of  each  man's  dress  as  can  be  distinguished  at  the 
several  distances  respectively.  Having  carefully  noticed  the  differences 
which  exist,  the  instructor  practises  the  men  at  distances  that  are  un- 
39 


GIG 


MILITARY  DICTIONARY. 


[TAT; 


known  to  them,  in  order  that  they  may  apply  the  knowledge  that  they 
have  gained  by  observation  of  dress  at  known  distances.  After  the 
soldiers  have  been  sufficiently  practised  in  this  way,  their  correctness  in 
judging  distances  is  subjected  to  another  test.  A  man  runs  forward, 
and  places  a  target  at  some  distance  unknown  to  the  men  ;  each  man  is 
then  called  upon  in  turn  to  name  the  distance,  and  the  answers  are 
recorded  in  a  book.  This  kind  of  practice  takes  place  at  all  distances, 
particularly  between  500  and  1,000  paces,  and  is  continued  till  all  are 
moderately  skilful.  Firing,  then  begins  at  distances  unknown  to  the 
men,  and  those  who  are  most  successful  are  rewarded  with  promotion, 
and  become  the  instructors  of  others.  In  order  that  the  knowledge  im- 
parted at  Vincennes  may.  be  extended  to  the  whole  army,  at  least  one 
sous-officier  is  brought  there  from  each  regiment. 

The  new  rifle  musket  and  new  rifle  have  an  equal  range,  and  greater 
precision  than  field-artillery,  and  a  company  of  marksmen  can  produce 
an  equal  effect  in  the  field  at  less  cost  than  a  battery  of  artillery.  At 
650  yards,  for  instance,  almost  every  shot  will  take  effect  on  horses  and 
men  attached  to  a  battery.  It  will  follow  that  the  artillery  must  be 
more  carefully  covered  in  battle.  (Consult  Instruction  provisoire  sur 
le  tir  a  V usage  des  bataillons  de  Chasseurs  a  pied.  See  ARMS  ;  FIRING  ; 
HAUSSE  ;  STADIA.) 

TATTOO  OR  T APT 00.  Drum-beat  and  roll-call  at  night. 
TEAMSTERS.  That  to  each  regiment  of  dragoons,  artillery,  and 
mounted  riflemen  in  the  regular  army  there  shall  be  added  one  principal 
teamster  with  the  rank  and  compensation  of  quartermaster-sergeant,  and 
to  each  company  of  the  same,  two  teamsters,  with  the  compensation  of 
artificers  ;  (Act  March  3,  1847.) 

TELEGRAPH,  ( Universal.)     It  consists  of  an  upright  post  of 

moderate  height,  of  two 
movable  arms  fixed  on  the 
same  pivot  near  the  top 
of  it,  and  of  a  mark  called 
s  an  indicator  on  one  side  of 
it,  merely  to  distinguish 
the  low  numbers  1,  2,  3, 
from  the  high  numbers, 
7,6,5.  Fig.  228,  A  repre- 
sents the  telegraph  exhib- 
iting the  sign  17,  the  other 

positions  of  which  the  arms  are  capable  being  dotted.  Fig.  228,  B  repre- 
sents the  telegraph  fitted  up  to  make  nocturnal  signals.  One  lantern, 


FIG.  22a 


... 


0 


• 


TEL.] 


MILITARY  DICTIONARY. 


Cll 


called  tne  central  light,  is  fixed  to  the  same  pivot  upon  which  the  arms 
move.  Two  other  lanterns  are  attached  to  the  extremities  of  the  arms. 
A  fourth  lantern,  used  as  an  indicator,  is  fixed  on  the  same  horizontal 

Fio.  229. 
TABLE  OF  THE  SIGNS  OR  COMBINATIONS. 


Positions. 

Appearance. 

Positions. 

Appearance. 

By  Day.       By  Night. 

By  Day.        By  Night. 

I 

i 

o           O 

0  0 

25 

3; 

0 

000 

2 

3 

0     O    0 

o 

26 

T 

0    0     O    0 

3 

5 

o 
o       o 

0 

27 

} 

o   o  o 

0 

4 

\ 

0 

o       o 

0 

34 

1 

0° 
0           0 

5 

i 

0 

0             0 

o 

35 

I 

0        0 
0           0 

6 

f 

o        o    o 
o 

36 

r 

o 

0             00 

7 

-r 

0            ° 
0° 

37 

> 

o 

0           0 
0 

12 

g 

o    o    o 

0 

45 

i 

°0 
0              0 

13 

1 

o 
0          0 
o 

46 

j- 

0 

o         o    o 

14 

d 

o 

0            0 

0 

47 

s 

0 
0            0 

s 

15 

£ 

0 

o        o 

o 

56 

£ 

0 
0            0     O 

16 

£ 

0            00 

0 

57 

| 

0 
0            0 
0 

17 

J 

0           0 

o    .    0 

G7 

£ 

0           00 

o 

23 

} 

o 
o  o  o 

STOP 

-1 

0            0 

o 

24 

9 

o 
o    o    o 

FINISH: 

0 

o 

612  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [TEL. 

level  with  the  central  light  at  a  distance  from  it  equal  to  twice  the 
length  of  the  arm,  and  in  the  same  plane  nearly  in  which  the  arms  re- 
volve. Hence  the  whole  apparatus  consists  of  two  fixed  and  of  two 
movable  lights — four  in  all.  The  number  of  telegraphic  signs,  com- 
binations, or  changes  which  this  telegraph  is  capable  of  exhibiting  is 
shown  in  Fig.  229,  and  one  of  those,  No.  4,  in  the  day  telegraph  is  liable 
to  be  confounded  with  the  post  and  should  not,  therefore,  be  used.  The 
number  is,  however,  amply  sufficient  for  telegraphic  communication 
whether  by  alphabet  or  by  reference  to  a  telegraphic  dictionary  of 
words  and  sentences.  The  indicator,  both  by  day  and  night,  is  merely  a 
mark  and  nothing  more,  and  the  central  light  by  night  and  the  post  by 
day  are  also  merely  guides  to  the  eye.  The  signs  of  the  telegraph  are 
in  reality,  therefore,  only  composed  of  combinations  of  two  movable 
bodies  by  day  and  two  lights  by  night.  It  has  been  ascertained  by  ex- 
periment that  the  arms  for  day  signals  should  be  about  1  foot  in  length 
per  mile  in  order  to  be  distinguished  by  a  common  portable  telescope. 
By  the  above  rule,  a  telegraphic  arm  of  six  feet  in  length  may  suffice 
for  stations  six  miles  apart,  but  it  is  better  to  add  a  little  to  these  di- 
mensions. The  width  of  the  arm  need  not  exceed  /7  of  its  length. 
The  indicator  should  be  of  the  same  width,  but  only  £  of  the  arm  in 
length.  The  height  of  the  post  should  be  such  that  movable  objects 
near  it  should  not  obscure  the  indicator  or  arms  when  the  telegraph  is 
erected  in  the  field.  The  telegraphs  hitherto  constructed  on  this  prin- 
ciple are  of  two  sizes :  one  having  arms  of  5|  feet  in  length,  with  the 
lantern  pivotis  placed  6J  feet  from  the  centre  of  motion  ;  the  other  hav- 
ing arms  2£  feet  in  length  only,  with  the  lantern  pivots  3  feet  2  inches 
from  the  centre  of  motion.  The  latter  are  perfectly  portable,  as  the 
whole  apparatus  does  not  weigh  more  than  34  Ibs.  In  clear  weather 
these  small  telegraphs  make  signals  distinctly  visible  at  a  distance  of 
three  miles. 

In  cases  of  emergency,  where  the  portable  telegraph  is  not  with  an 
army,  it  has  been  ascertained  by  experiment  that  the  most  expeditious 
and  satisfactory  arrangement  will  always  be  to  copy  the  regular  con- 
struction as  closely  as  circumstances  will  permit.  A  post,  with  two 
planks  for  the  arms  fixed  externally  on  each  side  of  the  post,  each 
worked  merely  by  a  couple  of  strings  without  pulleys,  will  constitute  a 
day  telegraph,  and  the  addition  of  lanterns  will  convert  the  same  simple 
apparatus  into  a  night  telegraph.  In  both  cases  the  arms  must  be  coun- 
terpoised by  wood  or  iron,  and  also  by  weights  in  some  rude  manner, 
which  must  not  impair  the  clearness  of  the  telegraphic  signs.  (Consult 
Aide  Memoire  to  the  Military  Sciences  by  British  Offirers.  See  SIGNALS.) 


TIM.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  613 

TENAILLE — is  a  low  work,  constructed  in  the  main  ditch,  upon 
the  lines  of  defence,  between  the  bastions,  before  the  curtain,  composed 
of  two  faces,  and  sometimes  of  two  flanks  and  a  small  curtain. 

TENAILLONS — are  works  sometimes  found  constructed  in  an  old 
fortress,  on  each  side  of  the  ravelin — the  short  faces  being  traced,  on 
the  prolongations  of  the  faces  of  the  ravelin,  from  the  counterscarp  of 
its  ditch ;  the  long  faces  being  directed  for  flanking  defence,  to  about 
the  middle  of  the  faces  of  the  bastions. 

TENAILLONS  (Demi) — are  very  similar  to  tenaillons,  excepting 
that  their  short  faces  are  directed,  perpendicular  to  the  faces  of  the 
ravelin,  about  one-third  or  one-half  down  from  the  flanked  angle. 

TENT.     (See  CAMP.) 

TERRE  PLEIN — is  a  name  given  to  any  space  which  is  level,  or 
nearly  so ;  thus,  the  area  on  the  rampart,  between  the  banquette  and  the 
interior  slope  of  the  rampart,  is  called  the  terre-plein  of  the  rampart. 

TETE-DU-PONT.  A  neld-intrenchment  covering  a  bridge.  (See 
REDAN.) 

THEODOLITE.  A  surveying  instrument  for  measuring  the  angu- 
lar distances  between  objects  projected  on  the  plane  of  the  horizon.  In 
accurate  surveying,  when  the  instrument  used  for  observing  angles  is  a 
sextant  or  reflecting  circle,  or  such  that  its  plane  must  be  brought  into 
the  plane  of  the  three  objects  which  form  the  angular  points  of  the  tri- 
angle to  be  measured,  the  altitudes  of  the  two  distant  objects  above  the 
horizon  of  the  observer  must  be  determined,  and  a  calculation  is  then 
necessary  to  reduce  the  observed  angles  to  the  plane  of  the  horizon. 
With  the  theodolite  this  work  is  unnecessary.  (Consult  SIMMS'  Treatise 
on  Mathematical  Instruments  /  DAVIES'  Surveying?) 

TIER  SHOT.     Grape  shot  sometimes  so  called. 

TIGE  ARMS.  Sometimes  called  pillar  breech  arms.  Arms  with 
a  stem  of  steel,  screwed  into  the  middle  of  the  breech  pin,  around  which 
the  charge  of  powder  is  placed.  The  ball  enters  free  and  rests  upon  the 
top  of  the  pin  which  is  tempered,  and  a  few  blows  with  a  heavy  ramrod 
forces  the  ball  to  fill  the  grooves  of  the  rifled  arm.  This  invention  was 
an  improvement  by  Capt.  Thouvenin  on  Delvignes'  plan  of  having  a 
chamber  for  the  powder  smaller  than  the  bore.  Capt.  Minie's  invention 
superseded  the  tige  arms,  by  means  of  a  bullet  which  is  forced  to  fill 
the  grooves  by  the  action  of  the  charge  itself  at  the  instant  of  explosion. 
(See  ARMS  ;  RIFLED  ORDNANCE.) 

TIMBER.  Sawed  or  hewn  timber  is  measured  by  the  cubic  foot, 
or  more  commonly  by  board  measure,  the  unit  of  which  is  a  superficial 
foot  1  inch  thick.  Usual  rule  for  measuring  round  timber :  multiply 


614  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [Toi. 

the  length  by  the  square  of  one-fourth  the  mean  girth,  for  the  solid  con- 

L  C2 
tents,  or  — -  ;  L  being  the  length  of  the  log,  and  C  half  the  sum  of  the 

circumferences  of  the  two  ends.    (Consult  Ordnance  Manual.) 

TOISE— is  2.132  yards.  Reduction  of  old  French  toises  to  metres ; 
1  metre  =  39.37079  English  inches. 

TOISES.                                       METRES.  ENG.  YARDS. 

1  =                 1.949  =              2.132 

5  =                 9.745  =            10.660 

8                                   15.592  17.056 

10  =               19.490  21.320 

100                                 194.900  213.200 

500                                974.500  =       1,066.000 

1,000                              1,949.000  =       2,132.000 

TOOLS.  The  French  ordinance  of  1831  prescribes  the  following 
camp  tools :  reaping-hook,  scythe,  axe,  shovel,  mattock,  and  bill-hook. 
Each  tool  has  a  leather  case  and  a  shoulder  belt,  in  order  that  it  may  be 
carried  by  the  men.  (See  UTENSILS.) 

TOPOGRAPHICAL  ENGINEERS.  (See  ENGINEERS,  Topo- 
graphical.) 

TOPOGRAPHY— is  the  art  of  representing  and  describing  in  all 
its  details  the  physical  constitution,  natural  or  artificial,  of  any  deter- 
mined portion  of  country ;  in  making  maps  and  giving  a  descriptive 
memoir.  Military  topography  differs  from  geography  in  seeking  to 
imitate  sinuosities  of  ground ;  it  represents  graphically  and  describes 
technically  commanding  heights,  water-courses,  preferable  sites  for  camps, 
different  kinds  of  roads,  the  position  of  fords,  extent  of  woods.  It  enu- 
merates the  resources  that  a  country  offers  to  troops  and  the  difficulties 
which  are  interposed.  By  means  of  colored  maps  and  other  conven- 
tional signs,  military  topography  presents  before  the  eyes  of  a  general 
much  that  is  necessary  to  guide  his  operations.  (Consult  BARDIN.  See 
RECONNOISSANCE  ;  SURVEYS,  Military.) 

TOWER  BASTION— is  one  which  is  constructed  of  masonry,  at 
the  angles  of  the  interior  polygon  of  some  works ;  and  has  usually  vaults 
or  casemates  under  its  terre-plein,  to  contain  artillery,  stores,  &c. 

TRACING.     (See  OUTLINE.) 

TRADE.  Licenses  to  trade  with  Indians  shall  not  be  granted  to 
any  but  citizens  of  the  United  States,  unless  by  express  direction  of  the 
President ;  (Act  April  29,  1816.)  The  superintendent  of  Indian  affairs 
in  the  Territories,  and  Indian  agents  under  the  direction  of  the  President 


TRA.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  615 

of  the  United  States,  may  grant  licenses,  not  exceeding  seven  years,  to 
trade  with  Indians  ;  which  licenses  shall  be  granted  to  citizens  of  the 
United  States  and  none  others,  taking  from  them  bonds  with  securities, 
in  the  penal  sum  not  exceeding  five  thousand  dollars  according  to  capital 
employed,  and  conditioned  upon  the  due  observance  of  the  laws  regulat- 
ing trade  and  intercourse  with  Indian  tribes.  The  superintendents  and 
agents  shall  return  to  the  Secretary  of  War,  within  each  year,  an  ab- 
stract of  the  licenses  granted,  to  be  laid  before  Congress  at  the  next 
session  thereof;  (Act  May  6,  1822.) 

Unlicensed  trade  punishable  by  forfeiture  of  merchandise,  a  fine  not 
exceeding  one  hundred  dollars,  and  imprisonment  not  exceeding  thirty 
days;  (Act  March  30,  1802.)  Receiving,  or  purchasing  from  any 
Indian,  in  the  way  of  trade  or  barter  a  gun,  any  instrument  of  husbandry, 
or  article  of  clothing,  except  skins  or  furs,  punishable  by  forfeiture  not 
exceeding  fifty  dollars  and  thirty  days'  imprisonment ;  (Act  March  30, 
1802.)  The  purchase  of  horses  from  Indians  without  license  from  the 
superintendent  or  other  person  authorized  by  the  President  to  grant 
licenses,  punishable  with  forfeiture  not  exceeding  one  hundred  dollars 
for  every  horse  purchased  ;  (Act  March  30,  1802.)  No  agent,  superin- 
tendent, or  other  person  authorized  to  grant  licenses  to  trade  or  purchase 
horses  shall  have  any  interest  or  concern  with  any  trade  with  Indians, 
excepting  for  and  on  account  of  the  United  States,  under  penalty  of  for- 
feiture not  exceeding  one  thousand  dollars  and  imprisonment  not  exceed- 
ing twelve  months  ;  (Act  March  30,  1802.  See  WAR.) 

TRAIL-HANDSPIKE— for  field-carriages,  53  inches  in  length. 
(Hickory,  or  young  oak.) 

TRAIN.  At  the  beginning  of  the  French  Revolution,  artillery,  en- 
gineer, and  other  supplies,  and  hospital  trains  were  conducted  by  hired 
drivers.  These  men  had  neither  military  pride  nor  honor.  They  were 
cowardly  and  insubordinate,  deserted  in  combats,  cut  the  traces  of  their 
horses,  and  sought  personal  safety  by  abandoning  equipages.  On  march 
and  in  camp  or  cantonments  they  were  not  unfrequently  drunk  and 
neglected  their  horses.  These  evils  were  corrected  by  enrolling  them 
under  the  name  of  soldiers  of  the  artillery  train  and  equipages.  They 
were  given  officers,  a  uniform  and  arms,  and  have  since  rivalled  other 
corps  of  the  army  in  zeal,  courage,  and  devotedness.  The  artillery 
train  now  forms  a  part  of  the  artillery,  and  is  commanded  by  artillery 
officers.  The  train  of  provisions  and  ambulances  is  composed  of 
squadrons  and  companies.  The  squadrons  are  commanded  by  a  cap- 
tain, and  the  companies  by  a  lieutenant.  Each  soldier  conducts  two 
harnessed  horses.  He  is  armed  with  a  pistol  and  a  small  sword. 


616  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [TKA. 

* 

In  1850  the  corps  of  military  equipages  in  France  consisted  of  a 
central  bureau  for  wagon  parks  at  Vernon  ;  of  two  arsenals  of  con- 
struction at  Vernon  and  at  Chateauroux ;  of  three  arsenals  for  repair  in 
Algiers  ;  and  three  companies  of  workmen.  The  soldiers  properly  be- 
longing to  the  train  made  four  squadrons.  (Consult  BARDIN  and  LE 
COUTRIER.)  The  quartermaster's  department  in  our  army  is  charged 
with  wagon  trains,  but  neither  enlisted  soldiers  as  workmen  or  drivers 
have  yet  been  added  to  the  department.  (See  CONVOY  ;  QUARTERMAS- 
TER'S DEPARTMENT  ;  WAGON.) 

TRANSFERS.  Officers  of  engineers  are  liable  to  be  transferred,  at 
the  discretion  of  the  President,  from  one  corps  to  another,  regard  being 
paid  to  rank  ;  (ART.  63.)  During  the  recess  of  Congress,  the  President 
may,  on  the  application  of  the  Secretary  of  the  proper  department  and 
not  otherwise,  direct,  if  in  his  opinion  necessary  for  the  public  service, 
that  a  portion  of  the  moneys  appropriated  for  any  one  of  the  following, 
branches  of  expenditure  in  the  military  department,  viz. :  For  the  sub- 
sistence of  the  army ;  for  forage ;  for  the  medical  and  hospital  depart- 
ment ;  for  the  quartermaster's  department — be  applied  to  any  other  ( f 
the  above-mentioned  branches  of  expenditure  in  the  same  [military] 
department ;  (Act  March  3,  1809.)  No  appropriation  for  the  service 
of  one  year  shall  be  transferred  to  another  branch  of  expenditure  of  a 
different  year  ;  (Act  May  1,  1820.) 

Nothing  in  the  act  of  March  3.  1809,  shall  authorize  the  President 
to  direct  any  sum  appropriated  for  fortification,  arsenals,  armories,  cus- 
tom-houses, docks,  navy-yards  or  buildings  of  any  sort,  or  to  munitions 
of  war,  or  to  the  pay  of  the  army  or  navy,  to  be  applied  to  any  other 
object  of  public  expenditure ;  (Act  March  3, 1817.)  But  the  President, 
under  the  restrictions  of  the  act  of  Alay  1,  1820,  may  transfer  from  one 
head  of  appropriations  for  fortifications  to  that  of  another  for  like  ob- 
jects; (Act.  July  2,  1836.) 

TRANSPORTATION.  (See  QUARTERMASTER'S  DEPARTMENT;  SUP- 
PLIES ;  TRAIN  ;  WAGON.) 

By  Sea. — For  transportation  by  sea,  make  an  inventory  of  the 
number  of  articles,  the  weight  of  each,  and  the  total  weight  of  each  kind, 
leaving  room  for  remarks.  In  estimating  the  weight,  increase  the  total 
by  one  half  the  weight  of  the  small  articles,  such  as  accoutrements, 
tools,  &c.,  which  occupy  considerable  space  in  proportion  to  their  weight, 
and  apply  for  vessels  sufficient  for  the  transportation  of  the  whole 
weight.  Inventories  of  articles  on  each  vessel  should  be  made  in  dupli- 
cate, one  copy  being  kept  by  the  master  of  the  vessel,  the  other  by  the 
person  having  the  stores  in  charge.  (See  EMBARKATION.) 


TRA.] 


MILITARY  DICTIONARY. 


617 


Horses. — The  following  arrangements  on  the  English  horse-transport 
steamer  Himalaya,  Capt.  McClellan,  gives  as  a  model :  Two  rows  of 
stalls,  with  the  rear  ends  21  at  least  from  the  vessel's  side,  are  arranged 
on  each  deck.  These  stalls  (Fig.  230)  are  each  furnished  with  movable 
side-boards,  a  movable  breast-board,  and  a  fixed  tail-board,  all  padded ; 
the  side-boards  on  both  sides,  the  tail-board  next  to  the  horse  and  nearly 
to  the  bottom  of  the  stall,  and  the  breast-board  on  top  and  on  the  side 
next  the  horse.  The  padding  used  consists  of  felt,  or  raw  hide,  (the 

FIG.  230. 

n 


latter  objectionable  on  account  of  the  odor,)  stuffed  with  cow's  hair 
wherever  the  animal  can  gnaw  it,  with  straw  in  other  parts.  It  is  from 
2"  to  3"  thick.  The  feed-troughs  are  of  wood,  bound  on  the  edges  with 
sheet-iron  or  zinc,  and  attached  to  the  breast-boards  with  two  hooks. 
The  breast  and  side-boards  ship  in  grooves.  Fig.  230  represents  the 
horizontal  projection  of  one  stall.  In  front  of  each  head-post  a  halter- 
ring  A  is  placed,  and  over  this  near  the  top  of  the  post  is  a  hook,  to 
which  the  sea-halter  is  hung  when  not  in  use.  The  feed-troughs,  head- 
boards, and  stalls  are  whitewashed  and  numbered. 

FIG.  231. 


I  I     II 


618 


MILITARY  DICTIONARY. 


[TRA. 


Fig.  231  represents  a  section  of  one  of  these  stalls  through  the  axis. 
The  flooring  is  raised  above  the  deck  on  battens,  and  is  divided  into 
separate  platforms  for  every  two  stalls,  so  that  it  can  easily  be  raised 
to  clean  the  deck  beneath ;  4  strong  battens  are  nailed  across  to  give 
the  animals  a  foot-hold. 

Fig.  232  is  a  section  through  the  side-boards  of  a  stall,  and  shows  the 
dimensions  of  the  timbers  and  height  of  side-boards,  as  well  as  the 
manner  of  inserting  them  in  their  grooves.  B  is  the  hook  for  hanging 

FIG.  232. 


up  the  sea-halter.  This  halter  is  made  of  double  canvas,  2f  wide,  and 
has  two  ropes,  which,  being  fastened  one  to  each  post,  keep  the  animal's 
head  still,  and  prevent  him  from  interfering  with  his  neighbor.  C  and 
E  are  battens  for  securing  the  ropes  of  the  slings,  shown  in  Fig.  233. 
Z>,  bolts,  for  the  same  purpose,  when  the  sling  is  of  the  form  represented 
in  Fig.  234.  On  the  spar  deck,  the  stalls  are  under  sheds,  every  8  stalls 
forming  a  separate  set,  so  that  they  can  readily  be  moved  about  when 
the  decks  are  to  be  cleaned.  Water-proof  curtains  are  provided  for  the 
front  and  rear ;  a  passage  way  of  at  least  2'  is  left  between  the  sheds 
and  the  bulwarks.  When  practicable,  a  staging  is  erected  alongside, 
that  the  horses  may  be  walked  on  and  off  the  vessel ;  when  this  cannot 
be  done,  they  are  hoisted  on  board  in  the  sling,  a  small  donkey  engine 
being  used  for  the  purpose.  In  this  way,  horses  may  be  shipped  or  un- 
loaded at  the  rate  of  one  per  minute.  The  slings  are  of  canvas,  of  the 
shape  and  dimensions  represented  in  Figs.  233  and  234.  For  hoisting 
in  and  out  the  horses,  the  sling  is  provided  with  a  breast  strap  and 
breeching.  On  the  main  and  orlop  decks  the  sling  ropes  are  attached 
to  the  bolts  ;  on  the  spar  deck  to  battens.  It  was  intended  to  adopt  the 


TRA.] 


MILITARY  DICTIONARY. 


619 


FIG.  233. 


sling  represented  in  Fig.  234,  as  diminishing  vibration.     At  sea,  the 

sling  is  used  only  when  the  animals  show  signs  of  weakness  in  bad 

weather,  in  which  case  about  1" 

play  is  given  to  the  sling,  as  it  is 

only  intended  to  prevent  the  horses 

from  falling.    To  place  the  horses 

in  the  stalls,  all  the  side-boards  are 

removed  except  the  one  at  the  end 

of  the  row ;  a  horse  is  then  walked 

along  to  the  last  stall,  and  the  other 

side-board  put  in,  and  so  on  with 

all  the  rest.  They  should  be  placed 


FIG.  234 


in  the  same  order  that  they  are  ac- 
customed to  stand  in  the  stable  or 

at  the  picket  rope.  If  it  becomes  necessary  to  remove  a  horse  from  his 
stall  during  the  voyage,  the  breast-board  is  taken  away,  and  he  is  walked 
out.  All  wooden  parts  are  washed  with  some  disinfecting  compound, 
or  simply  whitewashed.  Chloride  of  zinc  is  freely  used.  The  decks 
are  washed  every  day,  and  the  stalls  cleaned  after  every  feed,  especially 
at  7  P.M.  From  the  spar  and  main  decks,  the  stale  passes  off  through 
the  scuppers  ;  from  the  orlop  deck  it  passes  to  the  hold,  and  is  pumped 
out  by  the  engine.  On  the  Himalaya  not  the  slightest  disagreeable 
odor  could  be  detected.  The  feed-troughs  and  horses'  nostrils  are 
washed  every  morning  and  evening  with  vinegar.  A  scraper,  brush, 
and  shovel  are  allowed  to  every  eight  stalls.  A  guard  always  remains 
over  the  horses,  and  in  case  of  necessity  a  farrier  or  non-commissioned 
officer  is  sent  for.  Great  attention  is  paid  to  ventilation.  The  orlop 
deck,  although  hotter  than  the  others,  appears  to  be  the  most  favorable 
one  for  the  horses. 

So  long  as  cleanliness  is  preserved,  the  commander  of  the  vessel 
does  not  interfere  as  to  the  hours  for  feeding,  which  are  usually  at  6  and 
11  A.M.  and  5J  P.M.  If  any  horse  refuses  his  food,  the  fact  is  at  once 
reported.  A  supply  of  forage  is  always  carried  on  board  the  ship.  The 
horses  drink  condensed  steam.  The  ration  at  sea  was  established  at  10 
Ibs.  of  hay,  6  Ibs.  of  oats,  half  peck  of  bran,  and  6  galls,  of  water,  as  a 
maximum  ;  but  it  is  generally  considered  this  is  too  great,  and  that  f 
the  allowance  except  the  water,  would  be  ample,  as  it  is  found  there  is 
great  danger  from  over-feeding  at  sea.  No  grain  is  given  the  day  the 
horses  come  on  board,  but  simply  a  mash  of  bran,  which  is  considered 
the  best  habitual  food  at  sea.  For  the  men,  bunks  and  hammocks  are 
generally  used.  Standing  bunks  are  found  to  be  very  objectionable,  on 


620  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [TRA. 

account  of  the  difficulty  of  keeping  them  clean.  Hammocks  are  regard- 
ed as  preferable  for  men  in  good  health,  while  many  officers  consider  it 
best  to  provide  neither  hammocks  nor  bunks,  but  to  allow  the  men  to 
lie  down  on  the  fore-decks,  with  their  blankets  and  overcoats.  When 
the  transports  are  numerous,  each  one  should  have  on  the  starboard  and 
larboard,  and  on  a  broad  pendant  at  the  top  of  the  mainmast,  an  easily 
distinguished  number.  By  means  of  these  numbers,  which  are  marked 
on  the  bills  of  lading,  the  disposable  resources  of  the  expedition  aro 
known  at  any  time.  Vessels  carrying  some  particular  flag  should  be 
specially  appropriated  for  the  transportation  of  powder,  fire-works,  and 
ammunition,  which  may  be  separated  from  the  pieces. 

Disembarkation. — If  it  becomes  necessary  to  transship,  or  leave  any 
articles  upon  the  vessels,  the  fact  should  be  carefully  noted  on  the  mani- 
fests. The  ships'  crews  load  and  unload,  using  for  these  purposes  the 
yard-arms  and  tackle.  It  is  ordinarily  sufficient  to  furnish  them  with 
rollers  and  skids,  in  order  to  place  the  articles  convenient  to  the  tackle. 
Under  some  circumstances,  it  becomes  necessary  to  establish  bridge 
abutments,  sheers,  gins,  &c.  For  the  want  of  the  ordinary  means,  a 
temporary  crane  may  be  established.  To  do  this  a  long  mortise  is  cut 
in'a  beam  about  £  of  the  distance  from  its  end,  and  upon  the  ground  is 
fixed  a  framework,  furnished  with  a  strong  vertical  pin.  The  beam  is 
laid  on  this  frame  with  the  pin  in  the  mortise,  like  an  ordinary  pintle, 
but  in  such  a  way  that  the  ends  of  the  beam  can  be  raised  and  lowered. 
The  shortest  part  of  the  beam  is  then  turned  towards  the  load,  and  the 
different  weights  being  slung  to  it,  are  raised  by  lowering  the  opposite 
end,  previously  raised  to  make  the  lashing  shorter.  The  beam  is  then 
turned  around  on  its  pintle  until  the  weight  is  in  the  proper  position, 
when  it  is  lowered  gently  and  unlashed.  If  a  tree  or  beam  fit  for  the 
purpose  cannot  be  obtained,  several  small  pieces  may  be  lashed  and 
pinned  together. 

Railroad  Transportation. — In  railroad  transportation,  when  several 
trains  are  required,  they  should  be  in  proportion  to  the  power  of  ^the 
engine  employed,  and  full  loads  should  be  placed  on  them.  The  men 
are  provided,  before  starting,  with  provisions  to  last  during  the  trip, 
which  should  be  cooked  and  carried  in  the  haversack.  The  canteens  are 
filled  with  water ;  the  French,  in  warm  weather,  mix  brandy  with  it. 
As  the  horses  can  eat  in  the  wagons,  even  whilst  the  train  is  in  motion, 
hay  (pressed  if  possible)  should  be  distributed  at  the  rate  of  about  8, 14, 
or  24  Ibs.  per  horse,  according  as  the  trip  is  to  last  less  than  12,  be- 
tween 12  and  24,  or  more  than  24  hours^  A  feed  of  oats  (half  a  ration, 
6  Ibs.)  is  carried  in  bags,  and  placed  in  the  baggage  wagons.  It  should 


TRA.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  621 

not  be  given  to  the  horses  on  the  road,  but  after  they  have  arrived  at 
the  terminus.  The  horses  are  carried  in  cattle-cars,  or,  if  possible,  in 
box-cars,  which  are  covered.  They  are  provided  with  bars  at  the  doors 
to  prevent  the  horses  from  backing  out  when  the  doors  are  opened.  By 
taking  care  to  keep  the  horses  quiet,  however,  these  bars  may  be  dis- 
pensed with.  The  saddles,  &c.,  the  valises  of  the  driver,  and  the  bags 
of  oats,  are  placed  in  the  baggage  cars,  which  should  be  provided  with 
brakes.  The  u  materiel "  is  carried  on  trucks  or  common  platform  cars. 
The  troops  should  be  at  the  station  at  least  two  hours  before  starting. 
The  horses  should  have  finished  feeding  about  two  hours  previous  to 
their  arrival  at  the  station,  as  they  are  then  more  docile.  The  baggage 
should  arrive  half  an  hour  before  the  troops,  under  charge  of  an  officer, 
and  be  loaded  under  the  direction  of  the  employes  of  the  road. 

The  cars  for  artillery  should  be  arranged  as  near  as  possible  in  the 
following  order :  1st,  a  baggage  wagon ;  2d,  a  truck  carrying  the  beams, 
platforms,  &c. ;  3d,  the  horse-cars  ;  4th,  the  cars  for  the  men,  one  at 
least  of  which  should  be  provided  with  a  brake ;  5th,  trucks  loaded 
with  materiel ;  6th,  baggage  cars  (with  brakes)  loaded  with  saddles,  &c. 
Cars  with  brakes  should  always  be  placed  at  the  head  and  tail  of  the 
train.  Guards  should  be  detailed  and  so  stationed  on  the  train  as  to 
preserve  order  both  when  in  motion  and  during  stoppages.  The  com- 
manding officer  should  pay  especial  regard  to  the  wishes  of  those  hav- 
ing the  train  in  charge,  and  enforce  an  observance  of  the  road  regulations 
in  his  command.  On  arriving  at  the  station,  the  commander  at  once 
divides  his  command  and  materiel  into  the  portions  to  occupy  the 
different  cars. 

Horses. — An  officer  is  detailed  to  superintend  the  embarkation  of 
the  horses.  He  furnishes  each  car  with  two  bundles  of  litter,  and  places 
forage  along  the  long  side  of  the  car  opposite  to  the  door.  A  non- 
commissioned officer  is  charged  with  loading  the  saddles,  &c.  The  men 
are,  under  an  officer,  formed  into  detachments  proportional  to  the  im- 
portance of  the  materiel^to  be  embarked. 

As  soon  as  a  truck  has  received  its  load,  the  wheels  of  the  different 
trains  are  locked  together  with  cord  from  .5  to  .6  inch  in  diameter, 
chocks  are  placed  under  the  wheels  and  nailed  to  the  floor,  and  the 
stability  of  the  whole  secured  by  tying  the  carriages  to  the  rings  of  the 
truck.  Straw  ropes,  or  other  means,  are  made  use  of  to  prevent  friction 
between  the  parts. 

The  men,  with  their  knapsacks  and  arms,  are  divided,  under  the 
superintendence  of  an  officer,  into  portions  corresponding  to  the  capacity 
of  the  cars.  Each  division  is  conducted  promptly  to  the  car  it  is  to 


622  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [TRA. 

occupy,  the  men  entering  first  going  to  the  end  farthest  from  the  door, 
and  so  on.  They  seat  themselves,  holding  their  arms  between  their 
legs,  the  stock  or  scabbard  resting  on  the  floor.  Fire-arms  should  never 
be  laid  on  the  seats  or  stood  in  corners,  except  when  leaving  the  cars  at 
the  principal  stopping  places  and  stations. 

Inspecting. — Immediately  before  starting,  the  commanding  officer 
and  conductor  of  the  train  inspect  the  cars  to  ascertain  that  every  thing  is 
in  order.  They  should  see  that  the  couplings  of  the  car  containing  the 
"  materiel"  are  short  enough  to  insure  the  contact  of  the  buffers.  The 
officers  then  enter  the  car  assigned  to  them. 

Regulations. — Tho  men  are  strictly  prohibited  putting  their  heads 
or  arms  out  of  the  car  while  it  is  in  motion ;  passing  from  one  car  to 
another  ;  uttering  loud  cries  of  any  kind  ;  and  from  leaving  the  cars  at 
the  station  before  the  signal  for  doing  so  is  given.  The  men  with  the 
horses,  keep  them  from  putting  their  heads  outside  the  car.  They  feed 
them  with  hay  from  the  hand,  until  they  get  used  to  the  motion,  hold 
them  by  the  bridle  or  halter,  and  quiet  their  fears  whilst  the  locomotive 
is  whistling.  In  case  of  any  accident,  they  make  a  signal  outside  the 
car,  by  waving  a  handkerchief.  If  at  any  station  the  commander  deems 
it  necessary  for  the  men  to  leave  the  cars,  after  the  time  indicated  by 
the  conductor,  he  informs  the  officers  of  the  length  of  the  halt.  Tho 
officers  remain  in  the  vicinity  of  the  cars  containing  their  men,  in  order 
to  direct  and  govern  their  movements.  The  guard  posts  sentinels 
wherever  it  is  necessary,  especially  at  the  doors,  to  prevent  the  men 
from  gathering  near  or  opening  them.  At  a  given  signal  on  the  bugle, 
the  men  leave  the  cars  in  order,  and  without  side-arms.  The  men  in 
the  horse-cars  get  out  over  the  side.  If  it  becomes  necessary  to  open 
the  doors  of  these  cars,  the  door-bars  are  first  placed  in  position.  About 
the  middle  of  the  trip,  as  near  as  possible,  the  police-guard  and  men 
with  the  horses,  are  relieved.  At  each  halt  of  more  than  ten  minutes, 
the  commander,  or  some  other  officer,  and  the  conductor  inspect  the  cars 
and  especially  those  which  carry  the  ammunition  wagons.  Five  min- 
utes before  starting  a  bugle-call  gives  the  signal  for  entering  the  cars. 
At  the  station  immediately  preceding  the  terminus,  the  horses  are 
bridled,  and  the  forage  is  collected  and  formed  into  one  bundle  for  each 
car.  During  feeding  time  there  should  be  at  least  one  man  to  every 
two  horse-cars.  In  general,  oats  should  be  distributed  only  after  the 
horses  leave  the  cars.  Hay  is  fed  by  hand  by  the  drivers  whilst  the 
train  is  in  motion.  In  ordinary  weather,  the  horses  are  watered  only 
when  the  trip  exceeds  twelve  hours ;  and  even  in  this  case  they  need 
but  little,  and  a  single  ordinary-size  pailful  suffices  for  two  horses. 


TRA.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  G23 

Unloading. — To  prevent  accidents,  it  is  well  to  provide  one  or  S3v- 
eral  movable  bridges  for  discharging  the  horses,  which  are  carried  on 
the  train.  They  are  about  sixteen  feet  long,  a  little  wider  than  the  car 
door,  and  are  provided  with  hand-rails  or  ropes,  movable  at  will.  The 
bridge  is  supported  at  its  upper  extremity  by  'a  movable  trestle  of  a 
height  corresponding  to  the  sill  of  the  door,  and  the  cars  are  unloaded 
by  passing  them  in  succession  in  front  of  this  bridge ;  or,  by  fixing  to 
the  forepart  of  the  bridge  two  strong  flanges  of  iron  which  rest  upon 
the  floor  of  the  car,  the  bridge  may  be  applied  in  succession  to  each  of 
the  cars  to  be  unloaded. 

The  non-commissioned  officers  in  charge  of  the  freight  cars,  imme- 
diately on  arriving  at  the  station,  unload  it  as  originally  divided  in  the 
cars  by  the  inverse  means  used  to  load  it.  As  soon  as  the  horse-cars  reach 
the  proper  position,  the  men  fix  the  mova*ble  bridges,  open  the  doors,  and 
bring  the  horses  out  in  the  inverse  order  in  which  they  entered.  If  the 
horses  have  to  be  taken  out  of  the  same  door  they  entered,  the  first  two  are 
backed  out,  and  the  rest  follow  after  making  a  half  turn.  As  soon  as 
a  rear  team  is  disengaged  it  is  taken  to  the  place  where  the  harness  is 
deposited,  and  harnessed  to  a  carriage  which  is  conducted  to  the  park, 
where  the  harnessing  is  completed.  (Consult  GIBBON  ;  MCCLELLAN.) 

TRAVELLING  ALLOWANCE.  Where  any  commissioned 
officer  is  obliged  to  incur  any  extra  expense  in  travelling,  and  sitting 
on  general  courts-martial,  he  shall  be  allowed  a  reasonable  compensa- 
tion for  such  extra  expense  actually  incurred,  not  exceeding  one  dollar 
and  twenty-five  cents  per  day  to  officers  who  are  not  entitled  to  forage, 
and  not  exceeding  one  dollar  per  day  to  such  as  shall  be  entitled  to 
forage  ;  (Act  March  16,  1802.)  (See  ORDNANCE  ;  TRAVELLING  FORGE.) 

An  officer,  who  travels  not  less  than  ten  miles  from  his  station, 
without  troops,  escort  of  military  stores,  and  under  special  orders  in 
the  case  from  a  superior,  or  summons  to  attend  a  military  court,  shall 
receive  ten  cents  a  mile ;  or  if  he  prefer  it,  the  actual  cost  of  his  trans- 
portation, and  of  his  field-allowance  of  baggage  for  the  whole  journey, 
provided  ho  has  travelled  in  the  customary  reasonable  manner ;  (Reg- 
ulations for  the  Quartermasters  Department.) 

Whenever  any  officer  or  soldier  shall  be  discharged  from  the  ser- 
vice, except  by  way  of  punishment  for  any  offence,  he  shall  be  allowed 
his  pay  and  rations,  or  an  equivalent  in  money,  for  such  term  of  time 
as  shall  be  sufficient  for  him  to  travel  from  the  place  of  his  discharge 
to  the  place  of  his  residence,  computing  at  the  rate  of  twenty  miles  to 
a  day  ;  (  Act  March  16,  1802.) 

TRAVELLING-FORGE.     (See  ORDNANCE.) 


624 


MILITARY  DICTIONARY. 


TKAVELLING-KITCHEN.  Marshal  Saxe,  it  is  believed,  first 
suggested  the  idea  of  cooking  while  inarching,  so  as  to  economize  the 
strength  of  soldiers ;  have  their  food  well  cooked  in  all  weather,  and 
avoid  the  numerous  diseases  caused  by  bad  cooking,  and  want  of  rest. 
Colonel  Cavalli,  of  the  Sardinian  artillery,  has  with  the  same  laudable 
motive  embraced  a  kitchen-cart  in  the  improvements  suggested  by  him 
to  replace  the  wagons  now  in  use,  (see  WAGON  ;)  and  an  attempt  is 
here  made  to  elaborate  the  same  idea  of  a  travelling-kitchen,  designed 
for  baking,  making  soup,  and  other  cooking,  while  on  a  march. 

Pig.  235  represents  a  cart,  12|  feet  long,  mounted  on  two  6-feet 

FIG.  235. 


T.IA.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  625 

wheels,  and  covered  with  a  very  light  canvas  roof  with  leather-cloth 
curtains.  A  large  range  or  stove  forms  the  body  of  the  vehicle ;  its 
grate  is  below  the  floor,  its  doors  opening  on  a  level  with  it.  A  Pa- 
pin's  digester  is  inclosed  above  the  grate,  in  a  flue  whence  the  heat  may 
pass  around  the  double-oven  in  the  rear,  or  straight  up  chimney,  as 
regulated  by  dampers.  At  the  side  of  the  digester,  over  the  grate,  is 
a  range,  suited  to  various  cooking  vessels.  The  top  of  the  oven  forms 
a  table  nearly  5  feet  square,  at  which  three  cooks  may  work,  standing 
upon  the  rear  platform.  A  foot-board  passes  from  this  platform  to 
the  front  platform,  where  the  driver  and  a  cook  may  stand.  Stores 
may  be  placed  in  the  lockers  at  the  side  of  the  range,  and  under  the 
rear  foot  board.  The  chimney  may  be  turned  down,  above  the  roof, 
to  pass  under  trees,  &c.,  and  may  be  of  any  height  to  secure  a  good 
draft.  By  bending  the  axle  like  that  of  an  omnibus,  the  vehicle  may  bo 
hung  without  danger  of  top-heaviness.  Cooking  vessels,  more  bulky 
than  heavy,  may  be  suspended  from  the  roof,  over  the  range,  Avhen  not 
in  use.  The  digester  may  have  a  capacity  of  100  gallons,  and  an  oven, 
of  60  to  75  cubic  feet,  would  bo  quite  adequate  to  the  cooking  for  250 
men ;  or  the  dimensions  of  the  cart  may  be  smaller,  and  each  company 
of  100  men  might  have  its  own  travelling-kitchen,  which  would  also 
furnish  oven  and  cooking  utensils  for  camp. 

TRAVERSES — are  portions  of  parapets,  which  cross  the  breadth 
of  the  covered-way,  at  the  salient  and  re-entering  places  of  arms.  Other 
traverses  are  also  placed  between  these,  where  necessary,  to  afford  proper 
protection.  Traverses  are  thrown  up,  to  bar  enfilade  fire,  along  any 
line  of  work  or  passage  which  is  liable  to  it. 

TRAVERSE*TABLE— is  the  tabulated  form  in  which  the  north- 
ing, southing,  easting,  and  westing  are  made  on  each  individual  course 
and  distance  in  a  traverse,  for  the  purpose  of  finding  readily,  by  in- 
spection of  the  table,  the  difference  of  latitude  and  departure  of  any 
particular  course  and  distance.  Traverse  tables  afford  a  simple  means 
of  land-surveying,  with' compass  and  chain.  If  the  sum  of  each  adjacent 
pair  of  distances  perpendicular  to  a  meridian  (departures]  without  sur- 
vey, be  multiplied  by  the  northing  or  southing  between  them,  in  suc- 
cession round  the  figure  in  the  same  order,  the  difference  between  the 
sum  of  the  north  products  and  the  sum  of  the  south  products  will  be 
double  the  area  of  the  tract.  The  meridian  distance  of  a  course  is  the 
distance  of  the  middle  part  of  that  course  from  an  assumed  meridian. 
Hence,  the  double  meridian  distance  of  the  first  course  is  equal  to  its 
departure.  And  the  double  meridian  distance  of  any  course  is  equal 
to  the  double  meridian  distance  of  the  preceding  course,  plus  its  de. 
40 


626 


MILITARY  DICTIONARY. 


[TRE. 


parture,  plus  the  departure  of  the  course  itself,  having  regard  to  tho 
algebraic  sign  of  each. 

Then  to  find  the  area :  1.  Multiply  the  double  meridian  distance  of 
each  course  by  its  northing  or  southing.  2.  Place  all  the  plus  products 
in  one  column,  and  all  the  minus  products  in  another.  3.  Add  up  each 
column  separately  and  take  their  difference.  This  difference  will  be 
double  the  area  of  the  land.  In  balancing  the  work,  the  error  for  each 
particular  course  is  found  by  the  proportion  :  as  the  sum  of  the 
courses  is  to  the  error  of  latitude,  (or  departure,)  so  is  each  particular 
course  to  its  correction.  When  a  bearing  is  due  east  or  west,  the 
error  of  latitude  is  nothing,  and  the  course  must  be  subtracted  from 
the  sum  of  the  courses  before  balancing  the  columns  of  latitude.  And 
so  with  the  departures.  Let  it  be  required  to  find  the  contents  of  a 
piece  of  land,  of  which  the  following  are  the  field-notes : 

STA.  COURSE. 

1  N.  4G£°  W. 

2  N.  51f  E. 

3  East 


Dis. 

STA. 

COURSE. 

Dis. 

20     chains. 

4 

S. 

5G° 

E. 

27.GO  chains. 

13.80 
21.25 

« 
« 

5 

G 

S. 
N. 

33i 

74 

W. 

0  W. 

18.80 
30.95 

u 

u 

CALCULATION. 

Stations. 

Courses. 

Dist. 
Chains. 

Diff.  Lat. 

Departures.         Balanced. 

D.  M.  D. 

+ 

Area. 

+ 

Area. 

N. 

+ 

8. 

E. 

+ 

^       Lat. 

Dep. 

1 
2 
8 
4 
5 
6 

N.  46*  W. 
N.  51f  E. 
East. 
S.  56°  E. 
S.  33*  W. 
N.  74*  W. 

20.00 
18.80 
21.25 
27.60 
18.80 
80.95 

18.77 
8.54 

a27 

15.44 
15.72 

10.84 
81.86 
U.88 

14.51    +  18.8* 

—      +    K61 

—     —15.29 
10.81   —10.88 
29.83    +    8.48 

-  14.56 
4-  10.81 
+  21.20 
+  22.82 
—  10.36 
-29.94 

14.56 
10.81 
42.82 
86.84 
99.30 
59.03 

202.0928 
93.0741 

497^6229 

1327.7886 
1552.0590 

gm]  

13i40 
•or  in  nc 
Acres, 

80.53    81.16 
80.58 

rthing,      .55 
1  Hod,  16  Per 

54.97 
54.65 

.82 
:hes. 

54.65  .                            | 
Error  in  westing. 

792.789S12S79.8426 
792.7898 

2)2087.0528 

En 

ANSWEB  —  1(M 

1043.5264 

(Consult  Tables  and  Formulce  by  Capt.  T.  J.  LEE,  Top.  Engineer.) 
TREATY.  No  purchase,  grant,  license,  or  other  conveyance  of 
lands  or  of  any  title  or  claim  thereto  from  any  Indian  nation,  or  tribe 
of  Indians  within  the  bounds  of  the  United  States,  shall  be  of  any 
validity  in  law  or  equity,  unless  the  same  be  made  by  treaty  or 
convention,  entered  into  pursuant  to  the  constitution.  Penalty  not 
exceeding  forfeiture  of  $1,000  and  12  months'  imprisonment  for  vio- 
lation of  this  act.  Provided,  nevertheless,  that  any  agent  or  agents 
of  any  State,  who  may  be  present  at  any  treaty  made  by  United  States 
authority,  in  the  presence  and  with  the  approbation  of  the  United 


TRI.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  627 

States  commissioners,  may  propose  to,  and  adjust  with,  the  Indians  the 
compensation  to  be  made  to  them  for  land  claims  within  such  States, 
extinguished  by  the  treaty  ;  (Act  of  Congress.) 

TRENCH.  The  communications,  boyaux  or  zigzags,  as  well  as 
the  parallels  or  places  of  arms  opened  by  besiegers  against  a  fortifica- 
tion are  trenches.  They  are  from  6  to  10  feet  wide  and  about  3  feet 
deep.  To  open  the  trenches,  is  to  break  ground  for  the  purpose  of 
carrying  on  approaches  towards  a  besieged  place. 

TRESTLE  OR  TRESSEL.  The  form  of  a  trestle  is  the  same  as 
a  carpenter's  horse,  that  is,  a  horizontal  beam  supported  by  four  legs. 
(See  BRIDGE.)  The  horizontal. beam,  termed  the  cap  or  ridge  beam  in 
trestles  used  for  field-bridges,  is  usually  of  eight-inch  scantling,  and 
from  twelve  to  sixteen  feet  long.  The  legs  are  of  four  and  a  half  incli 
scantling ;  they  have  a  spread  towards  the  bottom,  the  distance  be- 
tween them  across  being  equal  to  half  the  height,  and  lengthwise  of  the 
cap,  their  inclination  is  one-twelfth  of  the  height.  They  are  fastened  to 
the  cap,  about  18  inches  from  the  ends,  by  nails;  the  side  of  the  cap 
and  the  top  of  the  leg  being  properly  prepared  for  a  strong,  accurate 
fit.  The  legs  are  connected  either  in  pairs,  or  else  all  four  by  hori- 
zontal pieces  of  three-inch  scantling  ;  sometimes  diagonal  pieces,  going 
from  the  top  of  one  leg  to  the  bottom  of  the  opposite  one,  are  used. 

Bridges  or  trestles  are  principally  useful  in  crossing  small  streams 
not  more  than  six  feet  deep.  The  trestles  should  not  be  placed  farther 
apart  than  sixteen  feet  between  the  ridge  beams  ;  the  balks  should  jut 
at  least  one  foot  beyond  the  ri5ge  beams.  The  action  of  the  current 
is  counteracted  by  attaching  each  trestle  to  two  cables  stretched  across 
the  stream  above  and  below  the  bridge.  Another  plan  consists  in 
making  a  network  of  tough  twigs  or  cords  around  the  legs  near  the 
bottom,  and  filling  it  in  with  broken  stone.  (Consult  MAHAN.) 

TRIALS — shall  be  carried  on  only  between  the  hours  of  eight  in 
the  morning  and  three  in  the  afternoon,  except  in  cases  which,  in  the 
opinion  of  the  officer  ordering  the  court,  require  immediate  example ; 
(ART.  75.)  No  officer,  non-commissioned  officer,  or  soldier  shall  be  tried 
a  second  time  for  the  same  offence  ;  (ART.  87.)  And  no  person  shall 
be  liable  to  be  tried  and  punished  by  a  general  court-martial  for  any 
offence  which  shall  appear  to  have  been  committed  more  than  two  years 
before  the  issuing  of  the  order  for  such  trial,  unless  the  person,  by 
reason  of  having  absented  himself,  or  some  other  manifest  impediment, 
shall  not  have  been  amenable  to  justice  within  that  period  ;  (ART.  88.) 

All  trials  before  courts-martial,  like  those  in  civil  courts,  are  con- 
ducted publicly ;  and  in  order  that  this  publicity  may  in  no  case  be 


628  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [Tni. 

attended  with  tumult  or  indecorum  of  any  kind,  the  court  is  authorized, 
by  the  Rules  and  Articles  of  War,  to  punish  at  its  discretion,  all  riotous 
and  disorderly  proceedings  or  menacing  words,  signs,  or  gestures,  used 
in  its  presence  ;  (ART.  76.) 

The  day  and  place  of  meeting  of  a  general  court-martial  having  been 
published  in  orders,  the  officers  appointed  as  members,  the  parties  and 
witnesses,  must  attend  accordingly.  The  judge-advocate,  at  the  open- 
ing, calls  over  the  names  of  the  members,  who  arrange  themselves  on 
the  right  or  left  of  the  president,  according  to  rank  ;  (ART.  61.) 

The  members  of  the  court  having  taken  their  seats  and  disposed  of 
any  preliminary  matter,  the  prisoner,  prosecutor,  and  witnesses  are 
called  into  court.  The  prisoner  is  attended  by  a  guard,  or  by  an 
officer,  as  his  rank  or  the  nature  of  the  charge  may  dictate ;  but  during 
the  trial,  should  be  unfettered  and  free  from  any  bonds  or  shackles, 
unless  there  be  danger  of  escape  or  rescue.  Accommodation  is  usually 
afforded,  at  detached  tables,  for  the  prosecutor  and  prisoner ;  also  for 
any  friend  or  legal  adviser  of  the  prisoner  or  prosecutor,  whose  assist- 
ance has  been  desired  during  the  trial ;  but  the  prisoner  only  can  ad- 
dress the  court,  it  being  an  admitted  maxim,  that  counsel  are  not  to 
interfere  in  the  proceedings  or  to  offer  the  slightest  remark,  much  less 
to  plead  or  argue.  The  judge-advocate,  by  direction  of  the  president, 
first  reads,  in  an  audible  voice,  the  order  for  holding  the  court.  He 
then  calls  over  the  names  of  the  members,  commencing  with  the  presi- 
dent, who  is  always  the  highest  in  rank.  He  then  demands  of  the 
prisoner,  whether  he  has  any  exception  or  cause  of  challenge  against 
any  of  the  members  present,  and  if  he  have,  he  is  required  to  state  his 
cause  of  challenge,  confining  his  challenge  to  one  member  at  a  time ; 
(ART.  71.)  After  hearing  the  prisoner's  objections,  the  president  must 
order  the  court  to  be  cleared,  when  the  members  will  deliberate  on  and 
determine  the  relevancy  or  validity  of  the  objection ;  the  member 
challenged  retiring  during  the  discussion. 

Sufficient  causes  for  challenge  are : — the  expression  of  an  opinion 
relative  to  the  subject  to  be  investigated  ;  having  been  a  member  of  a 
court  of  inquiry  which  gave  an  opinion ;  or  of  another  general  court- 
martial,  in  which  the  circumstances  were  directly  investigated  ;  or  of 
another  general  court-martial  in  which  the  circumstances  were  investi- 
gated incidentally  and  an  opinion  formed  thereon;  prejudice,  malice, 
or  the  like.  The  privilege  of  challenge  is  not  confined  to  the  prisoner ; 
for  there  may  be  sources  of  prejudice  in  favor  of  the  prisoner  as  well 
as  against  him,  and  urgent  motives  that  may  sway  to  acquit,  as  well 
as  condemn.  When  the  prisoner  and  prosecutor  decline  to  challenge 


TEI.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  629 

any  of  the  members,  or  where  the  causes  of  challenge  have  been  dis- 
allowed, the  judge-advocate  proceeds  to  administer  to  the  members 
of  the  court,  the  oath  prescribed  by  the  69th  Article  of  War,  which 
is  in  the  following  words :  "  You,  A.  B.,  do  swear,  that  you  will  well 
and  truly  try  and  determine,  according  to  evidence,  the  matter  now 
before  you,  between  the  United  States  of  America  and  the  prisoner  to 
be  tried  ;  and  that  you  will  duly  administer  justice  according  to  the 
provisions  of  '  an  act  establishing  rules  and  articles  for  the  government 
of  the  armies  of  the  United  States,'  without  partiality,  favor  or  affec- 
tion :  and  if  any  doubt  shall  arise,  not  explained  by  said  articles,  ac- 
cording to  your  understanding  and  the  custom  of  war  in  like  cases : 
and  you  do  further  swear,  that  you  will  not  divulge  the  sentence  of  the 
court,  until  it  shall  be  published  by  the  proper  authority  :  neither  will 
you  disclose  or  discover  the  vote  or  opinion  of  any  particular  member 
of  the  court-martial,  unless  required  to  give  evidence  thereof,  as  a  wit- 
xiess,  by  a  court  of  justice  in  due  course  of  law.  So  help  you  God." 
The  oath  is  taken  by  each  member  holding  up  his  right  hand  and  re- 
peating the  words  after  the  judge-advocate.  After  the  oath  has  been 
xidministered  to  all  the  members,  the  president  administers  to  the 
judge-advocate,  the  particular  oath  of  secrecy  to  be  observed  by  him, 
and  which,  as  prescribed  by  Article  69,  is  as  follows :  "  You,  A.  B., 
do  swear  that  you  will  not  disclose  or  discover  the  vote  or  opinion  of 
any  particular  member  of  the  court-martial,  unless  required  to  give 
evidence  thereof  as  a  witness,  by  a  court  of  justice  in  due  course  of  law, 
nor  divulge  the  sentence  of  the  court  to  any  but  the  proper  authority, 
until  it  shall  be  duly  disclosed  by  the  same.  So  help  you  God." 

The  oath  taken  by  the  president  and  members  contains  a  twofold 
obligation  to  secrecy  :  1st,  That  they  will  not  divulge  the  sentence  of 
the  court,  until  it  shall  be  published  by  proper  authority ;  and,  2d,  That 
they  shall  not  disclose  or  discover  the  vote  or  opinion  of  any  partic- 
ular member  of  the  court-martial,  unless  required  to  give  evidence 
thereof  by  a  court  of  justice,  in  a  due  course  of  law.  Both  these  ob- 
ligations have  their  foundation  in  reason  and  good  policy. 

No  sentence  of  a  general  court-martial  is  complete  or  final,  until  it 
has  been  duly  approved.  Until  that  period  it  is,  strictly  speaking,  no 
more  than  an  opinion,  which  is  subject  to  alteration  or  revisal.  In  this 
interval,  the  communication  of  that  opinion  could  answer  no  ends  of 
justice,  but  might,  in  many  cases,  tend  to  frustrate  them.  The  obli- 
gation to  perpetual  secrecy,  with  regard  to  the  votes  or  opinions  of  the 
particular  members  of  the  court,  is  likewise  founded  on  the  wisest 
policy.  The  officers  who  compose  a  military  tribunal  are,  in  a  great 


630  MILITAKY  DICTIONARY.  [TEL 

degree,  dependent  for  their  preferment  on  the  President.  They  are 
even,  in  some  measure,  under  the  influence  of  their  commander-in-chief 
— considerations  which  might  impair  justice.  This  danger  is,  therefore, 
best  obviated  by  the  confidence  and  security  which  every  member  pos- 
sesses, that  his  particular  opinion  is  never  to  be  divulged.  Another 
reason  is,  that  the  individual  members  of  the  court  may  not  be  ex- 
posed to  the  resentment  of  parties  and  their  connections,  which  can 
hardly  fail  to  be  excited  by  those  sentences,  which  courts-martial  are 
obliged  to  award.  It  may  be  necessary  for  officers,  in  the  course  of 
their  duty,  daily,  to  associate  and  frequently  to  be  sent  on  the  same 
command  or  service,  with  a  person  against  whom  they  have  given  an 
unfavorable  vote  or  opinion  on  a  court-martial.  The  publicity  of  these 
votes  or  opinions  would  create  the  most  dangerous  animosities,  equally 
fatal  to  the  peace  and  security  of  individuals,  and  prejudicial  to  the 
public  service. 

The  oath  which  is  taken  by  the  judge-advocate,  contains  the  same 
obligation  to  secrecy,  except  so  far  as  it  relates  to  the  person  who  has 
the  approving^  disapproving  of  the  sentence  of  the  court.  It  is  not 
inconsistent  with  his  oath  or  duty,  for  the  judge-advocate  to  commu- 
nicate to  the  proper  authority,  his  views  of  the  proceedings  of  the 
court. 

The  judge-advocate  is,  however,  bound  by  oath,  as  well  as  the 
members  of  the  court,  to  maintain  the  strictest  secrecy  with  regard  to 
the  votes  or  opinions  of  individuals  for  the  reasons  above  stated.  The 
oath  taken  by  the  members  of  the  court  commences  with  these  words : 
"  You,  A.  B.,  do  swear  that  you  will  well  and  truly  try  and  determine, 
according  to  evidence,  the  matter  now  before  you,  between  the  United 
States  of  America  and  the  prisoner  to  be  tried  ;  "  (Artx.  69.)  The  ex- 
pression, "  prisoner,"  in  the  singular  number,  seems  to  imply  that  the 
swearing,  and  consequently  the  trial,  should  in  each  case  be  separate. 
That  course  should  therefore  be  pursued. 

Application  to  delay  the  assembling  of  the  court,  from  the  absence 
or  indisposition  of  the  witnesses,  the  illness  of  the  parties,  or  other  cause, 
should  be  made,  when  practicable,  to  the  authority  convening  the  court ; 
but  application  to  put  off  or  suspend  the  trial  may  be  urged  with  a 
court-martial,  subsequent  to  the  swearing  of  the  members.  It  may  be 
supported  by  affidavit,  and  the  court,  in  allowing  it  to  prevail,  must  be 
satisfied,  if  the  cause  be  absence  of  a  witness,  that  the  testimony  pro- 
posed to  be  offered  is  material,  and  that  the  applicant  cannot  have  sub- 
stantial justice  without  it.  The  points,  therefore,  which  each  witness  is 
intended  to  prove,  must  be  set  forth  in  the  application,  and  it  must  also 


TRI.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  GG1 

be  shown  that  the  absence  of  the  witness  is  not  attributable  to  any 
neglect  of  the  applicant. 

A  precise  period  of  delay  must  be  applied  for,  and  it  must  be  made 
to  appear  that  there  is  reasonable  expectation  of  procuring  the  attend- 
ance of  the  witness  by  the  stated  time  ;  or,  if  the  absence  of  a  witness 
be  attributed  to  his  illness,  a  surgeon,  by  oral  testimony,  or  by  affidavit, 
must  state  the  inability  of  the  witness  to  the  court,  the  nature  of  his 
disease,  and  the  time  which  will  probably  elapse  before  the  witness 
may  be  able  to  give  his  testimony.  The  court  must  obviously  be  ad- 
journed at  any  period  of  its  proceedings,  prior  to  the  final  close  of  the 
prosecution  and  defence,  on  satisfactory  proof,  by  a  medical  officer,  that 
the  prisoner  is  in  such  a  state,  that  actual  danger  to  his  health  would 
arise  from  his  attendance  in  court ;  and  where  the  prisoner  is  so  ill  as 
to  render  it  probable  that  his  inability  to  attend  the  court  will  be  of 
such  continuance  as  to  operate  to  the  inconvenience  of  the  service, 
either  by  the  detention  of  the  members  of  the  court  from  their  regi- 
ments, or  from  other  cause,  the  court  may  be  dissolved  by  the  authority 
which  convened  it.  Though  the  prisoner  may  have  been  arraigned,  and 
the  trial  proceeded  with,  the  prisoner,  on  recovery,  would  be  amenable 
to  trial  by  another  court.  The  illness  of  the  prosecutor  would,  in  few 
cases,  justify  the  suspension  of  the  trial,  excepting,  perhaps,  for  a  very 
limited  period  ;  all  prosecutions  before  courts-martial  being  considered 
at  the  suit  of  the  United  States,  or  an  individual  State,  as  the  case 
may  be.  The  court  being  regularly  constituted,  and  every  preliminary 
form  gone  through,  the  judge-advocate,  as  prosecutor  for  .the  United 
States,  desires  the  prisoner  to  listen  to  the  charge  or  charges  brought 
against  him,  which  he  reads  with  an  audible  voice,  and  then  the  prisoner 
is  asked,  whether  he  is  guilty  or  not  guilty  of  the  matter  of  accusation. 

The  charge  being  sufficient,  or  not  objected  to,  the  prisoner  must 
plead  either  :  1st,  Guilty  ;  or  2d,  Specially  to  the  jurisdiction,  or  in  bar ; 
or  3d,  The  general  plea  of  not  guilty,  which  is  the  usual  course  where 
the  prisoner  makes  a  defence. 

If  from  obstinacy  and  design  the  prisoner  stand  mute,  or  answer 
foreign  to  the  purpose,  the  court  may  proceed  to  trial  and  judgment, 
as  if  the  prisoner  had  regularly  pleaded  not  guilty,  (ART.  70 ;)  but  if 
the  prisoner  plead  guilty,  the  court  will  proceed  to  determine  what 
punishment  shall  be  awarded,  and  to  pronounce  sentence  thereon. 
Preparatory  to  this,  in  all  cases  where  the  punishment  of  the  offence 
charged  is  discretionary,  and  especially  where  the  discretion  includes 
a  wide  range  and  great  variety  of  punishment,  and  the  specifications  do 
not  show  all  the  circumstances  attending  the  offence,  the  court  should 


632  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [Tiu. 

receive  and  report,  in  its  proceedings,  any  evidence  the  judge-advocate 
may  offer,  for  tho  purpose  of  illustrating  the  actual  character  of  the 
offence,  notwithstanding  the  party  accused  may  have  pleaded  guilty ; 
such  evidence  being  necessary  to  an  enlightened  exercise  of  the  discre- 
tion of  the  court,  in  measuring  the  punishment,  as  well  as  for  the  ap- 
proving authority.  If  there  be  any  exception  to  this  rule,  it  is  where 
the  specification  is  so  full  and  precise  as  to  disclose  all  the  circumstances 
(.f  mitigation  or  aggravation  which  accompany  the  offence.  When  that 
is  the  case,  or  when  the  punishment  is  fixed,  and  no  discretion  is  allowed, 
explanatory  testimony  cannot  be  needed. 

Special  pleas  are  either  to  the  jurisdiction  of  the  court,  or  in  bar  of 
the  charge.  If  an  officer  or  soldier  be  arraigned  by  a  court  not  legally 
constituted,  cither  as  to  the  authority  by  which  it  is  assembled,  or  as 
to  the  number  and  rank  of  its  members,  or  other  similar  causes,  a 
prisoner  may  except  to  the  jurisdiction  of  the  court-martial.  Special 
pleas  in  bar  go  to  the  merits  of  the  case,  and  set  forth  a  reason  why, 
even  admitting  the  charge  to  be  true,  it  should  be  dismissed,  and  the 
prisoner  discharged.  A  former  acquittal  or  conviction  of  the  same 
offence  would  obviously  be  a  valid  bar,  except  in  case  of  appeal  from 
a  regimental  to  a  general  court-martial.  Though  the  facts  in  issue 
should  be  charged  to  have  happened  more  than  two  years  prior  to  the 
date  of  the  order  for  the  assembling  of  the  court-martial,  yet  it  is  not 
the  province  of  the  court,  unless  objection  be  made,  to  inquire  into  the 
cause  of  the  impediment  in  the  outset.  It  would  be  to  presume  the 
illegality  of  the  court,  whereas  the  court  should  assume  that  manifest 
impediment  to  earlier  trial  did  exist,  and  leave  the  facts  to  be  developed 
by  witnesses  in  the  ordinary  course.  A  pardon  may  be  pleaded  in 
bar.  If  full,  it  at  once  destroys  the  end  and  purpose  of  charge,  by  re- 
mitting that  punishment  which  the  prosecution  seeks  to  inflict ; 
if  conditional,  the  performance  of  the  condition  must  be  known ;  thus, 
a  soldier  arraigned  for  desertion,  must  plead  a  general  pardon,  and 
prove  that  he  surrendered  himself  within  the  stipulated  period. 

No  officer  or  soldier,  being  acquitted  or  convicted  of  an  offence,  is 
liable  to  be  tried  a  second  time  for  the  same.  But  this  provision  ap- 
plies solely  to  trials  for  the  same  incidental  act  and  crime,  and  to  such 
persons  as  have,  in  the  first  instance,  been  legally  tried.  If  any  irreg- 
ularity take  place  on  tho  trial  rendering  it  illegal  and  void,  the  prisoner 
must  be  discharged,  and  be  regarded  as  standing  in  the  same  situation 
as  before  the  commencement  of  these  illegal  proceedings.  The  same 
charge  may,  therefore,  be  again  preferred  against  the  prisoner  who  can- 
not plead  the  previous  illegal  trial  in  bar. 


TRI.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  633 

A  prisoner  cannot  plead  in  bar  that  he  has  not  been  furnished  with 
a  copy  of  the  charges,  or  that  the  copy  furnished  him  differed  from  that 
on  which  he  has  been  arraigned.  It  is  customary  and  proper  to  furnish 
him  with  a  correct  copy ;  but  the  omission  shall  not  make  void,  though 
it  may  postpone  the  trial.  If  the  special  plea  in  bar  be  such  that,  if 
true,  the  charge  should  be  dismissed  and  the  prisoner  discharged,  the 
judge-advocate  should  be  called  on  to  answer  it.  If  he  does  not  admit 
it  to  be  true,  the  prisoner  must  produce  evidence  to  the  points  alleged 
therein ;  and  if,  on  deliberation,  the  plea  be  found  true,  the  facts  being 
recorded,  the  court  will  adjourn  and  the  president  submit  the  proceed- 
ings to  the  officer  by  whose  order  the  court  was  convened,  with  a  view 
to  the  immediate  discharge  of  the  prisoner.  The  ordinary  plea  is  not 
guilty,  in  which  case  the  trial  proceeds.  The  judge  advocate  cautions 
all  witnesses  on  the  trial  to  withdraw,  and  to  return  to  court,  only  on 
being  called.  He  then  proceeds  to  the  examination  of  witnesses,  and 
to  the  reading  and  proof  of  any  written  evidence  he  may  have  to  bring 
forward.  After  a  prisoner  has  been  arraigned  on  specific  charges,  it  is 
irregular  for  a  court-martial  to  admit  any  additional  charge  against 
him,  even  though  he  may  not  have  entered  on  his  defence.  The  trial 
on  the  charges  first  preferred,  must  be  regularly  concluded,  when,  if 
necessary,  the  prisoner  may  be  tried  on  any  further  accusation  brought 
against  him.  On  the  trial  of  cases  not  capital,  before  courts-martial, 
the  deposition  of  witnesses  not  in  the  line  or  staff  of  the  army,  may  be 
taken  before  some  justice  of  the  peace,  and  read  in  evidence,  provided, 
the  prosecutor  and  person  accused  are  present  at  the  same,  or  are  duly 
notified  thereof.  The  examination  of  witnesses  is  invariably  in  the 
presence  of  the  court ;  because,  the  countenance,  looks,  and  gestures  of 
a  witness  add  to,  or  take  away  from,  the  weight  of  his  testimony.  It 
is  usually  by  interrogation,  sometimes  by  narration  ;  in  either  case,  the 
judge-advocate  records  the  evidence,  as  nearly  as  possible,  in  the  ex- 
press words  of  the  witness.  All  evidence,  whatever,  should  be  recorded 
on  the  proceedings,  in  the  order  in  which  it  is  received  by  the  court. 
A  question  to  a  witness  is  registered  before  enunciation ;  when  once 
entered,  it  cannot  be  expunged,  except  by  the  consent  of  the  parties 
before  the  court ;  if  not  permitted  to  be  put  to  the  witness,  it  still  ap- 
pears on  the  proceedings  accompanied  by  the  decision  of  the  court. 
The  examination  in  chief  of  each  particular  witness  being  ended,  the 
cross-examination  usually  follows,  though  it  is  optional  with  the  pris- 
oner to  defer  it  to  the  final  close  of  the  examination  in  chief.  The  re- 
examination  by  the  prosecutor,  on  such  new  points  as  the  prisoner  may 


634  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [Tui. 

have  made,  succeeds  the  cross-examination,  and  finally,  the  court  puts 
such  questions  as  in  its  judgment  may  tend  to  elicit  the  truth. 

It  is  customary,  when  deemed  necessary  by  the  court,  or  desired  by 
a  witness,  to  read  over  to  him,  immediately  before  he  leaves  the  court, 
the  record  of  his  evidence,  which  he  is  desired  to  correct  if  erroneous, 
and,  with  this  view,  any  remark  or  explanation  is  entered  upon  the 
proceedings.  No  erasure  or  obliteration  is,  however,  admitted,  as  it  is 
essentially  necessary  that  the  authority  which  has  to  review  the  sen- 
tence, should  have  the  most  ample  means  of  judging,  not  only  of  any 
discrepancy  in  the  statements  of  a  witness,  but  of  any  incident  which 
may  be  made  the  subject  of  remark,  by  either  party  in  addressing  the 
court. 

Although  a  list  of  witnesses,  summoned  by  the  judge-advocate,  is 
furnished  to  the  court  on  assembling,  it  is  not  held  imperative  on  the 
prosecutor  to  examine  such  witness ;  if  he  should  not  do  so,  however, 
the  prisoner  has  a  right  to  call  any  of  them.  Should  the  prisoner, 
having  closed  his  cross-examination,  think  proper  subsequently  to  recall 
a  prosecutor's  witness  in  his  defence,  the  examination  is  held  to  be  in 
chief,  and  the  witness  is  subject  to  cross-examination  by  the  prosecutor. 
Although  either  party  may  have  concluded  his  case,  or  the  regular 
examination  of  a  witness,  yet  should  a  material  question  have  been 
omitted,  it  is  usually  submitted  by  the  party  to  the  president,  for  the 
consideration  of  the  court,  which  generally  permitj  it  to  be  put.  The 
prisoner  being  placed  on  his  defence,  may  proceed  at  once  to  the  ex- 
amination of  witnesses ;  firstly,  to  meet  the  charge,  and  secondly,  to 
speak  as  to  character,  reserving  his  address  to  the  court,  until  the  con- 
clusion of  such  examination.  The  prisoner,  having  finished  the  exam- 
ination in  chief  of  each  witness,  the  prosecution  cfoss-examines ;  the 
prisoner  re-examines,  to  the  extent  allowed  to  the  prosecutor,  that  is, 
on  such  new  points  as  the  cross-examination  may  have  touched  on,  and 
the  court  puts  any  questions  deemed  necessary.  The  prisoner,  having 
finally  closed  his  examination  of  witnesses,  and  selecting  this  period  to 
address  the  court,  offers  such  statement  or  argument  as  he  may  deem 
conducive  to  weaken  the  force  of  the  prosecution,  by  placing  his  con- 
duct in  the  most  favorable  light,  accounting  for  or  palliating  facts,  con- 
futing or  removing  any  imputation  as  to  motives ;  answering  the  argu- 
ments of  the  prosecutor,  contrasting,  comparing,  and  commenting  on, 
any  contradictory  evidence ;  summing  up  the  evidence  on  both  sides, 
where  the  result  promises  to  favor  the  defence,  and,  finally,  presenting 
his  deductions  therefrom. 

The  utmost  liberty  consistent  with  the  interest  of  parties  not  before 


TRI.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  635 

the  court  and  with  the  respect  due  to  the  court  itself,  should,  at  all 
times,  be  allowed  a  prisoner.  As  he  has  an  undoubted  right  to  im- 
peach, by  evidence,  the  character  of  the  witnesses  brought  against  him, 
so  he  is  justified  in  contrasting  and  remarking  on  their  testimony,  and 
on  the  motives  by  which  they,  or  the  prosecutor,  may  have  been  influ- 
enced. All  coarse  and  insulting  language  is,  however,  to  be  avoided, 
nor  ought  invective  to  be  indulged  in,  as  the  most  pointed  defence  may 
be  couched  in  the  most  decorous  language.  The  court  will  prevent  the 
prisoner  from  adverting  to  parties  not  before  the  court,  or  only  alluded 
to  in  evidence,  further  than  may  be  actually  necessary  to  his  own  ex- 
culpation. It  may  sometimes  happen,  that  the  party  accused  may  find 
it  absolutely  necessary,  in  defence  of  himself,  to  throw  blame  and  even 
criminality  on  others,  who  are  no  parties  to  the  trial ;  nor  can  a  pris- 
oner be  refused  that  liberty,  which  is  essential  to  his  own  justification. 
It  is  sufficient  for  the  party  aggrieved,  that  the  law  can  furnish  ample 
redress  against  all  calumnious  or  unjust  accusations.  The  court  is  bound 
to  hear  whatever  address,  in  his  defence,  the  accused  may  think  fit  to 
ofTer,  not  being  in  itself  contemptuous  or  disrespectful. 

It  is  competent  to  a  court,  if  it  think  proper,  to  caution  the  prisoner, 
as  he  proceeds,  that,  in  its  opinion,  such  a  line  of  defence  as  he  may  be 
pursuing  would  probably  not  weigh  with  the  court,  nor  operate  in  his 
favor ;  but,  to  decide  against  hearing  him  state  arguments,  which,  not- 
withstanding such  caution,  he  might  persist  in  putting  forward,  as 
grounds  of  justification,  or  extenuation,  (such  arguments  not  being  ille- 
gal in  themselves,)  is  going  beyond  what  any  court  would  be  warranted 
in  doing.  It  occasionally  happens,  that,  on  presenting  to  the  court  a 
written  address,  the  prisoner  is  unequal  to  the  task  of  reading  it,  from 
indisposition  or  nervous  excitement ;  on  such  occasions,  the  judge-advo- 
cate is  sometimes  requested  by  the  president  to  read  it ;  but,  as  the 
impression  which  might  be  anticipated  to  be  made  by  it,  may,  in  the 
judgment  of  the  prisoner,  be  affected  more  or  less  by  the  manner  of  its 
delivery,  courts-martial  generally  feel  disposed  to  concede  to  the  accused 
the  indulgence  of  permitting  it  to  be  read  by  any  friend  named  by  him, 
particularly  if  that  friend  be  a  military  man,  or  if  the  judge-advocate  be 
the  actual  prosecutor.  Courts-martial  are  particularly  guarded  in  ad- 
hering to  the  custom  of  resisting  every  attempt  on  the  part  of  counsel 
to  address  them.  A  lawyer  is  not  recognized  by  a  court-martial,  though 
his  presence  is  tolerated,  as  a  friend  of  the  prisoner,  to  assist  him  by 
advice  in  preparing  questions  for  witnesses,  in  taking  notes,  and  shaping 
his  defence. 

The  prisoner  having  closed  his  defence,  the  prosecutor  is  entitled  to 


636  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [Tni. 

reply,  when  witnesses  have  been  examined  on  the  defence,  or  where 
new  facts  are  opened  in  the  address.     Thus,  though  no  evidence  may  be 
brought  forward  by  the  prisoner,  yet  should  he  advert  to  any  case,  arid, 
by  drawing  a  parallel,  attempt  to  draw  his  justification   from  it,  the 
prosecutor  will  be  permitted  to  observe  on  the  case  so  cited.     When 
the   court  allows  the  prosecutor  to  reply,  it  generally  grants  him  a 
reasonable  time  to  prepare  it ;  and,  upon  his  reading  it,  the  trial  ceases. 
Should  the  prisoner  have  examined  witnesses  to  points  not  touched 
on  in  the  prosecution,  or  should  he  have  entered  on  an  examination  im- 
peaching the  credibility  of  the  prosecutor's  evidence,  the  prosecutor  is 
allowed  to  examine  witnesses  to  the  new  matter ;  the  court  being  care- 
ful to  confine  him  within  the  limits  of  this  rule,  which  extends  to  the 
re-establishing  the  character  of  his  witnesses,  to  impeaching  those  of  the 
defence,  and  to  rebutting  the  new  matter  brought  forward  by  the  pris- 
oner, supported  by  evidence.     He  cannot  be  allowed  to  examine  on  any 
points,  which,  in  their  nature,  he  might  have  foreseen  previously  to  the 
defence  of  the  prisoner.     The  prosecutor  will  not  be  permitted  to  bring 
forward  evidence  to  rebut  or  counteract  the  effect  of  mutter  elicited  by 
his  own  cross-examination  ;  but  is  strictly  confined  to  new  matter  intro- 
duced by  the  prisoner,  and  supported  by  his  examination  in  chief.     A 
defence,  resting  on  motives,  or  qualify  ing 'the  imputation  attaching  to 
facts,  generally  lets  in  evidence  in  reply  ;  as,  in  such  cases,  the  prisoner 
usually  adverts,  by  evidence,  to  matter  which  it  would  have  been  impos- 
sible for  the  prosecutor  to  anticipate.     The  admissibility  of  evidence,  in 
reply,  may  generally  be  determined  by  the  answer  to  the  questions : 
Could  the  prosecutor  have  foreseen  this  ?     Is  it  evidently  new  matter  ? 
Is  the  object  of  the  further  inquiry  to  re-establish  the  character  of  the 
witnesses  impeached  by  evidence  (not  by  declamation)  in  the  course 
of  the  defence,  or  is  it  to  impeach  the  character  of  the  prisoner's  wit- 
nesses ?     Cross-examination  of  such  new  witnesses,  to  an  extent  limited 
by  the  examination  in  chief,  that  is,  confined  to  such  points  or  matter  as 
the  prosecutor  shall  have  examined  on,  is  allowed  on  the  part  of  the 
prisoner.     (See  CHALLENGE  ;    COURT-MARTIAL  ;   JURISDICTION.     Consult 
MACOMB.) 

TRIGGER.  It  has  blade,  tang  or  finger-piece,  and  hole  for  screw. 
(See  ARMS.) 

TRIGONOMETRY.  Ordinary  trigonometrical  tables  contain  the 
logarithm  of  the  sines,  cosines,  tangents,  and  cotangents  for  every  ten 
seconds ;  but  if  the  values  of  any  one  of  the  four  be  computed  for  the 
different  angles  between  0  and  90°,  the  values  of  all  the  others  will  be 
obtained  at  the  same  time.  Thus,  since  cos.  A  =  sin.  (90°  —  A),  a  table 


TRI.] 


MILITARY  DICTIONARY. 


637 


of  the  values  of  the  sine  is  also  a  table  of  the  values  of  the  cosine ;  and 
since  tan.  A  =  sin.  A  -*-  cos.  A,  the  logarithm  of  the  tangent  of  any 
angle  is«bbtained  by  subtracting  the  logarithm  of  the  cosine  from  the 
logarithm  of  the  sine,  and  the  logarithm  of  the  cotangent  by  subtracting 
the  logarithm  of  the  sine  from  that  of  the  cosine.  It  is  usual  to  desig- 
nate the  semi-circumference  of  a  circle  whose  radius  is  1  by  TT  = 
3.14159265. 

The  solution  of  triangles  is  the  proper  object  of  trigonometry,  and 
if  tables  contain  the  logarithms  of  the  sines,  cosines,  tangents,  and  co- 
tangents to  every  minute  or  smaller  division  of  the  quadrant,  the  means 
will  be  easy  of  applying  such  tables  to  each  particular  case ;  as,  of  the 
six  parts  of  which  a  triangle  consists,  it  is  known  from  geometry  that 
when  any  three  except  the  three  angles  are  known,  all  the  rest  are 
determined. 

Plane  Trigonometry. 

A,  J5,  67,  the  three  angles ;  «,  &,  c,  the  three  sides  respectively  opposite  to 
them  ;  7?,  the  tabular  radius ;  S,  the  area  of  the  triangle ;  p  =  %(a  +  b  +  c). 

Eight-angled  Triangles :  A  being  the  right  angle. 

sin.  B. 
12" 


a  = 


Oblique-angled  Triangles  : 

a 
sin. 


sin.  B 
(A  -  B)  =  tang.  £  (A 


General  Formula  : 

E.  sin.  (a  ±  5)  =  sin.  a  cos.  5  ±  sin.  5  cos",  a. 
E.  cos.  (a  ±  b)  =  cos.  a  cos.  5  ±  sin.  a  sin.  5. 
JS.  (sin.  a  ±  sin.  &)  =  2  sin.  ^  (a  ±  J)  cos.  -J  (a  ±  5). 
J?!  (cos.  a  +  cos.  &)  =  2  cos.  i  (a  +  6)  cos.  i  (a  -  5). 
.#.  (cos.  a  -  cos.  5)  =  2  sin.  i  (a  +  5)  sin.  i  (a  -  &). 
sin,  a  +  sin.  ~b   _  tang.  |(q  +  ft)  cot,  j  (a  -  5). 


sin.  a  -  sin.  J 

-  7?  cos. 

__ 

Chord  of  J.  =  2sin.     A. 


-  cos. 


638 


MILITARY  DICTIONARY. 


[TRO. 


FIG.  236. 


TROOP.     A  company  of  cavalry.     A  particular  beat  of  the  drum. 

TROPHY.      Flags,  colors,  &c.,  captured   from   an   enemy,  and 

shown  or  treasured  as  a  token  of  victory.     Among  the  ancients,  a 

trophy  consisted  of  a  pile  or  heap  of  arms  taken  from  the  vanquished 

troops,  and  raised  by  the  conquerors  on  an  eminence  on  the  field  of 

battle.  As  these  were  usually  dedicated  to 
some  of  the  gods,  it  was  considered  sacri- 
lege to  demolish  a  trophy. 

TROUS-DE-LOUP— ortrapholes;  are 
rows  of  pits  in  the  form  of  inverted  cones. 
They  should  be  either  2J  or  8  feet  deep,  so 
as  not  to  be  serviceable  to  the  enemy's 

riflemen.    Thcv  should  be  traced  in  a  check 

" 

ered  form,  and  a  strong  pointed  stake  should 
be  driven  in  the  middle  of  each,  (Fig.  236.) 
(See  OBSTACLES.) 

TRUCK.  The  casemate  truck  weighs 
GOO  Ibs.,  and  is  designed  for  transporting 
guns  in  casemate  galleries.  The  store  truck 


XX 


X 


XXXXX 


A 


xxxx 


XiXIXIX 


Weighs  80  Ibs  ;  it  is  a  common  hand  truck  used  for  moving  boxes. 

TRUNNION.  Short  cylinder  projecting  from  a  piece  of  ordnance 
by  which  it  rests  upon  its  carriage.  (See  ORDNANCE.) 

TRUSS.     (See  CARPENTRY.) 

TUMBLER.     (See  ARMS  ;  LOCK  ;  MAYNARD'S  Primer.) 

u 

UNDER.  The  correlative  of  over.  (See  COMMAND  ;  OBEDIENCE  ; 
OVER  ;  SUPERIOR.) 

UNDRESS.  Authorized  habitual  dress,  not  full  uniform.  The 
French  designate  the  full  dress  as,  grande  temie  ;  the  undress,  as  petite 
tenue. 

UNIFORM.  Prescribed  dress.  The  President  shall  have  power 
to  prescribe  the  uniform  of  the  army  ;  (ART.  100.) 

UNMILITARY.  Contrary  to  rules  of  discipline  ;  unworthy  of  a 
soldier. 

UNSPIKE.     (See  SPIKING.) 

UPBRAID.  Any  officer  or  soldier,  who  shall  upbraid  another  for  re- 
fusing a  challenge,  shall  himself  be  punished  as  a  challenger ;  (ART.  28.) 

UTENSILS — for  camp  and  garrison  are  styled  camp  and  garrison 
equipage,  and  are  furnished  by  the  quartermaster's  department.  The 
regulations  allow  :  a  general  Officer,  three  tents  in  the  field,  one  axe 
and  one  hatchet ;  a  field  or  staff  officer  above  the  rank  of  captain,  two 


VEL.] 


MILITARY  DICTIONARY. 


639 


tents  in  the  field,  one  axe  and  one  hatchet ;  other  staff*  officers  or  cap- 
tains, one  tent  in  the  field,  one  axe  and  one  hatchet ;  subalterns  of  a 
company,  to  every  two,  one  tent  in  the  field,  one  axe  and  one  hatchet ; 
to  every  15  foot  and  13  mounted  men,  one  tent  in  the  field,  two  spades, 
two  axes,  two  pickaxes,  two  hatchets,  two  camp  kettles,  and  five  mess 
pans.  Bed  sacks  are  provided  for  troops  in  garrison,  and  iron  pots 
may  be  furnished  to  them  instead  of  camp  kettles.  Requisitions  will 
be  sent  to  the  quartermaster-general  for  the  authorized  flags,  colors, 
standards,  guidons,  drums,  fifes,  bugles  and  trumpets.  The  prescribed 
cooking  utensils  are  evidently  not  adapted  to  field-service.  The  soldier 
is  made  too  dependent  on  a  baggage  train.  Some  tools  deemed  necessary 
for  service  in  the  French  army  are  also  omitted  in  the  enumeration  of 
camp  equipage  furnished  to  the  United  States  troops.  (See  TOOLS.) 

V 

VALUE.     (&«  WEIGHTS.) 

VANGUARD.     Advanced  guard. 

VEDETTES  OR  VIDETTES.  Sentries  upon  outposts,  so  placed 
that  they  can  best  observe  the  movements  of  an  enemy,  and  communi- 
cate by  signal  to  their  respective  posts  and  with  each  other. 

VELOCITIES.  (See  INITIAL.)  Measurement  of  distances,  ly  sound. 
The  velocity  of  sound,  in  one  second  of  time  at  32°  Fahrenheit  in  dry 
air,  is  about  1,090  English  feet.  For  any  higher  temperature,  add  1 
foot  for  every  degree  of  the  thermometer  above  32°.  The  measure- 
ment of  distances  by  sound  should  always  be  made,  if  possible,  in  calm, 
dry  weather.  In  cases  of  wind,  the  velocity  per  second  must  be  cor- 
rected by  the  quantity,  f  cos.  d  ;  f  being  the  force  of  the  wind  in  feet 
per  second,  and  d  the  angle  which  its  direction  makes  with  that  of  the 
sound.  Or,  in  general,  in  dry  air, 

v  =  1,090  feet  -f  (t  °  —  32°)  ±  /  cos.  d. 

VELOCITY  AND  FORCE  OF  WINDS. 


Velocity  in  miles 
per  'hour. 

A  wind,  when  it  does  not  exceed  the  velocity  oppo- 
site to  it,  majr  be  denominated 

Velocity  per 

second. 

Force  on  a 
square  foot. 

6.8 
13.6 
19.5 
34.1 
47.7 
54.5 
68.2 
81.8 
102.3 

a  gentle  pleasant  wind  

feet. 

10 
20 
30 
5£K 
'70 
80 
100 
120 
150 

Ibs. 
0.129 
0.915 
2.059 
5.718 
11.207 
14.638 
22.872 
32.926 
51.426 

a  verv  brisk  cale      ..             ...        

&  hi^h  wind  

a  very  hi^h  wind  

a  storm  or  tempest  

a  hurricane  

a  violent  hurricane,  that  tears  up  trees,  etc. 

040  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [VEK. 

VENT.  The  opening  or  passage  in  fire-arms,  by  means  of  which 
the  charge  is  ignited.  The  diameter  of  the  vent  is  two-tenths  of  an 
inch  in  ordnance,  except  the  eprouvette,  which  is  one-tenth.  The  vents 
of  brass  guns  are  bored  in  vent  pieces  of  wrought  copper,  which  are 
screwed  into  the  gun. 

VERDICT.     (See  FINDING.) 

VETERAN".  An  old  soldier.  Twenty  years'  service  in  the  army 
entitles  an  enlisted  soldier  to  the  privileges  of  the  army  asylum.  (See 
ASYLUM.) 

VETERINARY.  Veterinary  surgeons  are  alone  competent  to 
treat  grave  cases  of  wounds  and  diseases  in  horses.  Officers,  however, 
may  prevent  accidents  by  watchfulness,  recognize  the  existence  of  ail- 
ments, and  by  prompt  care  frequently  relieve  the  horse  entirely. 

Limping. — The  particular  lameness  is  distinguished  at  a  walk  by 
observing  that  if  a  fore  foot  is  lame,  the  horse  raises  the  corresponding 
fore  quarter  before  putting  his  foot  to  the  ground.  If  a  hind  foot,  he 
raises  the  hind  quarter.  At  a  trot,  the  contrary  takes  place.  The 
horse  should  be  watched  in  passing  over  ground  of  different  degrees  of 
hardness.  For  all  lameness  not  connected  with  the  shoe,  prescribe 
rest,  cold  bathing,  poultices.  When  there  is  pain  in  the  joints,  with 
swelling  of  the  tissues,  rub  with  spirits. 

Lameness  from  shoeing  may  proceed  :  1st,  from  pricking.  If  the 
nail  be  at  once  withdrawn,  and  the  pricking  is  not  deep,  the  lameness  is 
not  immediate.  It  is  necessary,  however,  to  enlarge  the  opening,  intro- 
duce the  essence  of  turpentine  and  dress  with  pledget,  or  lint  coated 
with  the  same  substance  ;  act  in  the  same  way  if  the  wound  is  old,  after 
having  taken  out  the  nail,  and  cleared  away  to  the  bottom  of  the 
opening. 

2.  Bleyme,  or  inflammation  in  the  foot  of  the  horse  between  the 
sole  and  the  bone.     It  is  recognized  by  a  red  spot.     Clear  away  the 
evil  to  the  bottom,  and  dress  as  above.     To  prevent  a  return  of  the 
disease,  it  is  perhaps  necessary  to  clear  away  to  the  bottom  of  the 
offensive  part  for  several  successive  shoeings. 

3.  Solbature  is  caused  by  the  iron  resting  on  the  solo,  or  by  a  hard 
body  introduced  between  the  iron  and  the  sole :    clear  the  wounded 
part,  apply  a  pledget  coated  with  turpentine  and  retained  in  its  place  by 
a  splint.     Readjust  the  shoe. 

4.  Burnt  sole  is  caused  by  an  iron  being  applied  when  too  hot  and 
held  too  long.     Act  as  in  case  of  solbature. 

These  accidents  from  shoeing  are  all  shown  by  limping.  The  pre- 
cise seat  of  the  accident  is  ascertained  by  pinching  with  the  farrier's 


YET.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  641 

pincers.     If  the  horse  is  to  march,  attach  the  shoe  \vith  but  few  nails, 
simply  to  hold  it  in  its  place. 

Founder. — There  is  great  heat  in  the  foot  without  apparent  cause. 
The  horse  walks  with  difficulty,  resting  on  the  heel ;  he  shows  discom- 
fort, want  of  appetite,  fever.  It  is  necessary  to  unshoe  him ;  cut  the 
horn  of  the  hoof  to1  the  quick  towards  the  toe ;  even  make  it  bleed  ; 
bathe  with  cold  salt  water ;  envelop  the  whole  foot  with  linen  soaked 
in  vinegar  to  the  crown  ;  later,  rub  hard  from  the  ham  to  the  knees 
with  essence  of  turpentine  and  camphorated  spirits  :  diet,  bran  with 

water.     The  horse  must  not  march. 

• 

Chaps,  serosity  of  limbs. — These  exact  cleanliness,  washing  with 
warm  water  and  a  little  spirit  of  wine,  and  towards  the  termination  of 
the  ailment,  with  sub-acetate  of  lead. 

Injuries. — At  the  least  appearance  of  tumor  stop  the  development 
of  inflammation  by  washing  with  fresh  water,  vinegared  or  salted. 
Strengthen  the  tissues  by  friction  with  brandy,  united  with  soap  or 
camphor.  Take  off  the  load.  Put  on  the  saddle  in  such  a  way  as  to 
leave  a  space  between  it  and  the  tumor.  If  the  ailment  increases,  not- 
withstanding those  precautions,  it  is  necessary  to  relieve  the  horse  from 
all  weight,  continuing  the  washings  and  rubbings.  If  the  tumor  still 
increases,  open  it.  When  opened  wash  the  wound  once  a  day  only ; 
do  not  remove  the  pus  entirely ;  prevent  its  contact  with  the  air  by 
means  of  oakum  or  lint.  When  the  wound  begins  to  heal,  its  cicatriza- 
tion may  be  hastened  by  washing  with  sub-acetate  of  lead.  When  from 
their  appearance  tumors  of  the  withers  and  loins  seem  to  be  soft  and 
inclose  red  water,  cut  the  hair  smooth  and  apply  a  blister  ointment, 
which  it  is  rarely  necessary  to  renew.  When  a  horse  is  wounded  under 
the  tail,  clean  the  wound  and  put  in  it  the  unguentum  populi.  For 
slight  contusions  from  kicking,  use  twice  a  day  the  unguentum  populi, 
and  then  rub  the  upper  part  with  camphorated  spirits.  If  the  pain  is 
severe,  bleed  and  foment  with  warm  mallows  water. 

Internal  affections. — The  ordinary  symptoms  are  :  dry  and  frequent 
cough,  uneasiness  and  sadness,  disgust  of  food,  falling  off;  alteration  of 
flank  ;  hair  not  smooth  ;  fever.  Separate  the  horse  from  others  ;  put 
him  to  diet  on  bran,  attending  to  the  prescriptions  of  the  veterinary 
surgeon.  Examine  the  eyes,  gently  reversing  the  eylids,  pass  the  hand 
into  the  mouth  of  the  horse ;  if  the  eye  is  red  and  the  mouth  very  hot, 
bleed  the  horse,  drawing  from  him  8  Ibs.  of  blood ;  leave  him  two 
hours  without  eating ;  rub  him  down  well,  cover  him  and  give  him 
some  injections ;  replace  his  allowance  of  oats  with  warm  barbotage 
of  barley-flour  as  much  as  possible.  For  want  of  appetite  it  is  sufficient 
41 


642  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [Vic. 

sometimes  to  sprinkle  the  forage  with  salt  water.  If  the  horse,  in 
rising  or  lying  down,  looks  at  his  flanks  with  an  unquiet  air  he  kas 
colic.  In  this  case  it  is  often  sufficient  in  order  to  cure  him  to  rub  hard 
with  rumpled  linen  upon  the  belly,  and  apply  injections  of  decoctions  of 
mallows  or  lettuce.  If  an  hour  or  t\vo  after  the  first  trouble  the  colic 
is  not  over,  call  a  veterinary  surgeon ;  death  may  take  place  in  a  short 
time.  If  a  horse  tries  often  to  urinate,  and  shows  pain,  it  is  retention 
of  urine.  Recourse  must  be  had  to  emollient  injections,  and  to  nitrated 
drinks.  In  certain  diseases  of  the  breast  prompt  succor  is  necessary. 
In  grave  cases,  in  the  absence  of  the  veterinary,  put  blisters  or  setons 
upon  the  breast,  and  bleed. 

The  necessary  tools,  &c.,  are  :  syringes,  bistouries,  tape  and  needles 
to  setons,  dry  oakum,  camphorated  spirits,  soap,  nitre,  essence  of  turpen- 
tine, liquid,  sub-acetate  of  lead,  foot  ointment,  and  unguentum  populi. 
(See  GLANDERS  ;  HORSE.  Consult  Memorial  des  Officiers  tflnfanterie 
et  de  Cavalerie  ;  SKINNER'S  Youatt.) 

VICE-PRESIDENT  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES.  Using  contemptuous 
or  disrespectful  words  against,  punishable  by  cashiering  or  otherwise  at 
the  discretion  of  a  court-martial ;  (ART.  5.) 

VICTUALS.  Whosoever  shall  relieve  the  enemy  with  money, 
victuals,  or  ammunition,  or  shall  knowingly  harbor  or  protect  an  enemy 
shall  suffer  death,  or  such  other  punishment  as  shall  be  ordered  by  the 
sentence  of  a  court-martial ;  (ART.  5G.) 

VILLAGES.  Cavalry,  the  better  to  preserve  their  horses,  should 
occupy  villages  whenever  the  distance  of  the  enemy,  and  the  time  neces- 
sary to  repair  to  its  post  in  battle,  will  permit.  Their  quarters  should 
be  preferably  farmhouses  or  taverns  having  large  stables.  Posts  are 
established  by  the  colonel  or  commanding  officer,  and  the  squadrons 
conducted  to  their  quarters  by  their  respective  captains.  Where  in  an 
exceptional  case  regular  distributions  are  not  made,  the  resources  which 
the  household  assigned  as  quarters  presents  are  equally  divided. 
About  two  hours  after  their  arrival  the  squadrons  in  succession  water 
their  horses  and  then  give  forage.  Cavalry  and  infantry  also  should, 
when  thus  cantoned  near  an  enemy,  occupy,  wherever  it  can  be  done, 
houses  which  will  hold  an  entire  company  or  some  constituent  fraction 
of  a  company,  and  at  break  of  day  stand  to  their  arms.  When  in  the 
same  cantonment,  cavalry  should  watch  over  the  safety  of  the  canton- 
ment by  day  and  the  infantry  by  night ;  and  in  the  presence  of  an 
enemy  they  should  be  protected  by  an  advance  guard  ard  natural  or 
artificial  obstacles. 

VINEGAR.     On  board  ship  vinegar  is  essential  to  the  comfort  of 


VOL.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  643 

horses,  and  should  be  freely  used  by  sponging  their  mouths  and  noses 
repeatedly,  and  also  their  mangers.  A  small  portion  of  vinegar  drank 
with  water  supplies  the  waste  of  perspiration  of  men  in  the  field.  It  is 
better  than  rum  or  whiskey  ;  it  allays  thirst,  and  men  who  use  it  avoid 
the  danger  of  drinking  cold  water  when  heated,  and  are  not  fevered  as 
they  are  too  apt  to  be  by  the  use  of  spirituous  liquors ;  (Dr.  RUSH.) 

VIOLENCE.  Any  officer  or  soldier  who  shall  offer  any  violence 
against  his  superior  officer,  being  in  the  execution  of  his  office,  on  any 
pretence  whatsoever,  punished  by  death  or  otherwise,  according  to  the 
nature  of  his  offence ;  (ART.  9.)  Violence  to  any  person  who  brings 
provisions  to  the  camp,  garrisons,  or  quarters  to  the  forces  of  the  United 
States*employed  in  any  part  out  of  the  said  States,  punishable  in  like 
manner;  (ART.  51.) 

VOLUNTEERS.  Whereas  sundry  corps  of  artillery,  cavalry, 
and  infantry  now  exist  in  several  of  the  States,  which  by  the  laws,  cus- 
toms, or  usages  thereof,  have  not  been  incorporated  with,  or  subject  to, 
the  general  regulations  of  the  militia ;  such  corps  shall  retain  their 
accustomed  privileges,  subject,  nevertheless,  to  all  other  duties  required 
by  this  act  in  like  manner  with  the  other  militia  ;  (Act  May  8,  1792.) 
(See  CALLING  FORTH  MILITIA  ;  and  MILITIA.) 

This  class  of  uniformed  militia  exists  in  every  State  of  the  Union. 
It  is  a  regular,  unpaid  force,  composed  generally  of  men  engaged  in  such 
private  business  operations,  as  must  always  prevent  their  being  em- 
ployed except  in  their  immediate  vicinage.  But  in  cases  of  riot,  or  the 
defence  of  their  own  firesides,  town  or  city,  experience  has  shown  it  to  be 
a  most  reliable  organization.  There  is,  however,  another  class  of  troops, 
also  called  volunteers,  which  have  from  time  to  time  been  raised  by 
Congress  for  temporary  purposes.  Such  troops  are  properly  United 
States  and  not  State  troops.  The  manner  in  which  their  officers  are  to 
be  appointed  is  therefore  always  designated  by  Congress.  The  act  of 
May  28,  1798,  authorized  the  President  to  appoint  the  company  officers 
of  such  volunteers ;  the  act  of  June  22,  1798,  directed  that  the  field- 
officers  of  such  volunteers  should  be  appointed  by  the  President  and 
Senate  ;  the  act  of  May  23,  1836,  directed  that  the  officers  of  volunteers 
then  raised,  should  be  appointed  in  the  manner  prescribed  by  law  in 
the  several  States  and  Territories  to  which  such  companies,  battalions, 
squadrons,  regiments,  brigades,  or  divisions  shall  respectively  belong ; 
the  act  of  March  3,  1839,  applies  the  same  provision  to  the  volunteers 
then  authorized;  the  act  of  May  13,  1846,  contains  the  same  provision 
as  to  appointment  of  officers  ;  and  the  act  of  June  26,  1846,  authorizes 
the  President,  by  and  with  the  advice  and  consent  of  the  Senate,  to 


644  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [VOL, 

appoint  such  number  of  major-generals  and  brigadier-generals  as  the 
organization  of  such  volunteer  forces  (raised  by  the  act  of  May  13, 1846) 
into  brigades  and  divisions,  may  render  necessary  j  and  in  case  the 
brigades  or  divisions  of  volunteers  at  any  time  in  the  service  shall  be 
reduced  in  number,  the  brigadier-generals  and  major-generals  herein 
provided  for  shall  be  discharged  in  proportion  to  the  reduction  in  the 
number  of  brigades  and  divisions. 

There  should,  then,  be  no  question  that  these  volunteers  are  United 
States  troops  raised  by  Congress  under  its  constitutional  authority  to 
raise  and  support  armies ;  but,  strangely  enough,  the  officers  have  been 
usually  commissioned  by  their  respective  States.  It  becomes,  therefore, 
an  important  question  to  ascertain,  if  possible,  by  experience,  whether 
the  advantages  which  attend  raising  armies  in  this  particular  way  are 
not  greatly  counterbalanced  by  its  disadvantages ;  whether  the  effi- 
ciency of  such  an  irregular  force  is  in  any  degree  commensurate  with 
its  cost ;  and  whether  deaths,  diseases,  discharges,  and  other  casualties 
do  not  in  such  a  force  accumulate  in  such  numbers  as  to  deprive  the 
Government  of  the  moral  right  thus  uselessly  to  sacrifice  the  citizens 
of  the  country. 

The  statistics  of  the  Mexican  war,  published  by  Congress,  (Doc.  24, 
House  of  Representatives,  31st.  Congress,  1st  Session,)  furnish  the  fol- 
lowing startling  facts : — 

REGULAR  ARMY.  AGGREGATE  FORCE.      LENGTH  OF  SERVICE. 

Old  establishment,  15,736  26  months. 

Additional  force,  11,186  15       " 

The  old  establishment  of  the  regular  army,  with  an  aggregate  of 
15,736  men  during  26  months'  service,  lost  by  discharges  for  disability 
1,782  men ;  by  ordinary  deaths,  2,623  men ;  and  by  deaths  from 
wounds  in  battle,  792  men. 

The  additional  regular  force,  with  an  aggregate  of  11,186  men 
during  15  months'  service,  lost  by  discharges  for  disability  767  men; 
by  ordinary  deaths,  2,091  men ;  and  by  deaths  from  wounds  in  battle, 
143  men. 

The  volunteer  force,  with  an  aggregate  of  73,532  men  during  an 
average  of  10  months'  service,  lost  by  discharges  for  disability  7,200 
men ;  by  ordinary  deaths,  6,256  men ;  and  by  deaths  from  wounds  in 
battle,  613  men. 

The  number  of  wounded  in  battle  were :  In  the  old  establishment, 
1,803  men  ;  in  the  additional  regular  force,  272  men  ;  and  in  the  volun- 
teers, 1,318  men.  The  number  of  deserters  were,  in  the  whole  regular 
force,  2,849  men  ;  and  in  the  volunteer  force,  3,876  men. 


VOL.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  645 

These  statistics  require  no  commentary  to  show  the  waste  of  life 
and  money  in  employing  volunteers.  But  without  explanation  they  do 
not  show  the  numbers  of  each  description  offeree  engaged  in  the  differ, 
ent  battles  of  Mexico,  or  how,  with  such  a  large  aggregate  of  forces 
employed  in  Mexico,  Taylor's  battles  were  fought  with  never  more  than 
6,000  men,  and  Scott  had  at  his  disposition  only  about  1 1,000  men  for 
the  inarch  from  Puebla  and  the  capture  of  the  city  of  Mexico.  An 
analysis  of  the  aggregates  offerees  engaged  in  those  battles  is  therefore 
necessary,  to  ascertain  by  whom  they  were  won,  and  this  will  lead  to 
a  subsequent  inquiry,  which  will  show  why  such  ostentatious  aggregates 
furnished  so  small  a  body  of  men  for  the  great  operations  of  the  war. 

Regular  Army. — Ex-Doc.  24,  House  of  Representatives,  31st  Con- 
gress, 1st  Session,  shows  that  the  old  regular  force  on  the  frontier  of 
Texas,  May,  1846,  at  the  commencement  of  the  war  was  3,554  men 
present  and  absent.  This  force  alone  under  Taylor  fought  the  battles 
on  the  Rio  Grande,  with  an  aggregate  loss  of  killed  in  battle  and  died 
of  wounds,  of  72  men.  There  were  wounded  in  the  same  affairs  147 
men. 

May  24,  volunteers  began  to  arrive  on  the  Rio  Grande.  August  1, 
General  Taylor  reports  that  the  volunteer  forces  ordered  to  report  to 
him  are  much  greater  than  he  can  employ,  and  regrets  that  one  divi- 
sion of  volunteers  should  not  have  been  encamped  at  Pass  Christian, 
where  it  could  have  been  instructed  ;  (Doc.  119,  House  of  Representa- 
tives, 29th  Congress,  2d  Session.) 

For  the  march  from  Camargo  upon  Monterey,  General  Taylor  or- 
ganized a  force  of  volunteers  of  about  3,000  men,  and  about  the  same 
number  of  regulars.  The  volunteers  lost  74  men  killed  and  died  of 
wounds  in  the  battle  of  Monterey,  Sept.  21,  22,  and  23,  1846,  and  had 
218  men  wounded.  The  regulars  lost  in  the  same  battle  68  men,  and 
had  150  men  wounded. 

At  the  battle  of  Buena  Vista,  Feb.  22  and  23,  there  were  engaged 
517  regulars  and  about  4,400  volunteers.  The  loss  of  the  regulars  8 
killed  and  died  of  wounds,  and  36  wounded ;  the  loss  of  the  volunteers 
269  killed  and  died  of  wounds,  and  372  wounded. 

At  the  siege  of  Vera  Cruz,  March,  1847,  there  were  6,808  regulars 
and  6,662  volunteers.  The  loss  of  the  regulars  10  killed  and  died  of 
wounds,  and  26  wounded  ;  the  volunteers  lost  2  killed  and  25  wounded. 

At  Cerro  Gordo,  April,  1847,  there  were  6,000  regulars  and  2,500 
volunteers.  The  loss  of  the  regulars  was  61  killed  and  died  of  wounds, 
and  201  wounded ;  the  loss  of  the  volunteers  38  killed  and  died  of 
wounds,  and  152  wounded. 


646  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [VOL. 

At  Contreras,  Churubusco,  San  Antonio,  and  San  Augustine,  August 
19  and  20,  1847,  there  was  an  aggregate  of  9,GS1  of  old  and  new  reg- 
ulars and  marines,  and  1,526  volunteers.  The  regulars  lost  in  killed  and 
died  of  wounds  137  men,  and  653  wounded  ;  the  volunteers  lost  52 
men  killed  and  died  of  wounds,  and  212  wounded. 

At  Molino  del  Rey,  September  8,  1847,  there  were  3.251  regulars 
engaged.  Lost  195  men  killed  and  died  of  wounds  ;  582  wounded. 

At  Chapultcpec,  and  the  capture  of  the  city  of  Mexico,  September 
12,  13,  and  14,  1847,  the  whole  army  for  duty  was  8,304  men.  Reg- 
ulars 7,035  men;  volunteers  1,290  men.  The  regulars  lost  144  killed 
and  died  of  wounds,  and  434  wounded ;  the  volunteers  44  killed  and 
died  of  wounds,  and  239  wounded. 

In  all  other  incidental  affairs  and  skirmishes,  mostly  with  guerilla 
parties  of  the  enemy  during  the  whole  war,  the  aggregate  losses  of  the 
regulars  were  65  killed  and  died  of  wounds,  and  163  wounded ;  the 
loss  of  volunteers  62  killed  and  died  of  wounds,  and  130  wounded. 

Having  thus  analyzed  the  losses  in  battle  of  the  regulars  and  volun- 
teers, and  given  the  numbers  of  each  engaged  in  the  important  battles 
of  the  war,  the  inquiry  recurs  :  why,  with  an  aggregate  of  73,000  vol- 
unteers and  26,922  regulars  reported  as  being  employed  during  the 
war,  so  small  a  body  should  have  been  at  the  disposition  of  command- 
ers for  marching  against  the  enemy. 

The  first  reason  was  undoubtedly  the  defective  plan  of  campaign 
upon  which  the  war  was  begun.  Immediately  after  the  victories  of 
Palo  Alto  and  Resaca  de  la  Palma,  the  public  mind  was  inflamed.  The 
volunteer  system  caused  great  numbers  to  flock  to  the  standard  of  the 
country.  The  pressure  upon  the  Administration  was  great  for  their 
reception.  General  Taylor  was  flooded  with  volunteers  for  whom  he 
could  find  no  employment.  A  plan  of  campaign  was  therefore  devised 
in  Washington,  for  inarching  on  New  Mexico,  marching  on  Chihuahua, 
marching  on  Monterey,  and  marching  on  California,  with  different  de- 
tachments, thus  hastily  collected  together  without  taking  the  necessary 
measures  to  organize  and  instruct  the  troops,  and  without  first  providing 
the  materiel  indispensable  for  such  long  marches.  The  plan  was  there- 
fore defective  in  all  those  respects,  but  still  more  defective  in  its  pre- 
dominant idea  of  striking  at  remote  frontiers  of  the  enemy  instead  of 
marching  on  his  capital.  It  was  like  pricking  the  fingers  of  man  instead 
of  pointing  a  dagger  at  some  vital  part. 

The  second  and  paramount  reason  why  with  such  large  aggregates 
offerees  mustered  into  service  so  few  were  employed  in  battles,  is  the 
failure  of  the  law  to  provide  for  a  well-digested  system  of  national  de- 


VOL.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  047 

fence  prepared  in  peace,  \vhich  would  enable  Congress  and  the  Executive 
to  meet  any  crisis  in  foreign  affairs.  This  want  caused  the  reception 
into  service  of  12,601  volunteers  for  3  months  at  the  beginning  of  the 
war  with  Mexico.  These  lost  16  men  killed  in  battle  and  died  of 
wounds  ;  129  by  ordinary  deaths,  922  by  discharge,  and  546  by  deser- 
tion. Those  killed  in  battle  belonged  to  the  Texas  horse  and  foot,  and 
they  alone  were  engaged  with  an  enemy. 

Upon  the  declaration  that  war  existed  by  the  act  of  Mexico,  Con- 
gress, however,  authorized  the  President  to  accept  volunteers  for  twelve 
months  or  for  the  war.  He  accordingly  received  27,063vmen  of  this 
class  for  twelve  months.  They  lost  during  their  service,  killed  in  action 
or  died  of  wounds,  439  men ;  by  ordinary  deaths  1,859  men  ;  by  dis- 
charges 4,(>36  men  ;  and  by  desertion  600  men.  Some  of  this  class  of 
volunteers  rendered  most  effective  service  at  Monterey,  Buena  Vista, 
Vera  Cruz,  and  Cerro  Gordo.  The  great  mistake  committed  in  regard 
to  them  was  in  receiving  them  for  the  short  period  of  twelve  months. 
Generally  mustered  into  service  in  June,  1846,  they  were  entitled  to 
discharge  in  June,  1847,  at  a  moment  when  their  services  were  much 
needed,  in  order  to  strike  a  decisive  blow  at  the  capital  of  Mexico. 
Every  effort  was  made  to  re-engage  them,  but  without  success ;  and 
General  Scott,  who  had  been  employed  to  conduct  military  operations 
on  the  line  from  Vera  Cruz  to  the  capital,  reluctantly  put  over  3,000 
of  these  men  in  march  from  Jalapa  to  the  United  States  in  May,  1847, 
when  he  had  ascertained  that  his  column  was  not  likely  soon  to  be  re- 
inforced by  more  than  960  army  recruits,  and  the  services  of  those 
volunteers  for  the  short  remainder  of  their  time  could  therefore  no 
longer  be  usefully  employed.  Meanwhile  the  Administration,  having 
late  in  1846  awakened  from  its  dream  of  conquering  a  peace,  by  direct- 
ing blows  against  remote  extremities  of  Mexico,  had  at  last  adopted 
the  plan  of  striking  at  the  vitals  of  their  enemy.  General  Scott  was 
put  in  command.  Some  volunteers  were  at  once  mustered  into  service 
for  the  war,  but  in  insufficient  numbers.  Out  of  the  whole  force  raised 
for  the  war,  General  Scott  only  received  in  time  for  his  operations  a 
regiment  from  New  York,  two  from  Pennsylvania,  and  one  from  South 
Carolina,  and  one  company  under  Captain  Wheat,  who  alone  re-engaged 
themselves  from  the  whole  number  of  twelve-months  volunteers  ;  and 
these  were  the  only  regiments  of  volunteers,  which  took  part  in  the 
battles  in  the  valley  of  Mexico,  and  the  capture  of  the  city,  September 
14,  1847,  which  secured  the  conquest  of  peace.  The  whole  volunteer 
force  raised  for  service  during  the  war  with  Mexico,  (but  with  the  excep- 
tions stated,  too  late  for  important  military  operations,)  were  33,596 


648  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [VOL. 

men.  They  lost  152  men  killed  and  died  of  wounds  ;  ordinary  deaths 
4,420  ;  discharges  3,890  men  ;  and  desertions  2,730  men.  Of  the  152 
who  were  killed  in  battle  or  died  of  wounds,  134  belonged  to  the  regi- 
ments mentioned  as  being  with  General  Scott.  It  was  not  until  Dec., 
1847,  months  after  the  occupation  of  the  capital,  that  other  volunteers 
for  the  war  reached  Gen.  Scott's  head-quarters  in  the  city  of  Mexico. 

The  same  want  of  administrative  ability  was  shown  by  the  War 
Department  in  despatching  regulars  to  the  scat  of  war.  Doc.  24,  H. 
of  R.,  31st  Congress,  1st  Session,  exhibits  an  aggregate  of  15,736  men 
of  the  old  regular  regiments,  and  11,186  men  of  the  new  regular  regi- 
ments— in  all  26,922  regulars — employed  during  the  war,  and  yet  the 
largest  regular  force  employed  at  any  one  time  against  the  enemy  was 
less  than  10,000  men.  Let  us  endeavor  to  ascertain  how  this  happened. 
It  has  been  seen  that  the  whole  regular  force  on  the  frontiers  of  Texas 
at  the  beginning  of  the  war  was  3,554  men,  and  that  this  force  fought 
the  battles  of  Palo  Alto,  Resaca  de  la  Palma  and  Fort  Brown  in  May, 
1846.  In  September,  this  force  had  not  been  largely  increased  ;  for,  at 
the  battle  of  Monterey,  Taylor  had  only  about  3,000  regulars. 

In  February  and  March,  1847,  the  regular  force  employed  both  at 
Buena  Vista  and  at  Vera  Cruz  had  been  increased  to  7,425  men.  And 
in  April,  1847,  at  Cerro  Gordo,  and  on  the  line  to  Vera  Cruz  and  at 
Tampico,  the  whole  regular  force  did  not  exceed  8,000  men.  These  all 
belonged  to  the  old  regular  regiments.  ^  Meantime,  February  11, 1847, 
Congress  passed  an  act  for  raising  one  regiment  of  dragoons*  and  nine 
regiments  of  infantry.  But  none  of  these  troops  reached  Gen.  Scott's 
head-quarters  at  Puebla,  until  July  and  August,  1847.  The  last  detach- 
rnent  came  up  August  6,  and  Gen.  Scott  marched  on  the  city  of  Mexico, 
August  7,  1847,  with  only  2,564  new  regulars.  The  forces  which  took 
part  in  the  battles  in  the  valley  of  Mexico  were  then  : 

Old  regular  regiments        .         .         .     X     6.446  men. 
New  regular  regiments  ....         2,365     " 

Marines 27 1     " 

Volunteers 1,569     « 

10,651  men. 

The  greater  part  of  the  additional  force  of  regulars  raised  for  the 
war,  as  well  as  the  very  large  numbers  of  volunteers  raised  for  the  same 
purpose,  were  not,  it  thus  appears,  put  at  the  disposition  of  military 
commanders,  until  final  success  in  battles  had  already  been  accom- 
plished. The  following  tables,  giving  losses  by  regiments,  &c.,  are 
from  the  report  of  the  adjutant-general  of  Dec.  3,  1849 : 


VOL.] 


MILITARY  DICTIONARY. 


649 


. 

a,  '-2 


8    •<; 


V 


•s  §> 

o  s> 

•2  e 

3  -5? 


•< 
»5 
w 

w 

o 


DED 
TTLE. 


FR 
EMPL 
A  MUS 
INTO 
VI 


•U3UI 

PUB  sasogjo  —  sq^Bap 
jo  jaqinnu 


co"     «" 


Total  killed 
and  died  of 
wounds. 


S£ 

il 
I- 


•saooiyo 


s     e 


jaquiuu 


n«  IJAIO  pus 


jo 


•80JA 


3uuup  a 
aas  jo  q^Suai  a^Bj 


•uatn  pne 
jo  jdqcanu 


«"    i-r 


r 


§o» 
3 


%      s 


S 


I    « 


I 


650 


MILITARY  DICTIONARY. 


[VOL. 


RECAPITULATION  OF  LOSS  IN  BATTLE   OF  THE  REGULAR  ARMY,  BY  REGI- 
MENTS AND  CORPS,  IN  THE  CAMPAIGN  OF  1840. 


BEGIMENTS  AND   COEPS. 

KILLED  IN  BATTLE. 

WOUNDED. 

'O 

p 

III 

ti!2  ~ 
<     £ 
a 

DIED   OF  WOCNDS. 

O 

d 

• 

3 

1 

i 

d 

i 

% 

I 

i 

B 

i 

o 

S 

"3 
£ 

General  staff 

i 

i 

i 

2 

1 

1 
2 
11 
19 
6 
9 
28 
17 
31 

1 
1 
2 
23 
38 
7 
11 
33 
22 
43 
1 
59 
49 
49 
17 
71 
8 

Engineers  

Topographical  engineers 

1 

1 

1st  regiment  dragoons.  .  . 
2d     *» 
1st  regiment  artillery  

3 

2 

14 
17 
1 
2 
5 
5 
12 

17 
19 
1 
2 
5 
5 
12 
1 
20 
17 
9 
2 
12 
8 

11 
19 
6 

8 
26 
16 
2s 

'"i" 

2 
1 
3 

1 

1 
3 
4 

1 
1 
4 
4 

^ 

2d          "               " 

3d          "               " 

1 
"2" 

4th         "                " 

1st  regiment  of  infantry.. 

8d          "               "        "I! 

4th        " 
5th        "               " 

""i" 

5 

2 

15 
15 
9 
2 
10 

8 
2 
4 
3 
8 

36 
80 
86 
12 
51 

39 
32 
40 
15 
T>9 

1 

2 

1 
4 
3 

"io" 

2 
6 
3 
1 
10 

7th        "               " 

1 

8th        "              " 
Corps  not  specified  

Total  in  campaign  of  1846. 

2 
3 

18 

107    '  125 

81 

279 

810 

435 

8 

27 

S5 

RECAPITULATION  OF  LOSS  OF  REG^AR  ARMY,  IN  THE  CAMPAIGN  OF  1847. 

REGIMENTS  AND   COEPS. 

KILLED  IN  BATTLE. 

WOUNDED. 

8 

DIED 
OP  WOUNDS. 

£ 

I 

I 

0 

1 

I 

I 

1 

1 

General  staff  

1 

1 

2 

2 



2 
2 
10 
1 
22 
42 
37 
13 
Iff 
113 
163 
84 
84 

8 

2 
10 
1 
27 
56 
46 
20 
181 
142 
185 
100 
106 

Surgeons  

1 

.... 

1 

Engineers  

5 
1 
2 
8 
6 
4 
11 
5 
8 
'  2 

5 

"'20' 
39 
31 
9 
144 
108 
160 
82 
81 

Topographical  engineers. 

Ordnance  

5 

14 
8 
7 
24 
25 
21 
13 
20 

5 
14 
9 

7 
26 
29 
22 
16 
22 

.._.. 

1 
"5" 

1 
1 
5 

1st  regiment  dragoons  ' 

2d         "               " 

1 

8d         "               " 

Regiment  mounted  riflemen  

1st  regiment  artillery..  .  .  . 

2 
•    4 
1 
8 
2 

2 

1 
2 

15 
1 
19 
13 
4 

17 
2 
21 
13 
4 

2d         "               " 

3d         "               "          

4th        "               " 

2d         "               "          
3d         "                        

3 

25 
20 
25 
86 
84 
18 
84 
10 

28 
20 
27 
41 
84 
20 
84 
11 

9 
4 
6 
8 
5 
8 
13 
5 
1 
4 
4 

170 
128 
59 
153 
64 

'"42" 
33 

129 
106 

94 
178 
1:33 
62 
171 
69 
1 
46 
87 

157 
125 
121 
219 
167 
82 
205 
80 
1 
58 
41 

1 
.... 

2 

2 

'2' 

'1 
4 
15 
11 
19 
13 
29 

2 
4 
16 
13 
21 
13 
81 

4th        "               " 

2 
5 

5th        "               " 

6th        "               "          

7tb        "               "         

2 

8th        "               " 

9th        "               " 

1 

10th      "               "          .... 

llth      "               " 

2 

10         12 
4           4 



12th      "               "          

13th      "                         .... 

14th      "               "          

6          6    i      7 
11         13     |      6 

15 
97 

22 
103 

28 
116 

.... 

4 

4 

1 

'2 

15th      "               " 

2 

16th      "               "         

9 
6 

9 

7 

14 
4 

140 
24 
9 
11 
9 

160 
28 
9 
11 
10 

169 
35 
9 
24 
11 

2 

1 

1 

12 
1 

13 

1 

i 

United  States  navy  

:::::::: 

Aggregate  in  the  campaign  of  1847. 
Aggregate  in  the  campaign  of  1846. 

Aggreeate  of  resnlar  army  killed 
andVounded'in  1846  and  1847. 

154 

27 

83 

18 

898 

107 

431 

125 

143      1.953 
31          279 

2,090    2,527 
310       435 

IS 

8 

172 
35 

51 

505 

556 

174     i  2,232 

2.406 

2,962 

26    181 

207 

WAD.] 


MILITARY  DICTIONARY. 


651 


RECAPITULATION  OF  LOSS  IN  BATTLE  OF  THE  VOLUNTEER  FORCES  IN  THE 
CAMPAIGN  OF  1847,  AND  AGGREGATE  OF  THEIR  LOSSES  IN  1846. 


REGIMENTS   AND   CORPS. 

KILLED   IN    BATTLE. 

WOUNDED. 

•« 
vt]>2  ^ 

V 

DIED 
OP  WOUNDS. 

Oflacers. 

a 

1 

H 

1 

o 

i 

I 

Officers. 

d 

<a 

1 

Indiana  brigade,  staif  .  . 

1 

5 
2 
6 
1 
5 
1 
8 
4 
4 
1 
8 
1 
2 
6 
21 
8 
1 

1 

56 
25 
74 
16 
44 
2 
86 
56 
83 
10 
57 
82 
49 
113 
216 
12 
89 
8 
156 
2 
48 
4 
6 
5 
4 
4 
14 
2 
1 
5 
1 

4 

96 

54 
121 
17 
48 
16 
68 
65 
60 
13 
101 
49 
66 
120 
243 
13 
54 
10 
183 
2 
50 
4 
11 
5 
11 
5 
25 
3 
1 
5 
1 

7 
1 

Mississippi  rifles 

.  2 
3 
10 

38 
26 
37 
1 
3 
12 
29 
8 
26 
3 
41 
15 
17 
7 
22 
1 
13 
2 
25 

40 
29 
47 
1 
4 
14 
32 
9 
27 
3 
44 
17 
17 
7 
27 
1 
15 
2 
27 

51 
23 
63 
15 
89 
1 
23 
52 
29 
9 
54 
31 
47 
107 
195 
4 
38 
8 
137 
1 
38 
4 
5 
4 
8 
4 
14 
1 
1 
4 

4 

:::: 

8 
1 

2 

3 

1 
2 

1st  regiment,  Illinois  

2d         "               "         ... 

4th       "               "       

1 
2 
3 
1 

S 

8 

Texas  company  

2d  regiment,  Indiana  

3d         "               "       

Regiment  Kentucky  cavalry  

".'.;: 

2' 
2 
2 

'2' 

2 
2 

2d         u               " 

3 

2 

Regiment  Arkansas  cavalry  
1st  regiment,  Pennsylvania  

2d          "               "                      .  .   •  

'.'.'. 

10 
26 
1 
8 

"19" 
"i" 

10 
26 
1 

"is" 

"4" 

Regiment,  South  Carolina  

5 

2d         "               ';       

2 

2d  Regiment   New  York  

2 

19 
1 
5 

1 

6 

7 

5 

5 

1 
1 

1 

"T 

""!" 

1 

6 
1 

7 
1 

7 
1 
11 
1 



4 

i 
i 

Sailors,  marines,  and  California 

1 

2 

1 

3 
1 

New  York  and  California  volun- 

Aggregate  in  campaign  of  1847  . 
Aggregate  in  campaign  of  1&4G*. 

Aggresate   of  volunteers  killed 
and  wounded  in  1S46  and  1«47. 

44 
5 

"l" 

S3 
9 

83 
10 

355 
70 

899 
75 

111 

20 

1,019 
207 

1,1:30     1.529 
227  |     302 

49 

425 

474 

131 

1,226 

1,357 

1,831 

1 

92      93 

*  The  losses  in  1S46  were :  April  23, 10  men  of  Capt.  Walker's  Texas  rangers.  September  21, 
22,  and  23,  at  Monterey,  among  the  Maryland  and  District  of  Columbia  battalion  volunteers;  1st 
regiment,  Tennessee ;  1st  regiment.  Ohio;  Louisiana  volunteers ;  1st  regiment,  Kentucky;  Missis- 
sippi rifles  and  Texas  volunteers.  Doc.  6,  California  volunteers,  under  General  Kearney.  Dec.  26, 
Missouri  volunteers,  under  Colonel  Doniphan. 

VOTES.     (See  FINDING.) 


WAD— WADDING.  Ring  wads  (or  grommets,  as  they  are  called 
in  the  naval  service)  increase  the  accuracy  of  fire,  and  are  preferred 
where  the  object  is  to  keep  the  ball  in  its  place.  They  consist  of  a  ring 
of  rope  yarn,  with  two  pieces  of  strong  twine  tied  across  it  at  right 
angles  with  each  other.  The  ring  is  the  full  diameter  of  the  bore. 
These  wads  may  be  attached  with  twine  to  the  straps,  or  to  the  balls ;  or 
inserted  like  other  wads  after  the  ball.  Wads,  for  firing  hot  shot,  may 


652  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [WAG. 

be  made  of  hay,  wrapped  with  rope  yarn,  and  are  made  in  the  same 
manner  as  junk  wads  for  proving  cannon.  (Consult  Ordnance  Manual.) 

WAGON-MASTER.  The  quartermaster-general  is  authorized  to 
employ  from  time  to  time  as  many  forage-masters  and  wagon-masters 
as  he  may  deem  necessary  for  the  service,  not  exceeding  twenty  in  the 
whole,  who  shall  be  entitled  to  receive  forty  dollars  per  month,  and 
three  rations  a  day, "and  forage  for  one  horse;  and  neither  of  whom 
shall  be  interested  or  concerned  directly  or  indirectly  in  any  wagon  or 
other  means  of  transport,  employed  by  the  United  States,  nor  in  the 
purchase  or  sale  of  any  property  procured  for  or  belonging  to  the 
United  States,  except  as  an  agent  of  the  United  States ;  (Act  July  5 
1838,  Sec.  10.) 

WAGONS — are  used  by  armies  for  the  transportation  of  sub- 
sistence, other  military  stores,  baggage,  ammunition,  sick  and  wounded. 
The  different  purposes  for  which  they  are  used  require  differences  in 
details  which  demand  thought  and  study.  In  an  able  memoir,  Sur 
Divers  Perfectionnements  Militaires,  par  J.  CAVALLI,  Col.  d'Artillerie, 
(Paris,  1856,)  it  is  proposed  that  all  the  different  carriages  for  army 
transportation  should  be  on  two  large  wheels,  and  that  there  should  be 
only  two  different  models  for  the  height  of  the  wheels.  The  number 
of  models  for  carriages  is  thus  reduced  to  seven  at  most,  which  might 
be  substituted  for  the  wagons  on  four  wheels  now  in  use.  The  different 
vehicles  used  by  the  French  in  campaign,  according  to  the  recent  work 
of  M.  LEON  GUILLOT,  Sur  Legislation  et  Administration  Militaire,  are : 
the  four-wheeled  military  wagon,  made  and  lined  with  sheet-iron,  spe- 
cially intended  for  the  transportation  of  bread  and  other  important 
necessaries,  but  also  adapted  for  ambulance  purposes,  as  its  interior 
admits  the  placing  of  four  boards  for  the  accommodation  of  the  sick ; 
the  ammunition  wagon  and  campaign  forge  for  the  artillery  ;  and  the 
ambulance  wagon  used  in  service  by  the  French  army  in  the  East  in 
1854.  The  latter  is  suspended  on  six  springs  and  has  four  wheels;  it 
carries  five  persons,  three  upon  the  front  seat,  which  is  uncovered  and 
rests  on  the  wagon,  while  in  the  interior  there  are  two  places  for  reclin- 
ing, each  on  a  movable  bed. 

According  to  M.  Vauchelle,  the  vehicles  for  administration  purposes 
on  four  wheels  should  be  the  ordinary  wagon  and  a  light  wagon,  both 
covered  with  water-proof  cloth ;  the  first  would  serve  for  the  transporta- 
tion of  bread,  and  also  for  medical  and  hospital  stores,  &c. ;  the  second, 
suspended  upon  springs,  should  be  specially  devoted  to  hospital  pur- 
poses. He  would  have,  besides,  ammunition  wagons  and  field-forges ; 
all  on  four  wheels  drawn  by  four  horses,  and  conducted  each  by  two 


WAG.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  653 

soldiers.  The  maximum  capacity  of  the  wagon,  according  to  Guillot, 
should  be  for  1,200  rations,  weighing  about  1,900  Ibs.  This  burden  is 
the  mean  between  that  for  1,000  rations  weighing  about  1,700  Ibs. 
prescribed  by  Vauchelle,  and  that  for  1,600  rations  weighing  about 
2,650  Ibs.  adopted,  notwithstanding  the  opposition  of  M.  Vauchelle,  by 
the  French  minister  of  war.  If,  for  all  these  vehicles  on  four  wheels 
drawn  by  four  horses,  there  be  substituted  carts  or  two- wheeled  vehicles, 
according  to  the  models  prepared  by  Cavalli,  the  four-wheeled  vehicles 
carrying  only  2,200  Ibs.,  will  give  place  to  the  carts  carrying  each 
3,300  Ibs. ;  that  being  only  one-half  of  the  burden  of  carts  loaded  in 
the  same  way  now  used  in  European  commerce  drawn  by  two  horses. 
Under  the  proposed  system,  then,  for  an  army  of  100,000  men  the 
number  of  vehicles,  &c.,  would  experience  the  following  reductions : 

860  wagons  would  be  reduced  to    .         .        573  carts. 
3,268  conductors         "  "          .         1,092 

3,820  horses  "  "     .  1,277 

If  meat  and  forage  are  also  to  be  transported  for  the  army,  and  these 
articles  are  omitted  in  the  foregoing  calculations,  then,  supposing  an 
army  of  100,000  men  has  30,000  horses,  the  proposed  system  would 
reduce 

2,567  wagons  to.         .     1,711  two  large  wheeled  carts. 
9,804  conductors  to          3,276  conductors. 
11,460  horses  to    .         .     3,831  horses. 

The  carts  proposed  by  Col.  Cavalli  are  the  following :  1.  A  dray 
for  the  transportation  of  heavy  loads  for  the  artillery  and  engineer 
trains,  intended  as  a  substitute  for  the  platform  or  block  carriage,  and 
also  for  the  siege  truck.  This  dray  weighs  about  1,540  Ibs. ;  it  will 
carry  a  piece  of  ordnance  weighing  7,500  Ibs.  suspended  under  it  in 
place  of  its  corbeille,  and  has  been  drawn  by  two  horses  at  a  trot  from 
the  glacis  to  the  citadel,  and  by  three  horses  over  the  ramps  of  the  ditch 
of  the  citadel  from  which  it  had  been  lowered.  The  corbeille  of  this 
dray  will  carry  80  shells,  and  its  flooring  60,  weighing  in  all  8,000  Ibs. 
The  usual  weight  to  each  horse  in  the  field,  however,  should  not  exceed 
2,200  Ibs.  This  dray  is  suitable  for  all  heavy  and  embarrassing  weights, 
and  the  division  between  the  load  below  and  that  upon  the  superior 
bed  is  so  arranged  as  to  maintain  the  bars  in  a  stable  equilibrium  with- 
out liability  to  be  overturned,  and  without  exerting  any  pressure  upon 
the  horse.  2.  The  ammunition  cart,  covered  or  uncovered,  with  two 
large  wheels  and  having  a  movable  water-proof  cover,  is  designed  to 
replace  the  present  ammunition  and  battery  wagons.  It  will  hold  24 


65  J:  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [WAL 

• 

cases  of  powder,  120  Ibs.  each,  of  which  about  18  would  be  filled  up. 
The  interior  void  of  this  cart  is  about  35  cubic  feet.  3.  The  spring 
cart  is  of  the  same  form  as  the  ammunition  cart,  and  differs  from  it 
only  in  being  on  springs.  It  is  intended  principally  for  the  transporta- 
tion of  provisions  and  articles  easily  spoiled,  as  ammunition  ;  and  in  cases 
of  need  as  an  ambulance.  4  and  5.  Two  models  of  carts  for  ambu- 
lances and  other  purposes  drawn,  one  by  two  horses  and  the  smaller  by 
one  horse ;  these  two  vehicles  have  also  only  two  large  wrheels,  and  are 
not  liable  to  upset.  They  are  intended  as  substitutes  for  the  ambulance 
wagon  and  other  wagons.  Two  persons  may  be  placed  in  front,  and 
six  behind,  four  of  whom  may  recline  on  beds  suitably  arranged  at  the 
sides.  The  smaller  cart  will  answer  for  two  or  three  persons  at  most, 
only  two  of  whom  can  recline.  The  smaller  carts  may  also  be  issued 
to  commanding  officers  and  staff  officers  entitled  to  wagons.  6  and  7. 
The  kitchen-cart — one  to  a  battalion  for  1,000  soups,  or  a  smaller  one  for 
250  soups.  The  two  differ  from  each  other  only  in  length.  They 
should  be  provided  with  boilers  a  la  Papin  with  an  interior  fire-place. 
These  constitute  the  body  of  the  cart,  the  superior  part  of  which  is 
furnished  with  plank  to  be  used  as  a  table.  At  the  extremity  of  the 
cart  there  are  two  foot  boards  upon  which  the  cooks  may  rest  while 
working  during  the  march.  Papin's  digester  is  essential  to  cook  well 
and  rapidly.  The  interior  arrangement  of  the  fire-place  which  is  suited 
to  baking  is  very  economical  in  fuel.  The  kitchen-cart  is  otherwise  like 
the  preceding.  (See  TRAVELLING-KITCHEN.) 

Model  No.  2,  or  even  Nos.  4  and  5,  will  answer  for  the  sutler.  A 
field-forge  may  be  readily  placed  in  the  rear  of  model  No.  2,  by  means 
of  a  movable  fire-place  and  bellows.  It  is  proposed  to  harness  to  each 
vehicle  intended  as  a  transport  two  horses,  in  file ;  each  cart  has  one 
conductor  not  mounted.  The  importance  of  the  travelling-kitchen  will  be 
manifest  to  all  soldiers.  The  cooking  is  done  on  the  march.  The  soup 
is  ready  at  the  moment  of  halting.  The  strength  of  the  soldier  is  econ- 
omized ;  his  food  is  well  cooked  in  any  weather ;  and  numerous  diseases, 
caused  by  bad  food  and  want  of  rest,  which  too  often  decimate  armies, 
will  be  avoided  by  its  introduction  into  service.  (See  AMBULANCE  ; 
BAGGAGE  ;  CONVOY.) 

WAITERS.     (See  SERVANTS.) 

WAR.  The  right  of  making  war,  as  well  as  of  authorizing  reprisals, 
or  other  acts  of  vindictive  retaliation,  belongs  in  every  civilized  nation 
to  the  supreme  power  of  the  state.  The  exercise  of  this  right  is  vested 
by  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States  in  Congress.  A  contest  by 
force  between  independent  sovereign  states  is  called  a  public  war.  A 


WAR.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  C55 

perfect  war  is  where  one  whole  nation  is  at  war  with  another  nation, 
and  all  the  members  of  both  nations  are  authorized  to  commit  hostilities 
against  the  other,  within  the  restrictions  prescribed  by  the  general  laws 
of  war.  An  imperfect  war  is  limited  as  to  places,  persons,  and  things — 
such  were  the  limited  hostilities  authorized  by  the  United  States  against 
France  in  1798.  Grotius  calls  a  civil  war,  a  mixed  war  ;  but  the  gen- 
eral usage  of  nations  regards  such  a  war  as  entitling  both  the  contend- 
ing parties  to  all  the  rights  of  war  as  against  each  other,  and  even  as 
respects  neutral  nations.  A  formal  declaration  of  war  to  the  enemy 
was  once  considered  necessary  to  legalize  hostilities  between  nations. 
The  usage  now  is  to  publish  a  manifesto,  within  the  territory  of  the 
state  declaring  war,  announcing  the  existence  of  hostilities,  and  the 
motives  for  commencing  them. 

During  the  second  war  between  the  United  States  and  Great  Britain, 
it  was  determined  by  the  Supreme  Court  that  enemy's  property,  found 
within  the  territory  of  the  United  States  on  the  declaration  of  war,  could 
not  be  seized  and  condemned  as  prize  of  war,  without  some  legislative 
act  expressly. authorizing  its  confiscation.  The  court  held  that  the  law 
of  Congress  declaring  war  was  not  such  an  act.  It  is  stated  by  Sir  W. 
Scott  to  be  the  constant  practice  of  Great  Britain,  on  the  breaking  out 
of  war,  to  condemn  property  seized  before  the  war,  if  the  enemy  con- 
demns, and  to  restore  if  the  enemy  restores. 

One  of  the  immediate  consequences  of  the  commencement  of  hostili- 
ties, is  the  interdiction  of  all  commercial  intercourse  between  the  sub- 
jects of  the  states  at  war,  without  the  express  license  of  their  respective 
governments.  It  follows,  as  a  corollary  from  this  principle,  that  every 
species  of  private  contract  made  with  an  enemy's  subjects  during  the 
war  is  unlawful,  and  this  rule  is  applied  to  insurance  on  enemy's  prop- 
erty and  trade ;  to  the  drawing  and  negotiating  of  bills  of  exchange 
between  the  subjects  of  the  powers  at  \var  ;  to  the  remission  of  funds  in 
money  or  bills  to  the  enemy's  country ;  to  commercial  partnerships, 
which,  if  existing  before  the  war,  are  dissolved  by  the  mere  force  and 
act  of  the  war  itself,  although  as  to  other  contracts  it  only  suspends  the 
remedy.  But  it  is  the  modern  usage  not  to  confiscate  in  war  the  ene- 
my's actions  and  credits,  and  the  10th  article  of  the  treaty  between  the 
United  States  and  Great  Britain,  in  1794,  stipulates,  "  that  neither  the 
debts  due  from  individuals  of  the  one  nation  to  individuals  of  the  other, 
nor  shares,  nor  moneys  which  they  may  have  in  the  public  funds,  or  in 
the  public  or  private  banks,  shall  ever,  in  any  event  of  war  or  national 
differences,  be  sequestered  or  confiscated  ;  it  being  unjust  and  impolitic 
that  debts  and  engagements  contracted  and  made  by  individuals,  hav- 


656  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [WAR. 

ing  confidence  in  each  other  and  in  their  respective  governments,  should 
ever  be  destroyed  or  impaired  by  national  authority  on  account  of 
national  differences  and  discontents. 

A  person  who  removes  to  a  foreign  country,  settles  himself  there, 
and  engages  in  the  trade  of  the  country,  furnishes  by  these  acts  such 
evidences  of  an  intention  permanently  to  reside  there,  as  to  stamp 
him  \vith  the  national  character  of  the  state  where  he  resides.  In 
questions  of  domicile  the  chief  point  to  be  considered  is  the  animus 
manendi ;  and  if  it  sufficiently  appears  that  the  intention  of  removing 
was  to  make  a  permanent  settlement,  or  for  an  indefinite  time,  the 
right  of  domicile  is  acquired  by  residence  even  of  a  few  days. 
In  general,  the  national  character  of  a  person,  as  neutral  or  enemy, 
is  determined  by  that  of  his  domicile ;  but  the  property  of  a  person 
may  acquire  a  hostile  character,  independently  of  his  national  character, 
derived  from  personal  residence.  Thus  if  a  person  enters  into  a  house 
of  trade  in  the  enemy's  country,  or  continues  that  connection  during 
war,  he  cannot  protect  himself  by  mere  residence  in  a  neutral  country  ; 
so  also,  the  produce  of  an  enemy's  colony  or  other  territory  is  to  be 
considered  as  hostile  property  so  long  as  it  belongs  to  the  owner  of  the 
soil  whatever  may  be  his  residence. 

In  the  modern  law  of  nations,  the  right  of  postliminy  is  that  by 
virtue  of  which  persons  and  things  taken  by  an  enemy  in  war,  are 
restored  to  their  former  state,  when  coming  again  under  the  power  of 
the  nation  to  which  they  belonged.  The  sovereign  of  a  country  is 
bound  to  protect  the  person  and  property  of  his  subjects ;  and  a  subject, 
who  has  suffered  the  loss  of  his  property  by  the  violence  of  war,  on 
being  restored  to  his  country  can  claim  to  be  re-established  in  all  his 
rights,  and  to  recover  his  property.  But  this  right  does  not  extend  in 
all  cases  to  personal  effects  or  movables,  on  account  of  difficulties  of 
identification. 

The  rights  of  war  in  respect  to  an  enemy  are  in  general  to  be 
measured  by  the  object  of  the  war.  No  use  of  force  is  lawful  except 
so  far  as  it  is  necessary.  Those  who  are  actually  in  arms  and  continue 
to  resist  may  be  killed ;  but  the  inhabitants  of  the  enemy's  country 
who  are  not  in  arms,  or  who,  being  in  arms,  submit  and  surrender 
themselves  may  not  be  slain,  because  their  destruction  is  not  necessary 
for  obtaining  the  just  ends  of  the  war.  Those  ends  may  be  obtained  by 
making  prisoners  of  those  taken  in  arms,  or  compelling  them  to  give 
security  that  they  will  not  bear  arms  against  the  victor  for  a  limited 
period  or  during  the  war.  The  killing  of  prisoners  can  only  be  justi- 
fied in  those  extreme  cases  where  resistance  on  their  part,  or  on  tho  part 


WAR.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  657 

of  others,  who  come  to  their  rescue,  renders  it  impossible  to  keep  them. 
Cartels  for  the  mutual  exchange  of  prisoners  of  war  are  regulated  by 
special  convention  between  the  belligerent  states,  according  to  their 
respective  interests  and  views  of  policy.  Sometimes  prisoners  of  war 
are  permitted,  '"by  capitulation,  to  return  to  their  own  country  upon 
condition  not  to  serve  again  during  the  war,  or  until  duly  exchanged ; 
and  officers  are  frequently  released  upon  their  parole,  subject  to  the  same 
condition.  By  the  modern  usage  of  nations,  commissaries  are  permitted 
to  reside  in  the  respective  belligerent  countries,  to  negotiate  and  carry 
into  effect  the  arrangements  necessary  for  the  purpose. 

All  members  of  the  enemy's  state  may  lawfully  be  treated  as  ene- 
mies in  a  public  war  ;  but  they  are  not  all  treated  alike.  The  custom 
of  civilized  nations,  founded  on  the  general  rule  derived  from  natural 
law,  that  no  use  of  force  is  lawful  unless  it  is  necessary  to  accomplish 
the  purposes  of  war,  has  therefore  exempted  the  persons  of  the  sovereign 
and  his  family,  the  members  of  the  civil  government,  women,  children, 
cultivators  of  the  earth,  artisans,  laborers,  merchants,  men  of  science 
and  letters,  and  generally  all  publio  or  private  individuals  engaged  in 
the  ordinary  civil  pursuits  of  life,  from  the  direct  effect  of  military 
operations,  unless  actually  taken  in  arms,  or  guilty  of  some  misconduct 
in  violation  of  the  usages  of  war.  The  application  of  the  same  principle 
has  also  limited  and  restrained  the  operations  of  war  against  the  terri- 
tory and  other  property  of  the  enemy.  By  the  modern  usage  of  na- 
tions, which  has  now  acquired  the  force  of  law,  temples  of  religion, 
public  edifices  devoted  to  civil  purposes  only,  monuments  of  art,  and 
repositories  of  science  are  exempted  from  the  general  operations  of  war. 
Private  property  on  land  is  also  exempt  from  confiscation,  excepting 
such  as  may  become  booty  in  special  cases,  as  when  taken  from  enemies 
in  the  field  or  in  besieged  towns,  and  military  contributions  levied  upon 
the  inhabitants  of  the  hostile  country.  This  exemption  extends  even  to 
the  case  of  an  absolute  and  unqualified  conquest  of  the  enemy's  country. 

The  exceptions  to  these  general  mitigations  of  the  extreme  rights 
of  war,  considered  as  a  contest  of  fp.rce,  all  grow  out  of  the  same  gen- 
eral principle  of  natural  law,  which  authorizes  us  to  use  such  a  degree 
of  violence  and  such  only  as  may  be  necessary  to  secure  the  object  of 
hostilities.  Thus,  if  the  progress  of  an  enemy  cannot  be  stopped,  a 
frontier  secured,  or  the  approaches  to  a  town  cannot  be  made  without 
laying  waste  the  intermediate  territory,  the  extreme  case  may  justify  a 
resort  to  measures  not  warranted  by  the  ordinary  purposes  of  war.  But 
the  whole  international  code  is  founded  on  reciprocity.  Where,  then, 
the  established  usages  of  war  are  violated  by  an  enemy,  and  there  are 
42 


658  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [WAR. 

no  other  means  of  restraining  his  excesses,  retaliation  may  be  justly 
resorted  to  in  order  to  compel  the  enemy  to  return  to  the  observance 
of  the  law  which  he  has  violated.  The  effect  of  a  state  of  war  is  to 
place  all  the  subjects  of  each  belligerent  power  in  a  state  of  mutual 
hostility.  The  law  of  nations  has  modified  this  maxim,  by  legalizing 
such  acts  of  hostility  only  as  are  committed  by  those  who  are  authorized 
by  the'  express  or  implied  command  of  the  state.  Such  are  the  regu- 
larly commissioned  naval  and  military  forces  of  the  state,  and  all  others 
called  out  in  its  defence,  or  spontaneously  defending  themselves  in  caso 
of  urgent  necessity,  without  any  express  authority  for  that  purpose. 
The  horrors  of  war  would  be  greatly  aggravated  if  every  individual  of 
the  belligerent  states  were  allowed  to  plunder  and  slay  the  enemy's 
subjects  without  being  in  any  manner  accountable  for  his  conduct. 
Hence  it  is  that  in  land  wars,  irregular  bands  of  marauders  are  liable  to 
be  treated  as  lawless  banditti,  not  entitled  to  the  protection  of  the 
mitigated  uses  of  war  as  practised  by  civilized  nations. 

The  title  to  property  lawfully  taken  in  war  may,  upon  general  prin- 
ciples, be  considered  as  immediately  diverted  from  the  original  owner 
and  transferred  to  the  captor.  As  to  personal  property  or  movables  on 
land,  the  title  is  lost  to  the  former  proprietor,  as  soon  as  the  enemy  has 
acquired  a  firm  possession ;  which,  as  a  general  rule,  is  considered  as 
taking  place  after  the  lapse  of  24  hours,  or  after  the  booty  has  been 
carried  into  a  place  of  safety,  infra  prcesidia  of  the  captor.  In  respect 
to  ships  and  goods  taken  at  sea,  the  sentence  of  a  competent  court  is 
necessary  ;  while,  in  respect  to  real  property  or  immovables,  the  title 
acquired  in  war  must  be  confirmed  by  a  treaty  of  peace  before  it  can  be 
considered  as  completely  valid.  But  it  may  be  important  to  determine 
how  far  the  possession  of  immovables,  and  the  property  arising  out  of 
such  possession,  extend.  Grotius  simply  says  that  every  kind  of  pos- 
session is  not  sufficient,  but  that  it  must  be  a  firm  possession,  which  he 
explains  thus  :  "  as  if  a  country  is  so  provided  with  permanent  fortifica- 
tions, that  the  advance  party  cannot  enter  it  openly  without  first  mak- 
ing himself  master  of  them  by  force."  Bynkershoek  says  :  "  Possession 
extends  to  every  thing  that  is  occupied,  and  what  is  occupied  is  placed 
within  our  power  by  the  law  of  nature ;  but  even  that  is  considered  as 
occupied,  which  is  not  touched  on  all  sides  with  our  hands  or  feet. 
*  *  *  Hence  it  is  not  difficult  to  discern  what  may  be  considered 
as  properly  occupied  in  an  occupied  country.  *  *  If,  from  the  occu- 
pation of  a  strong  place,  dominion  is  exercised  over  the  whole  country, 
yet  the  victor  is  not  considered  in  possession  of  those  cities,  walled 
towns,  and  fortresses,  which  the  sovereign  still  retains." 


WAR.]  MILITAKY  DICTIONARY.  659 

There  are  various  modes  also  in  which  the  extreme  rigor  of  the 
rights  of  war  may  be  relaxed  at  the  pleasure  of  the  respective  belliger- 
ents. 1.  A  general  truce  or  armistice.  This  amounts  to  a  temporary 
peace,  and  it  requires  either  the  previous  special  authority  of  the 
supreme  power  of  the. state,  or  a  subsequent  ratification  by  such  power. 

2.  A  partial  truce  or  limited  suspension  of  hostilities  may  be  concluded 
between  the  military  and  naval  officers  of  the  respective  belligerent 
states  without  any  special  authority  for  that  purpose,  where,  from  the 
nature  and  extent  of  their  commands,  such  an  authority  is  necessarily 
implied  as  essential  to  the  fulfilment  of  their  duties.     The  terms  of  the 
armistice  should  be  free  from  all  ambiguity.     3.  Capitulations  for  the 
surrender  of  troops,  fortresses,  and  particular  districts  of  country  All 
naturally  within  the  scope  of  the  general  powers  intrusted  to  military 
commanders.     4.  Passports,  safe  conducts,  and  licenses  are  documents 
granted  in  war  to  protect  persons  and  property  from  the  general  opera- 
tion of  hostilities.     A  license  is  an  act  proceeding  from  the  sovereign 
authority  of  the  state,  which  alone  is  competent  to  decide  on  all  the  con- 
siderations of  political  and  commercial  expediency  by  which  such  an  ex- 
ception from  the  ordinary  consequences  of  war  must  be  controlled. 
5.  By  rules  laid  down  for  the  government  of  an  army  in  an  enemy's 
country  in  the  new  relation  existing  between  the  invading  army  and 
the  citizens  or  subjects  of  the  foreign  country. 

The  martial  law  order  of  General  Scott  in  Mexico,  given  in  the  ar- 
ticle LAW,  (Martial,)  played  so  prominent  a  part  in  mitigating  the  hor- 
rors of  war,  as  well  as  in  aiding  in  the  conquest  of  peace,  that  a  concise 
history  of  that  remarkable  order  will  here  find  a  fitting  place.  As 
early  as  May,  1846,  General  Scott  presented  for  the  consideration  of 
the  Secretary  of  War  a  project  for  a  law,  giving  expressly  to  courts- 
martial  in  an  enemy's  country  authority  to  punish  offences,  which  in 
the  United  States  are  punishable  by  the  ordinary  criminal  courts  of  the 
land.  Congress  did  not,  however,  act  upon  the  recommendation,  and 
General  Scott  on  the  8th  of  October,  1846,  submitted  to  Mr.  Secretary 
Marcy  the  draft  of  a  letter  which  he  recommends  should  be  despatched 
to  each  commander  of  an  army  now  operating  against  Mexico.  "  I  am 
aware  (he  continues)  that  it  presents  grave  topics  for  consideration, 
which  is  invited.  It  will  be  seen  that  I  have  endeavored  to  place  all 
necessary  restrictions  on  martial  law.  1.  By  restricting  it  to  a  foreign 
hostile  country ;  2.  To  offences  enumerated  with  some  accuracy ; 

3.  By  assimilating  councils  of  war  to  courts-martial ;  4.  By  restricting 
punishments  to  the  known  laws  of  some  one  of  the  States  of  the  Union ;  " 
(Doc.  59,  House  of  Representatives,  30/A  Congress,  1st  Session.)     This 


660  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [W±B. 

project  appears  to  have  met  with  no  favor  from  the  Executive.  In  let- 
ters from  General  Taylor,  dated  October  6,  and  October  11,  1846,  he 
reports  the  "  most  shameful  atrocities  "  as  having  been  committed  with- 
out punishment,  and  he  asks  the  Secretary  of  War  "  for  instructions  as 
to  the  proper  disposition  of  the  culprit "  in  a  case  of  cold-blooded 
murder  at  Monterey.  Mr.  Marcy  replied  Nov.  25,  1846  :  "  The  com- 
petency of  a  military  tribunal  to  take  cognizance  of  such  a  case  as  you 
have  presented  in  your  communication  of  the  llth  ult.,  viz.,  the  murder 
of  a  Mexican  soldier,  and  other  offences  not  embraced  in  the  express 
provisions  of  the  Articles  of  War,  was  deemed  so  questionable,  that  ap- 
plication was  made  to  Congress,  at  the  last  session,  to  bring  them  express- 
ly within  the  jurisdiction  of  such  a  tribunal,  but  it  was  not  acted  upon. 
1  am  not  prepared  to  say  that,  under  the  peculiar  circumstances  of  the 
case,  and  particularly,  by  the  non-existence  of  any  civil  authority  to 
which  the  offender  could  be  turned  over,  a  military  court  could  not 
rightfully  act  thereon  ;  yet  very  serious  doubts  are  entertained  upon 
that  point,  and  the  Government  does  not  advise  that  course.  It  seriously 
regrets  that  such  flagrant  offender  cannot  be  dealt  with  in  the  manner 
he  deserves.  I  see  no  other  course  for  you  to  pursue  than  to  release 
him  from  confinement  and  send  him  away  from  the  army ;  and  this  is 
recommended." 

The  foregoing  letter  of  the  cautious  War  Secretary  was  written  a 
few  days  after  General  Scott  had  been  ordered  to  the  theatre  of  war,  to 
assume  the  direction  of  military  operations ;  but  in  the  opinion  of  the 
latter,  "  the  good  of  the  service,  the  honor  of  the  United  States,  and  the 
interests  of  humanity"  demanded  that  the  numerous  grave  offences  not 
embraced  in  the  Rules  and  Articles  of  War  should  not  go  unpunished  ; 
and  accordingly,  upon  assuming  command  of  the  army  in  Mexico,  he 
did  not  shrink  from  the  responsibility  which  his  station  imposed.  He 
issued  his  martial  law  order.  Rigid  justice  was  administered  to  Amer- 
ican and  Mexican  under  that  order,  and  it,  beyond  all  doubt,  effected  as 
important  consequences  as  any  act  performed  during  his  brilliant  cam- 
paign ending  with  the  conquest  of  peace.  (Consult  WHEATON'S  Ele- 
ments of  International  Law  /  DUPONCEAU'S  Bynkershoek /  GENERAL 
SCOTT'S  Orders  in  Mexico.) 

"WARRANT.  A  writ  of  authority.  Warrant  officers  are  such  as 
are  immediately  below  commissioned  officers,  exercising  their  author- 
ity by  warrant  only.  Cadets  are  warrant  officers.  They  may  be  tried 
by  garrison  courts-martial ;  but  by  the  custom  of  war  a  court-martial 
cannot  sentence  a  warrant  officer  to  corporal  punishment  or  reduction 
to  the  ranks. 


WEI.] 


MILITARY  DICTIONARY. 


661 


WASHING-.  To  each  woman  who  may  be  allowed  to  a  corps,  not 
exceeding  four  to  a  company,  one  ration  is  given;  (Act  March  16, 
1802.)  They  are  washerwomen. 

"WASTE.  Waste  or  spoil  committed  by  troops,  either  in  walks 
of  trees,  parks,  warrens,  fish-ponds,  houses  or  gardens,  corn-fields,  in- 
closures  of  meadows,  or  maliciously  destroying  any  property  whatso- 
ever belonging  to  the  inhabitants  of  the  United  States,  unless  by  the 
order  of  the  then  commander-in-chief  of  the  armies  of  the  United  States, 
shall  (besides  such  penalties  as.  they  are  liable  to  by  law)  be  punished, 
according  to  the  nature  and  degree  of  the  offence,  by  the  judgment  of  a 
regimental  or  general  court-martial ;  (ART.  54.)  (See  AMMUNITION.) 

WATCH.  The  non-commissioned  officers  and  men  on  board  trans- 
ports are  usually  divided  into  three  watches,  one  of  which  must  be 
constantly  on  deck. 

WATC  H WORD.     (See  PAROLE.) 

WATER.  Daily  allowance  for  a  man  one  gallon  for  all  purposes. 
For  a  horse  four  gallons. 

WEDGE — is  one  of  the  five  simple  mechanical  powers.  It  is  used 
sometimes  for  raising  bodies,  but  more  frequently  for  dividing  or 
splitting  them.  The  power  is  to  the  resistance  acting  perpendicularly 
on  each  side  of  the  wedge,  as  the  thickness  of  the  back  of  the  wedge  is 
to  the  length  of  the  side. 

WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES. 

MEASUEES  OF  LENGTH. 


Inches. 

Feet. 

Yards. 

Eods  or 
Poles. 

Furlongs. 

Mile. 

12 

1 

36 

3 

1 

198 

16* 

H 

1 

7,920 

660 

220 

40 

1 

63,360 

5,280 

1,760 

320 

8 

1 

The  inch  was  formerly  divided  into  three  parts,  called  barley-corns, 
and  also  into  12  parts  called  lines,  neither  of  which  denominations  is 
now  in  common  use.  Scales  and  measuring  rules  are  generally  divided 
into  inches,  quarters,  eighths,  and  sixteenths  ;  or  into  inches  and  decimal 
parts ;  the  latter  of  these  divisions  is  used  in  the  Ordnance  Depart- 
ment. 

For  suryeying  land:  7.92  Inches  =  1  link.  Gunter's  chain.) 

100  Links  =  4  poles,  or  22  yards,  or  66  feet.) 


662  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [WEI. 

For  map-making :  Chains  are  often  made  of  50  links,  each  1  foot  in  length. 
For  measuring  ropes  and  soundings  :  1  Fathom  =  6  feet. 

1  Cable's  length  =  120  fathoms. 

For  measuring  cloth :      1  Nail  =  2£  inches  =  1-1 6th  of  a  yard. 
1  Quarter  =  4  nails. 
1  Yard  =  4  quarters. 
1  Ell  English  =  5  quarters. 
For  measuring  horses :    1  Hand  =  4  inches. 
Geographical  measure :  1  Degree  of  a  great  circle  of  the  earth  =  69.77 

miles. 
1  Geographical  or  nautical  mile  =  l-60th  of  a 

degree  of  the  earth  =  2,025  yards. 
1  Nautical  league  =  3  miles. 

A  standard  measure  has  been  adopted  for  the  United  States,  copies 
of  which  are  distributed  to  various  parts  of  the  country,  for  the  purpose 
of  establishing  a  uniform  system.  This  standard  is  measured  on  a 
brass  bar  and  copied  from  the  British  standard  yard.  For  the  pro- 
portion which  it  bears  to  the  French  metre,  see  below. 

FOREIGN   MEASURES  OF  LENGTH. 

GREAT  BRITAIN. — The  Imperial  standard  yard  of  Great  Britain, 
adopted  in  1825,  is  referred  to  a  natural  standard,  which  is  the  distance 
between  the  axis  of  suspension  and  the  centre  of  oscillation  of  a  pen- 
dulum which  shall  vibrate  seconds  in  vacuo,  in  London,  at  the  level  of 
the  sea ;  that  distance  measured  on  a  brass  rod,  at  the  temperature  of 
62°  Fahr.,  is  declared  to  be  39.1393  imperial  inches. 
FRANCE. — Old  system : 

Point  =    0.0074  Eng.  inches. 

Line    =  12  points          =    0.08884        " 
Inch   =  12  lines  =    1.06577        " 

Foot    =  12  inches         =  12.7892          " 
Ell      =  43  in.  10  lines  =  46.716  "  =  1.298  yd. 

Toise  =    6  feet  =  76.735  "  =  2.132   " 

Perch  (Paris)  =  18  feet. 
1  Perch  (royal)  =  22    " 
1  League,  (common,)  25  to  a  degree  =  2,280  toises  =  4,861  yds., 

=  2.76  miles. 

1  League,  (post,)  =  2,000  toises  =  4,264  yds.,  =  2.42  miles. 
1  Fathom  (Brasse}  =  5  feet  French  =  63.946  inches,  or  51  feet 

Eng.,  nearly. 
1  Cable  length  =  100  toises  =  120  fathoms  Fr.,  =  106f  fathoms 

English. 
1  Pace  (pas)  =  £  metre  =  26.5  in.  nearly. 


WEI.] 


MILITARY  DICTIONARY. 


663 


TABLE  FOR  REDUCING  OLD  FRENCH  MEASURES  TO  ENGLISH. 


French 
feet. 

English 
inches. 

French 
feet   or 
inches. 

English  feet  or 
inches. 

French 
lines. 

English 
inches. 

French 
points. 

English 
inches. 

1 

12.7892 

1 

1.0658 

1 

0.0888 

1 

0.0074 

2 

25.5784 

2 

2.1315 

2 

0.1776 

2 

0.0148 

3 

38.3676 

3 

3.1973 

3 

0.2664 

3 

0.0222 

4 

51.1568 

4 

4.2631 

4 

0.3553 

4 

0.0296 

5 

63.9460 

5 

6.3288 

5 

0.4441 

6 

0.0370 

6 

76.7352 

6 

6.3946 

6 

0.5329 

6 

0.0444 

7 

89.5244 

7 

7.4604 

7 

0.6217 

7 

0.0518 

8 

102.3136 

'    8 

8.5261 

8 

0.7105 

8 

0.0592 

9 

115.1028 

9 

9.5919 

9 

0.7993 

9 

0.0666 

10 

127.8920 

10 

10.6577 

10 

0.8881 

10 

0.0740 

11 

140.6812 

11 

11.7234 

11 

0.9770 

11 

0.0814 

NEW  FRENCH  SYSTEM. — The  basis  of  the  new  French  system  of 
measures  is  the  measure  of  a  meridian  of  the  earth,  a  quadrant  of  which 
is  10,000,000  metres,  measured  at  the  temperature  of  32°  Fahr.  The 
multiples  and  divisions  of  it  are  decimal,  viz. :  1  metre  =  10  deci- 
metres =  100  centimetres  =  1,000  millimetres  =  39.3707971  English 
inches,  or  3.2809  feet. 

Road  Measure. — Myriametre  =  10,000  metres.  Kilometre  = 
1,000  metres.  Decametre  =  10  metres.  Metre  =  0.51317  toise. 

TABLE  FOR  REDUCING  METRES  TO  INCHES. 
According  to  Capt.  KATER'S  comparison,  1  metre  =  39.37079  English  inches. 


Metres. 

Inches. 

Metres. 

Inches. 

Metres. 

Inches. 

Metres 

Inches. 

0.001 

0.039371 

0.026 

1.023641 

0.051 

2.007910 

0.076 

2.992180 

2 

0.078742 

27 

.063011 

52 

2.047281 

77 

3.031551 

3 

0.118112 

28 

.102382 

53 

2.086652 

78 

3.070922 

4 

0.157483 

29 

.141753 

54 

2.126023 

79 

3.110292 

5 

0.196854 

0.030 

.181124 

55 

2.165393 

0.080 

3.149663 

6 

0.236225 

31 

.220494 

56 

2.204764 

81 

3.189034 

7 

0.275596 

32 

.259865 

67 

2.244135 

82 

3.228405 

8 

0.314966 

33 

.299236 

58 

2.283506 

83 

3.267776 

9 

0.354337 

34 

.338607 

59 

2.322877 

84 

3.307146 

0.010 

0.393708 

35 

.377978 

0.060 

2.362247 

85 

3.346517 

11 

0.433078 

36 

.417348 

61 

2.401618 

86 

3.385888 

12 

0.472449 

37 

.456719 

62 

2.440989 

87 

3.425259 

13 

0.511820 

38 

.496090 

63 

2.480358 

88 

3.464630 

14 

0.551191 

39 

.535461 

64 

2.519731 

89 

3.604000 

15 

0.590562 

0.040 

.574832 

65 

2.559101 

0.090 

3.543371 

16 

0.629933 

41 

.614202 

66 

2.598472 

91 

3.582742 

17 

0.669303 

42 

.653573 

67 

2.637843 

92 

8.622113 

18 

0.708674 

43 

.692944 

68 

2.677214 

93 

3.661483 

19 

0.748045 

44 

.732315 

69 

2.716585 

94 

3.700854 

0.020 

0.787416 

45 

.771686 

0.070 

2.755955 

95 

3.740225 

21 

0.826787 

46 

.811056 

71 

2.795326 

96 

3.779596 

22 

0.866157 

47 

.850427 

72 

2.834697 

97 

3.818967 

23 

0.905528 

48 

.889798 

73 

2.874068 

98 

3.858337 

24 

0.944899 

49 

.929169 

74 

2.913438 

99 

3.897708 

25 

0.984270 

0.050 

.968540 

75 

2.952809 

0.100 

3.937079 

66*  MILITAKY  DICTIONARY.  [Wii. 

English. 
AtfSTKiA.— 1  Foot  =  12.445  English  inches  =  1.0371  feet. 

1  Mile  =  4,000  toises  =  5  miles,  nearly. 

PKUSSIA.— 1  Rhineland  foot  ='  12.3557  English  inches.     =  1.0296  feet. 

1  Mile  =  8,552  yards,  English          =  5  miles,  nearly. 

RUSSIA.—  1  Foot  =  21.1874  English  inches      =  1.7656  feet. 

For  the  artillery,  the  English  foot  and  inch  are  used. 

1  Verst  =  2,000  Russian  feet  =  1,177  yards. 

SPAIN.—    1  Foot  =  11.1284  English  inches. 

1  Yara  =  3  feet  =  0.9274  English  yard. 

1  League  Royal       =  25,000  Spanish  feet  =  4£  miles,  nearly. 

1  Common  league    =  19,800        do.          =  3|          " 

1  Judicial  league  =  15,000  do.  =  2f  " 
MEXICO. —  1  Common  league  =  15,000  do.  =  2|  " 
SWEDEN. —  1  Foot  =  11.6865  English  inches. 

MEASURES   OF   SURFACE. 

/Square  measure. — 144  Square  inches  =  1  square  foot. 

9  Square  feet  =  1  square  yard. 

Land  measure. — 30J  Square  yards  =  1  square  perch  or  pole. 
40  Perches  =  1  rood. 

160  Perches  =  4  roods   =    1  acre   =    10  square  chains 
(Gunter's)  =  4,840  square  yards  =  70  yards  square, 
nearly. 
640  Acres  =  1  square  mile. 

French  Superficial  Measure. 

Old  system. — 1  Square  inch  =  1.13587  English  square  inches. 

1  Arpent  (Paris)  =  100  square  perches  (Paris)  or  900  square 

toises  =» 4,088  square  yards,  or  5-6ths  of  an  acre,  nearly. 

1  Arpent  (woodland)  =  100  square  perches  (royal)  =  6,108 

square  yards,  or  1  acre,  1  rood,  1  perch. 
New,  or  Decimal  system. — 1  Are  =  100  square  metres  =  119.603  square 

yards. 
1  Decare  =  10  ares.     1  Hecatare  =  100  ares. 


MEASURES    OF    SOLIDITY. 

Cubic  or  Solid  measure.—].  Cubic  foot  =  1,728  cubic  inches. 

1  Cubic  yard  =  46,656     "       "  =  27  cubic  feet. 

Measuring  stone.— In  different  parts  of  the  United  States  the  perch  of 
stone  denotes  a  different  quantity,  but  it  is  usually  24|  cubic  feet. 

Measuring  wood. — 1  Cord  is  a  prism  4  feet  square  and  8  feet  long  =  128 
cubic  feet. 


WEI.] 


MILITARY  DICTIONARY. 


665 


French  Solid  Measures. 
1  Cubic  inch  =  1.2106  cubic  inches,  English. 
1  Cubic  foot  =  2091.85  cubic  inches,  English. 
1  Cubic  decimetre  =  61.0271*    " 

1  Stere  =  1  cubic  metre  =  61,027.1  cubic  in.  =  35.3166  cubic  feet 
cubic  yards. 

MEASURES  OF  CAPACITY. 
LIQUID  MEASURE. 


1.308 


Gills. 

Pints. 

Quarts. 

Gallons. 

4 

1 

8 

2 

1 

32 

8 

4 

1 

The  standard  gallon  of  the  United  States  is  the  old  wine  gallon, 
which  measures  231  cubic  inches,  and  contains  (as  determined  by  Mr. 
Hassler)  58,373  Troy  grains,  or  8.3388822  avoirdupois  pounds,  of  dis- 
tilled water  at  the  maximum  density,  (39°  .83  Fahr. ;)  the  barometer 
being  at  30  inches. 

A  cubic  foot  contains  7.48  gallons. 

A  box  6  x  6  x  6.42  inches  contains  1  gallon. 

A  box  4  x  4  x  3.61  inches  contains  1  quart. 

DRY  MEASUKE. 


Pints. 

Quarts. 

Gallons. 

Pecks. 

Bushels. 

2 

1 

8 

4 

1 

16 

8 

2 

1 

64 

32 

8 

4 

1 

The  standard  bushel  of  the  United  States  is  the  Winchester  bushel, 
which  measures  2,150.4  cubic  inches,  and  contains  543,391.89  Troy 
grains,  or  77.627413  Ibs.  avoirdupois,  of  distilled  water,  under  the 
circumstances  above  stated. 

A  cubic  yard  contains  21.69  bushels. 

A  cylinder  14  in.  diam.  x  14  in.  deep  )  ^^  1  ^^ 

Or  a  box  16   x    16.8  x    8  inches     f 

A  box         12   x    11.2  x    8  inches       contains  £  bushel. 

A  box  8   x      8.4  x    8  inches       contains  1  peck. 

N.B. — It  will  be  observed  that  the  pint,  quart,  and  gallon  of  dry 
measure  are  not  the  same  as  for  liquid  measure. 


666 


MILITAKY  DICTIONARY. 


[WEI. 


FOREIGN  MEASURES   OF   CAPACITY. 

GREAT  BRITAIN. — The  British  imperial  gallon  measures  277.274 
cubic  inches,  containing  ten  pounds  avoirdupois  of  distilled  water 
weighed  in  air,  at  the  temperature  of  62°,  the  barometer  being  at  30  in. 
The  same  measure  is  used  for  liquids  as  for  dry  goods  which  are  not 
measured  by  heaped  measure ;  for  the  latter,  the  bushel  is  to  be  heaped 
in  the  form  of  a  cone  not  less  than  6  inches  high,  the  base  being  19£ 
inches.  The  old  distinctions  of  wine  measure,  ale  and  beer  measure, 
and  dry  measure  are  discontinued. 

For  grain.— &  bushels  =  1  quarter  =  10.269  cubic  feet. 
5  quarters  =  1  load      =  51.347  cubic  feet. 
For  coal  or  heaped  measure. — 1  sack  =  3  bushels  =  4.89  cubic  feet,  nearly. 

1  chaldron  =  12  sacks  =  36  bushels  =  58.68  cubic  feet. 
For  timber. — 1  load  =  40  cubic  feet. 
Former  wine  gallon  =  231  cubic  inches. 
Former  ale  gallon  =  282  cubic  inches. 
Imperial  gallon  =  277.274  cubic  inches,  (as  above.) 
FRANCE. — 1  Litre  =  1  cubic  decimetre  =  61.0271  cubic  inches  =  1.057 

U.  S.  quart  =  1.761  imperial  pint  of  Great  Britain. 
1  Boisseau  =  13  litres  =  793.364  cubic  in.  =  3.4344  U.  S.  gals. 
1  Pinte  =  0.93f  litre  =  56.816  cub.  in.  =  0.98383  U.  S.  quart. 
SPAIN.— 1  Wine  arroba  =  4.2455  U.  S.  gallons. 

1  Fanega  (corn  measure)  =-4.593  U.  S.  bushels. 

MEASURES    OF    WEIGHT. 
AVOIRDUPOIS  WEIGHT. 


Drams. 

Ounces. 

Pounds. 

Quarters. 

Cwt 

Ton. 

16 

1 

256 

16 

1 

7,168 

448 

28 

1 

28,672 

1,792 

112 

4 

1 

673,440 

35,840 

2,240 

80 

20 

1 

The  standard  avoirdupois  pound  of  the  United  States,  as  determined 
by  Mr.  Hassler,  is  the  weight  of  27.7015  cubic  inches  of  distilled  water 
weighed  in  air,  at  the  temperature  of  the  maximum  density,  (39°.83  ;) 
the  barometer  being  at  30  inches. 

TROY  WEIGHT. 


Grains. 

Dwt. 

Ounces. 

Pound. 

24 

1 

480 

20 

1 

5,760 

240 

12 

1 

WEI.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY,  667 

The  pound,  ounce,  and  grain  are  the  same  in  Apothecaries'  and  Troy 
weight ;  in  the  former,  the  ounce  is  divided  into  8  drachms,  the  drachm 
into  3  scruples,  and  the  scruple  into  20  grains. 

7,000    Troy  grains    =      1  Ib.   avoirdupois. 
175    Troy  pounds  =  144  Ibs.  " 

175    Troy  ounces  =192  oz.  " 

4371  Troy  grains    =      1  oz.  " 

Foreign  Weights. 

GREAT  BRITAIN. — The  imperial  avoirdupois  pound  is  the  weight  of 
27.7274  cubic  inches  of  distilled  water  weighed  in  air,  with  brass 
weights,  at  the  temperature  of  62°  Fahr. ;  barometer  30  inches.  There- 
fore, 

1  cubic  inch  of  distilled  water  at  62°  weighs  252.458  grains. 
0.003961  cubic  inch  weighs  1  grain. 
22.815689  cubic  inches  weigh  1  Troy  pound. 
Horseman's  weight :  1  stone  =  14  pounds. 

FBANCE. —  Old  system:    1  Livre  =  16  onces   =    1.0780  Ib.  avoirdupois. 
1  Once  =    8  gros     =    1.0780  oz.         " 
1  Gros   =  72  grains  =  58.9548  grains  Troy. 

1  Grain =    0.8188      "        " 

New  system. — -The  basis  of  the  system  of  weights  is  the  weight,  in 
vacuo,  of  a  litre,  or  a  cubic  decimetre,  of  distilled  water,  at  the  temper- 
ature of  39°.2  Fahr. ;  ToWtn  Parfc  °f  tnis  weight  is  a  gramme,  the  mul- 
tiples of  which  are  :  1  Decagramme  =  10  grammes  :  1  Hectogramme 
=  100  grammes :  1  Kilogramme  =  1,000  grammes.  The  divisions  are : 
1  Decigramme  =  TV^h  gramme :  1  Centigramme  =  f^th  gramme : 
1  LJilligramme  =  y^Vw^  gramme.  ^ 

1  Quintal  =  100  kilogrammes. 

1  Millier  =  1,000  kilogrammes  =  1  ton  sea  weight,  (French.) 
1  Kilogramme  =  2.204737  pounds  avoirdupois. 
1  Gramme  =  15.433159  grains  Troy  =  0.03528  oz.  avoirdupois. 
1  Pound  avoirdupois  =  0.4535685  kilogramme. 
1  Pound  Troy  =  0.3732223  kilogramme. 
SPAIN. —     1  Pound  =  1.0152  pounds  avoirdupois. 
SWEDEN.—  1  Pound  =  0.9376      "  " 

AUSTEIA.— 1  Pound  =  1.2351      "  " 

PBUSSIA.—  1  Pound  =  1.0333      "  " 

MEASURES  OF  VALUE. 

All  calculations  of  value  in  the  military  service  of  the  United  States 
are  expressed  in  Dollars  and  Cents,  although  the  denominations  of  shil- 
lings and  pence  are  still  in  common  use  as  a  nominal  currency  in  many 
of  the  States. 


668  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [WHK. 

The  standard  of  gold  and  silver  is  900  parts  of  pure  metal  and  100 
of  alloy,  in  1,000  parts  of  coin.  The  alloy  of  gold  coin  is  25  silver  and 
f 5  copper  ;  the  alloy  of  silver  is  copper. 

Weight  of  Dollar =412.5  grains  Troy  j  Qther  coing  . 

"          Eagle  =258  " 


Cent =168  "          ) 

Relative  Mint  Value  of  United  States  and  Foreign  Coins. 

GEEAT  BEITAIN.  .  1  Guinea  =  21  shillings =    5.059    dollars. 

1  Sovereign,  or  1  pound  =  20  shillings  .  =  4.845  " 

1  Crown  =  5  shillings =  1.08  " 

1  Shilling  =  12  pence =  0.217  " 

1  Penny =  0.018  " 

FRANCE 5  Francs =  0.932  " 

1  Franc  =  20  sous =  0.185  " 

1  Sous =  0.0093  " 

SPAIN 1  Boubloon,  or  1  ounce =  15.57  " 

AUSTRIA 1  Ducat =  2.275  " 

1  Crown,  or  rix  dollar =  0.97  " 

20  Kreutzers =  0.16  " 

PEUSSIA 1  Double  Frederick =  8.00  " 

IThaler =  0.693  " 

RUSSIA 1  Half- Imperial  =  5  roubles =  3.967  " 

1  Rouble =  0.75  " 

SWEDEN 1  Ducat =  2.267  " 

1  Specie  daler =  1.042  " 

TUEKEY 20  Piasters =  0.82  " 

Distensions  of  Drawing  Paper.  « 

Demy 1  ft.     7i  in.  x  1  ft.    3£  inches. 

Medium 1  "    10     "  x  1  "     6  " 

Royal 2  "      0     "  x  1  "     7  " 

Super  royal 2  "      3     "  xl   "     7  " 

Imperial 2  "      5     "  x  1   "     9£  " 

Elephant 2  "      3|  "  x  1   "  10J  " 

Columbier 2  "      9f  "  x  1   "  11  « 

Atlas 2  "      9     "  x  2  "     2  " 

Double  elephant... 3  "     4     "  x2  "     2  " 

Antiquarian 4  "      4     "  x2  "     7  " 

(Ordnance  Manual.) 

WHEEL.     In  the   simple  wheel  and  axle,  the  power  is  to  the 
weight  as  the  radius  r  of  the  axle  is  to  the  radius  R  of  the  wheel. 

Or'p  =  ¥ 


WIL.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY. 

In  a  system  of  wheels  and  pinions,  the  power  is  to  the  weight  as 
the  product  of  the  radii  (or  number  of  teeth)  r  rf  rff,  &c.,  of  the 
pinions  is  to  the  product  of  the  radii  (or  number  of  teeth)  R  R'  R", 
&c.,  of  the  wheels  : 


R  R'  ii"' 

WHIPPING-.     Abolished,  except  for  desertion. 

WHITING-.  To  make  whiting  for  accoutrements,  it  is  necessary 
to  boil  many  handfuls  of  bran  enveloped  in  linen.  Dissolve  afterwards 
pipe-clay  in  this  water.  Whiten  with  it  when  cold.  When  the  buff 
leather  is  greasy  and  does  not  receive  the  whiting,  scrape  it,  and  apply 
to  it  a  solution  of  pipe-clay  and  Spanish  whiting. 

Another  receipt,  calculated  for  one  hundred  men,  is  the  following  : 
Pipe-clay,  3  J  Ibs.  ;  Spanish  whiting,  8  ounces  ;  white  lead,  4  ounces  ; 
glue,  1^-  ounces  ;  starch,  6  oz.  ;  white  soap,  5  oz.  Put  the  pipe-clay  and 
Spanish  whiting  in  about  five  gallons  of  water  ;  wash  them  and  leave 
them  to  soak  for  six  hours  ;  2d,  throw  out  the  first  water,  and  replace 
it  by  5J  gallons  of  pure  water  ;  add  the  W7hite  lead,  glue,  and  white 
soap.  Cook  them  together,  taking  care  to  stir  constantly  the  composi- 
tion. At  the  moment  that  the  foam  shows  itself  on  the  surface,  with, 
draw  the  vessel  from  the  fire  without  suffering  the  composition  to  boil  ; 
put  then  the  starch  in  the  whiting,  and  mix  all  well  together. 

WIDOWS  AND  ORPHANS.     (See  PENSION.) 

WILLS,  (NUNCUPATIVE.)  A  nuncupative  will,  so  termed  from 
naming  an  executor  by  word  of  mouth,  is  a  verbal  testamentary 
declaration  or  disposition.  By  the  common  law,  it  was  as  valid  in 
respect  to  personal  estate  as  a  written  testament.  A  will  could  not 
only  be  made  by  word  of  mouth,  but  the  most  solemn  instrument  in 
writing  might  be  revoked  orally.  In  a  rude  and  uncultivated  age,  to 
have  required  a  written  will  would  have  been  a  great  hardship,  but  with 
the  growth  and  progress  of  letters,  the  reason  for  permitting  a  verbal 
testament  diminished  in  force,  until  finally  an  effort  to  establish  such  a 
will  by  means  of  gross  fraud  and  perjury  gave  rise  to  the  provisions  of 
the  statute  of  29  Charles  II.,  passed  in  1676,  termed  the  Statute  of 
Frauds. 

The  only  nuncupative  wills  now  allowed  are  those  made  by  soldiers 
and  sailors.  It  appears  from  the  preface  to  the  Life  of  Sir  Leoline  Jen- 
kins. that  he  claimed  the  merit,  at  the  time  of  the  preparation  of  the 
Statute  of  Frauds,  of  having  obtained  for  the  soldiers  of  the  English 
army  the  full  benefit  of  the  testamentary  privileges  of  the  Roman  army. 
The  Roman  soldier  was  indulged  with  very  peculiar  rights  and  immu- 


670  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [WiL. 

nities,  in  the  way  of  exemption  from  the  usual  rules  in  respect  to  wills 
— Inter  arma  silent  leges.  In  the  camp  and  on  the  battle-field  the  testa- 
mentary law  was  silent.  Amid  the  excitement  and  the  perils  of  war- 
fare the  forms  prescribed  by  law  for  the  execution  of  a  will  were  dis- 
pensed with,  so  that  the  soldier  might  declare  his  last  wishes  by  word 
of  mouth  ;  or  if  wounded,  he  wrote  with  his  blood  on  his  shield,  or  with 
his  sword  in  the,  dust ;  the  disposition  was  held  firm  and  sacred.  Julius 
Caesar  authorized  the  making  of  the  military  testament  in  any  mode,  and 
without  prescribed  ceremonials.  The  example  thus  set  was  subse- 
quently followed  by  Titus,  Domitian,  Nerva,  and  Trajan,  until  the 
usage  became  thoroughly  established.  It  was  extended  also  to  the 
naval  service,  and  officers,  rowers,  and  sailors  were  in  this  respect 
esteemed  as  soldiers.  This  was  the  foundation  of  those  privilege*  of 
soldiers  in  regard  to  nuncupative  wills,  which  were  allowed  wherever 
the  civil  law  prevailed,  and  have  been  very  generally  adopted  among 
civilized  nations.  In  France,  the  ordnance  De  la  Marine  of  1681,  first 
gave  special  privileges  to  wills  made  at  sea,  and  the  ordnance  of  1735 
regulated  the  celebration  of  the  military  testament.  The  Code  Civil 
has  also  adopted  definite  rules  in  regard  to  wills  made  at  sea,  in  time 
of  pestilence,  or  by  soldiers  in  service.  In  Holland,  when  commerce 
began  to  be  extended  to  distant  voyages,  the  question  arose  whether 
wills  made  at  sea  were  entitled  to  any  peculiar  immunity,  and  some 
jurists  affirmed  that  they  should  be  taken  as  military  testaments.  The 
matter  was  finally  resolved  in  favor  of  their  exemption  in  case  of  per- 
sons sailing  to  or  returning  from  the  Indies,  by  the  ordinances  of  the 
West  India  Company  in  1672  and  1675.  In  England,  by  the  Statute 
of  Frauds,  passed  about  the  same  time,  the  full  benefit  of  the  privilege 
was  given,  without  restriction,  to  all  soldiers  and  sailors  in  actual 
service,  and  this  liberal  rule  has  continued  to  the  present  day. 

Nuncupative  wills,  not  being  regulated  by  statute  as  to  their  mode 
of  celebration  or  execution,  the  single  question  for  the  judgment  of  the 
court  is,  whether  the  nuncupation  was  made  by  a  person  entitled  to  that 
privilege.  The  restrictions  of  the  Statute  of  Frauds  were  not  applied  to 
wills  made  by  "  any  soldier  being  in  actual  military  service,  or  any 
mariner  or  seaman  being  at  sea."  By  the  revised  statutes  of  New  York 
it  was  provided  that  nuncupative  wills  should  not  be  valid,  "  unless 
made  by  a  soldier  while  in  actual  military  service,  or  by  a  mariner 
while  at  sea."  The/ terms  of  the  exception  in  the  statute  1  Viet.  c.  26, 
are,  "  any  soldier  being  in  actual  military  service,  or  any  mariner  or 
seaman  being  at  sea."  The  phraseology  is  slightly  different  in  these 
statutes  ;  but  the  rule  is  substantially  the  same  in  all— that  the  nuncu- 


WIL.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  671 

pation  is  only  valid  when  made  by  a  soldier  in  actual  military  service, 
or  a  mariner  at  sea,  at  the  time  of  the  testamentary  act.  It  is  not 
enough  to  be  a  soldier  or  a  sailor,  but  there  must  be  actual  service. 
The  military  testament  was  first  conceded  by  Julius  Caesar  to  all  sol- 
diers, but  it  was  subsequently  limited  by  Justinian  to  those  engaged  in 
an  expedition — soils  qui  in  expeditionibus  occupati  sunt.  The  exception 
was  borrowed  with  the  rule  from  the  civil  law,  and  the  courts  have  in- 
variably adhered  to  the  principle  that  there  cannot  be  actual  warfare,., 
and  the  soldier  not  be  engaged  in  expeditione.  So  also  the  nuncupation 
of  a  mariner  to  be  valid  must  be  made  at  sea.  It  is  sometimes  difficult 
to  determine  when  the  mariner  is  to  be  considered  at  sea.  For  example, 
Lord  Hugh  Seymour,  the  admiral  of  the  station  at  Jamaica,  made  a  codicil 
by  nuncupation  while  staying  at  the  house  on  shore  appropriated  to  the 
admiral  of  the  station.  The  codicil  was  rejected  on  the  ground  that 
he  only  visited  his  ship  occasionally,  while  his  family  establishment 
and  place  of  abode  were  on  land  at  the  official  residence.  But  when  a 
mariner  belonging  to  a  vessel  lying  in  the  harbor  of  Buenos  Ayres,  met 
with  an  accident  when  on  shore  by  leave,  made  a  nuncupative  will,  and 
died  there,  probate  was  granted  for  the  reason  tha£  he  was  only  casually 
absent  from  his  ship.  The  will  of  a  shipmaster  made  off  Otaheite  has 
also  been  allowed.  The  principle  upon  which  the  privilege  of  nuncupa- 
tion is  conceded  applies  to  all  persons  engaged  in  the  marine  service, 
whatever  may  be  their  special  duty  or  occupation  on  the  vessel.  As  in 
the  army  the  term  "  soldier  "  embraces  every  grade,  from  the  private 
to  the  highest  officer,  and  includes  the  gunner,  the  surgeon,  or  the  gen- 
eral ;  so  in  the  marine,  the  term  "  mariner  "  applies  to  every  person 
in  the  naval  or  mercantile  service,  from  the  common  seaman  to  the 
captain  or  admiral.  It  is  not  limited  or  restricted  to  any  special  occu- 
pation on  shipboard,  but  a  purser,  or  any  other  person  whose  particular 
vocation  does  not  relate  to  the  sailing  of  the  vessel,  possesses  the  same 
right  as  the  sailor.  A  cook  is  certainly  as  much  a  necessary  part  of 
the  effective  service  of  a  vessel  as  the  purser  or  the  sailor ;  and  there 
would  seem  to  be  no  reason  why  he  should  be  excluded  from  the  ad- 
vantage of  a  rule  designed  for  the  benefit  of  men  engaged  in  the  marine, 
without  reference  to  the  particular  branch  of  duty  performed  in  the 
vessel.  As  well  because  the  wills  of  soldiers  and  mariners  were  ex- 
cepted  from  the  operations  of  the  provisions  of  the  Statute  of  Frauds,  as 
for  the  reason  and  groimd  of  the  exception,  and  the  peculiar  character 
of  the  military  testament,  it  was  never  held  requisite  that  their  nuncu- 
pations should  be  made  during  the  last  sickness.  Nor  has  any  particu- 
lar mode  been  prescribed  in  respect  to  the  manner  of  making  the  testa- 


672  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [WiN. 

ment.  The  very  essence  of  the  privilege  consists  in  the  absence  of  all 
ceremonies  as  legal  requisites — or,  as  Merlin  states  the  proposition, 
"  their  form  was  properly  to  have  no  form."  It  is  true  the  Roman  law 
prescribes  two  witnesses  ;  but  this,  however,  did  not  relate  to  the  essence 
of  the  act,  but  only  to  the  proof.  In  respect  to  evidence,  we  do  not  fol- 
low the  civil  or  the  canon  law ;  no  particular  number  of  witnesses  is 
required  to  verify  an  act  judicially,  and  all  the  court  demands  is  to  be 
satisfied  by  sufficient  evidence  as  to  the  substance  of  the  last  testamen- 
tary request  or  declaration  of  the  deceased.  This  ascertained,  the  law 
holds  it  sacred,  and  carries  it  into  effect  with  as  much  favor  and  regard 
as  would  be  paid  to  the  most  formal  instrument  executed  with  every 
legal  solemnity  ;  (Decision  of  the  Surrogate  of  New  York  City.)  And 
so,  according  to  numerous  decisions,  made  in  Great  Britain,  quoted  by 
Prendergast,  "  whenever  a  military  officer  on  full  pay  makes  an  informal 
will  its  validity  can  only  be  supported  by  showing  the  testator  to  have 
been  on  actual  military  service  at  the  time  the  will  was  made.  And 
the  result  of  the  decisions  appears  to  be,  that  an  officer  serving  with  his 
regiment,  or  in  command  of  troops  in  garrison  or  quarters,  either  in  the 
United  Kingdom  or  the  colonies,  is  not  deemed  on  actual  military  ser- 
vice. To  satisfy  the  meaning  of  the  act  of  parliament  in  that  respect, 
he  must  be  on  an  expedition,  or  on  some  duty  associated  with  positive 
danger." 

WINDAGE.  The  true  windage  is  the  difference  between  the  true 
diameters  of  the  bore  and  the  ball.  The  loss  of  velocity  caused  by  a 
given  windage  is  directly  as  the  windage  and  inversely  as  the  diameter 
of  the  bore,  very  nearly. 

WINDLASS.  A  machine  used  for  many  common  purposes.  It  is 
a  particular  modification  of  the  wheel  and  axle,  the  power  being  applied 
by  means  of  a  rectangular  lever  or  winch. 

WINGS.     The  right  and  left  divisions  of  an  army  or  battalion. 

WITNESS.  All  persons  who  give  evidence  before  a  court-martial, 
are  to  be  examined  on  oath  or  affirmation,  as  follows :  You  swear,  or 
affirm  (as  the  case  may  be)  the  evidence  you  shall  give  in  the  cause  now 
in  hearing,  shall  be  the  truth,  the  whole  truth,  and  nothing  but  the  truth. 
So  help  you  God;  (ART.  73.) 

On  the  trial  of  cases  not  capital  before  courts-martial,  the  deposition 
of  witnesses  not  in  the  line  or  staff  of  the  army,  may  be  read  in  evi- 
dence :  Provided,  the  prosecutor  and  the  person  accused  are  present  at 
the  taking  of  the  same,  or  are  duly  notified  thereof;  (ART.  74.)  The 
list  of  witnesses  for  the  prosecution  is  sometimes  given  to  the  prisoner, 


WOR.]  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  673 

not  as  a  right,  but  as  a  matter  of  convenience,  when  no  evil  result  is 
apprehended  from  it ;  (HouGH.) 

The  law  has  not  given  to  courts-martial  any  power  to  compel  the 
attendance  of  witnesses  not  of  the  line  or  staff  of  the  army,  even  in 
capital  cases.  The  want  of  such  power  might  often  defeat  the  ends  of 
justice.  A  citizen  witness  is,  however,  paid  his  actual  transportation 
'or  stage-fare  and  three  dollars  a  day  while  attending  the  court  and  travel- 
ling to  and  from  it,  counting  the  travel  at  fifty  miles  a  day.  (See  EVI- 
DENCE ;  TRIAL.) 

WOMEN.     (See  WASHING.) 

WOOD.  The  most  useful  timbers  in  the  United  States  are:  the 
hickory,  which  is  very  tough  and  inflexible ;  white  oak,  tough  and 
pliable ;  white  ash,  tough  and  elastic ;  black  walnut,  hard  and  fine- 
grained ;  white  poplar,  soft,  light  fine-grained  wood ;  white  pine  and 
other  pines,  for  building ;  cypress,  soft,  light,  straight-grained,  and  grows 
to  a  large  size ;  dogwood,  hard  and  fine-gramed.  The  timber  growing 
in  the  centre  of  a  forest  is  best. 

WORK.     (See  FATIGUE  DUTY.) 

WORKING-  POWER.  Working  power  of  men  :  A  foot  soldier 
travels  in  one  minute,  in  common  time,  90  steps  =  70  yards.  In  quick 
time,  100  steps  =  86  yards.  In  double  quick,  140  steps  =  109  yards. 
He  occupies  in  the  ranks  a  front  of  20  inches  and  a  depth  of  13  inches, 
without  the  knapsack  ;  the  interval  between  the  ranks  is  13  in. ;  5  men 
can  stand  in  a  space  of  1  square  yard.  Average  weight  of  men,  150 
Ibs.  each.  A  man  travels,  without  a  load,  on  level  ground,  during  8£ 
hours  a  day,  at  the  rate  of  3.7  miles  an  hour,  or  31  £  miles  a  day.  He 
can  carry  111  Ibs.  1 1  miles  a  day.  A  porter,  going  short  distances  and 
returning  unloaded,  carries  135  Ibs.  7  miles  a  day.  He  can  carry  in  a 
wheel-barrow  150  Ibs.  10  miles  a  day.  The  maximum  power  of  a 
strong  man,  exerted  for  2£  minutes,  may  be  stated  at  18,000  Ibs.  raised 
1  foot  in  a  minute. 

A  man  of  ordinary  strength  exerts  a  force  of  30  Ibs.  for  10  hours  a 
day  with  a  velocity  of  2£  feet  in  a  second  =  4,500  Ibs.  raised  1  foot  in 
a  minute  =  one-fifth  the  work  of  a  horse.  Daily  allowance  of  water 
for  a  man  1  gallon,  for  all  purposes.  (See  HORSE  ;  MEASURE  ;  &c.)  . 

WORSHIP,  (DIVINE.)  It  is  earnestly  recommended  to  all  officers 
and  soldiers  diligently  to  attend  divine  service,  and  all  officers  who  shall 
behave  indecently  or  irreverently  at  any  place  of  divine  worship  shall, 
if  commissioned  officers,  be  brought  before  a  general  court-martial  there 
to  be  publicly  and  severely  reprimanded  by  the  president ;  if  non-com- 
missioned officers  or  soldiers,  every  person  so  offending  shall,  for  his 
43 


674  MILITARY  DICTIONARY.  [Wou. 

first  offence,  forfeit  one-sixth  of  a  dollar,  to  be  deducted  out  of  his  next 
pay ;  for  the  second  offence,  he  shall  not  only  forfeit  a  like  sum,  but  be 
confined  24  hours  ;  and  for  every  like  offence,  shall  suffer  and  pay  in 
like  manner ;  which  money,  so  forfeited,  shall  be  applied  by  the  captain 
or  senior  officer  of  the  troop  or  company  to  the  use  of  the  sick  soldiers 
of  the  company  or  troop  to  which  the  offender  belongs ;  (ART.  2.) 

WOUNDS.     (See  PENSIONS.) 

WRONGS.     (See  INJURIES  ;  REDRESSING  WRONGS  ;  REMEDY.) 

Y 

YARD.     (See  WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES.) 

z 

ZIGZAG-  OR  BOYAUS — are  defiladed  trenches,  run  out  from  the 
parallels  of  attack,  so  as  to  form  a  covered  road,  by  which  the  assail- 
ants can  approach  the  fortress.  (See  SIEGE.) 


D.  Van  Nostranfrs  Publications. 

The  Political  and  Military  Hiftory 
of  the  Campaign  of  Waterloo. 

Translated  from  the  French  of  General  BARON  DE  JOMINI.  By 
Capt.  S.  V.  BENET,  U.  S.  Ordnance.  1  vol.  12mo,  cloth,  third 
edition.  $1.25 

"Baron  Jomini  has  the  reputation  of  being  one  of  the  greatest  military  his- 
torians and  critics  of  the  century.  His  merits  have  been  recognized  by  the 
highest  military  authorities  in  Europe,  and  were  rewarded  in  a  conspicuous 
manner  by  the  greatest  military  power  in  Christendom.  He  learned  the  art  of 
war  in  the  school  of  experience,  the  best  and  only  finishing  school  of  the  soldier. 
He  served  with  distinction  in  nearly  all  the  campaigns  of  .Napoleon,  and  it  was 
mainly  from  the  gigantic  military  operations  of  this  matchless  master  of  the 
art  that  he  was  enabled  to  discover  its  true  principles,  and  to  ascertain  the  best 
means  of  their  application  in  the  infinity  of  combinations  which  actual  war  pre- 
sents. Jomini  criticizes  the  details  of  Waterloo  with  great  science,  and  yet  in  a 
manner  that  interests  the  general  reader  as  well  as  the  professional/'— New 
York  World. 

"This book  by  Jomini,  though  forming  the  twenty-second  chapter  of  his 
4  Life  of  Napoleon,'  is  really  a  unit  in  itself,  and  forms  a  complete  summary  of 
the  campaign.  It  is  an  interesting  volume,  and  deserves  a  place  in  the  affec- 
tions of  all  who  would  be  accomplished  military  men." — New  York  Times. 

"The  present  volume  is  the  concluding  portion  of  hip  great  work,  'Vie  Foli- 
tique  et  Militaire  de  Napoleon,1  published  in  1826.  Capt.  Beliefs  translation  of 
it  has  been  for  some  time  before  the  public,  and  has  now  reached  a  second  edi- 
tion; it  is  very  ably  executed,  and  forms  a  work  which  will  always  be  interest- 


ing, and  especially  so  at  a  time  when  military  affairs  are  uppermost  in  the  public 
mind." — Philadelphia  2>fort' 


rth  American. 


A  Treatife  on  the  Camp  and  March. 

With  which  is  connected  the  Construction  of  Field  Works  and  Mil 
itary  Bridges ;  with  an  Appendix  of  Artillery  Ranges,  &c. 
For  the  use  of  Volunteers  and  Militia  in  the  United  States. 
By  Capt.  HENRY  D.  GRAFTON,  U.  S.  A.  1  vol.  12mo,  cloth. 
75  cents. 

Manual  for  Engineer  Troops, 

Comprising  Drill  and  Practice  for  Ponton  Bridges,  and  PASLEY'S 
Rules  for  Conducting  Operations  for  a  Siege.  The  Sap,  Military 
Mining  and  Construction  of  Batteries.  By  Capt.  J.  C.  DUANE, 
TJ.  S.  Engineers.  Plates  and  woodcuts.  12rno,  cloth.  Hf. 
mor.  $2-00 

New  Manual  of  Sword  and   Sabre 
Exercife. 

By  Captain  J.  C.  KELTON,  U.  S.  A.     Thirty  plates.     In  Press. 


D.  Van  Nostrand^s  Publications. 

Notes-  on   Sea-Coaft  Defence  : 

Consisting  of  Sea-Coast  Fortification  ;  the  Fifteen-Inch  Gun ;  and 
Casemate  Embrasures.  By  Gen.  J.  G.  BARNARD,  Corps  of 
Engineers,  U.  S.  Army.  1  vol.  8vo,  cloth,  plates.  $1  60. 

"This  small  volume  by  one.  of  the  most  accomplished  officers  in  the  United 
States  service  is  especially  valuable  at  this  time.  Concisely  and  thoroughly 
Major  Barnard  discusses  the  subjects  included  in  this  volume,  and  gives  infor- 
mation that  will  be  re;id  with  great  profit  by  military  men,  and  by  all  interested 
in  the  art  of  war  as  a  defensive  force,"— New  York  Commercial. 

"It  is  no  light  compliment  when  we  say  that'Major  Barnard's  book  does  no 
'    longs.      He  writes  concisely,  and  wi' 
-JiusselFa  Army  and  2i at y  Gazette. 


discredit  to  the  corps  to  which  he  belongs.      He  writes  concisely,  and  with  a 
thorough  knowledge  of  Li3  subject." — Ru*8t~~ 


Instructions    for    Naval    Light 
Artillery, 

Afloat  and  Ashore.      By  Lieut.  S.  B.  LUCE,  TJ.  S.  N.     1  vol.  8vo, 
with  22  lithographic  plates.     Cloth.     $2.00, 


Steam  for  the  Million. 

A  Popular  Treatise  on  Steam  and  its  Application  to  the  Useful 
Arts,  especially  to  Navigation.  By  J.  II.  WARD,  Commander 
U.  S.  Navy.  New  and  revised  edition.  1  vol.  8vo,  cloth.  $1. 

"A  most  excellent  work  for  the  young  engineer  nnd  peneral  reader.  Many 
facts  relating  to  the  management  of'the  boiler  and  engine  are  set  forth  with  a 
simplicity  of  language,  and  perfection  of  detail,  that  brings  the  subject  home  to 
the  reader.  Mr.  Ward  is  also  peculiarly  happy  in  his  illustrations."— American 
Engineer. 

Screw  Propulfion. 

Notes  on  Screw  Propulsion,  its  Rise  and  History.  By  Capt.  W.  II. 
WALKER,  U.  S.  Navy.  1  vol.  8vo.,  cloth.  75  cents. 

"  Some  interesting  notes  on  screw  propulsion,  its  rise  and  progress,  have  iust 
been  issued  by  Commander  W.  II.  WALKER,  U.  S.  N.,  from  which  all  that  is 
likely  to  be  desired  on  the  subject  may  be  readily  acquired.  *  *  *  *  'After 
thoroughly  demonstrating  the  efficiency  of  the  screw.  Mr.  Walker  proceeds  to 
point  out  the  various  other  points  to  bo  attended  to  in  order  to  secure  an  effi- 
cient man-of-war,  and  eulogizes  throughout  the  readiness  of  the  British  Admi- 
ralty to  test  every  novelty  calculated  to  give  satisfactory  results.  *  *  *  * 
Commander  Walker's  book  contains  an  immense  amount  of  concise  practical 
data,  and  every  item  of  information  recorded  fully  proves  that  the  various 
points  bearing  xipon  it  have  been  well  considered  previously  to  expressing  an 
opinion." — London  Mining  Journal. 

"  Every  engineer  ehould,  have  it  in  his  library." — American  Engineer. 


J).  Van  Nostranfrs  Publications. 

Evolutions  of  Field  Batteries  of 
Artillery. 

Translated  from  the  French,  and  arranged  for  the  Army  and  Militia 
of  the  United  States.  By  Gen.  ROBERT  ANDERSON,  U.  S.  Army. 
Published  by  order  of  the  War  Department.  1  vol.  cloth,  32 
plates.  $1. 

WAR  DEPARTMENT,  Nov.  M,  1859. 

The  System  of  "  Evolutions  of  Field  Batteries,1'  translated  from  the  French, 
and  arranged  for  the  service  of  the  United  States,  by  Major  Robert  Anderson, 
of  the  1st  Kegiinent  of  Artillery,  having  been  approved  by  the  President,  ia 
published  fur  the  information  and  government  of  the  army. 

All  Evolutions  of  Field  Batteries  not  embraced  in  this  system  are  prohibited, 
and  those  herein  prescribed  will  be  strictly  observed. 

J.  B.  FLOYD,  Secretary  of  War. 

"This  system  having  been  adopted  by  the  War  Department,  is  to  the  artil- 
lerist what  Hardee's  Tactics  is  to  the  infantry  soldier;  the  want  of  a  work  like 
this  has  been  seriously  felt,  and  will  be  eagerly  welcomed."— Louisville  Journal 


Hiftory  of  the  United  States  Naval 
Academy 

With.  Biographical  Sketches,  and  the  names  of  all  the  Superintendents, 
Professors  and  Graduates,  to  which  is  added  a  Record  of  some 
of  the  earliest  Votes  by  Congress,  of  Thanks,  Medals  and  Swords 
to  Naval  Officers.  By  EDWAED  CHAUNCEY  MARSHALL,  A.  M., 
formerly  Instructor  in  Captain  Kinsley's  Military  School  at  "West 
Point,  Assistant  Professor  in  the  N.  Y.  University,  etc.  $1. 


Ordnance  and  Gunnery. 

A  Course  of  Instruction  in  Ordnance  and  Gunnery.  Compiled  for 
the  Use  of  the  Cadets  of  the  United  States  Military  Academy. 
By  Captain  J.  G.  BENTON,  Ordnance  Department  U.  S.  A.,  late 
Instructor  of  Ordnance  and  the  Science  of  Gunnery,  U.  S.  Mili- 
tary Academy,  West  Point,  and  First  Assistant  to  the  Chief 
of  Ordnance,  U.  S.  A.  Second  edition,  revised  and  enlarged. 
1  vol.  8vo,  half  morocco,  $5. 

Capt.  Bonton  has  carefully  revised  and  corrected  this  valuable  work  on  Ord- 
nance and  Gunnery,  the  first  edition  of  which  was  published  only  about  a  year 
ago.  The  many  important  improvements  introduced  in  this  brunch"  of  the  service 
have  rendered  such  a  revision  necessary.  The  present  edition  will  be  invalua- 
ble, not  only  to  the  student,  but  as  a  standard  book  of  reference  on  the  subject 
of  which  it  treats. 


D.  Van  N'ostrand^s  Publications. 

Scott's  Military  Dictionary. 

Comprising  Technical  Definitions ;  Information  on  Raising  and 
Keeping  Troops ;  Actual  Service,  including  makeshifts  and 
improved  materiel,  and  Law,  Government,  Regulation,  and 
Administration  relating  to  Land  Forces.  By  Colonel  H.  L. 
SCOTT,  Inspector-General  U.  -S.  A.  1  vol.,  large  octavo,  fully 
illustrated,  half  morocco.  $6. 

"  It  is  a  complete  Encyclopaedia  of  Military  Science." — Philadelphia  Even- 
ing  Bulletin. 

"  "We  cannot  speak  too  much  in  legitimate  praise  of  thia  work." — National 
Intelligencer. 

"  It  should  be  made  a  Text-book  for  the  study  of  every  Volunteer. "  —liar- 
per's  Magazine. 

"  Wo  cordially  commend  it  to  public  favor.'1—  Washington  Glolie. 

"T  is  comprehensive  and  skilfully  prepared  work  supplies  a  want  that  has 
lon^  boon  felt,  and  will  be  peculiarly  valuable  at  this  time  us  a  book  of  refer- 
ence."— JBofston  Commercial  Bulletin. 

"The  Military  Dictionary  is  splendidly  got  up  in  every  way,  and  reflects 
credit  on  the  publisrr-r.  The  officers  of  every  company  in  the  service  should 
possess  it."-/.  Y.  TaUet. 

"The  work  is  more  properly  »  Military  Enrycloprcdia,  and  is  profusely  illus- 
trated with  engravings.  It  appears  to  contain  every  thing  that  can  be  wanted 
in  the  shape  of  information  by  officers  of  ail  grades." — Philadelphia  North 
American. 

"This  book  is  really  an  Encyclopedia,  botli  elementary  and  technical,  and 
as  such  occupies  a  gap  in  military  literature  which  has  long  been  mo-t  incon- 
veniently vacant.  This  book  meets  a  present  popular  want,  and  will  be  secured 
not  only  by  th«ise  embarking  in  the  profession  but  by  a  great  number  of  civilians, 
who  are  determined  to  follow  the  descriptions  and  to  understand  the  philoso- 
phy of  the  various  movements  of  the  campaign.  Indeed,  no  tolerably  good 
library  would  be  complete  without  the  work."— New  York  Titnvn. 

"The  work  has  evidently  been  compiled  from  a  careful  consultation  of  tho 
best  authorities,  enriched  with  the  results  of  the  experience  and  personal 
knowledge  of  the  author.11—^.  Y  Daily  Tribune. 

"  Works  liko  the  present  are  invaluable.  The  officers  of  our  Volunteer  ser- 
vice would  all  do  well  to  possess  themselves  of  the. volume."— .y.  1'.  Herald. 


New  Bayonet  Exercise. 

A  New  Manual  of  the  Bayonet,  for  the  Army  and  Militia  of  the  United 
States.  By  Colonel  J.  C.  KELTON,  U.  S.  A.  With  thirty 
beautifully-engraved  plates.  Red  cloth.  $1.75. 

This  Manual  was  prepared  for  the  use  of  the  Corps  of  Cadets,  and  has  been 
Introduced  at  the  Military  Acairlemy  with  satisfactory  results.  It  is  simply  the 
theory  of  the  attack  arid  defence  of  the  sword  applied  to  the  bayonet,  on  the 
authority  of  men  skilled  in  the  use  of  arms. 

>  The  Manual  contains  practical  lessons  in  Fencing,  and  prescribes  the  de- 
fence again&t  Cavalry  and  the  manner  of  conducting  a  contest  with  a  Sworda- 
man. 

"This  work  merits  a  favorable  reception  at  the  hands  of  all  military  men. 
It  contains  all  the  instruction  necessary  to  enable  an  officer  to  drill  his  men  in 
the  use  of  this  weapon.  The  introduction  of  the  Sabre  Bayonet  in  our  Army 
renders  p,  tr.owledge  of  this  exercise  mora  imperative.'WV'ettJ  York  Times. 


JD.  Van  Nostrand's  Publications. 

Hand- Book  of  Artillery, 

For  the  Service  of  the  United  States  Army  and  Militia.  New  and 
revised  edition.  By  Maj.  JOSEPH  ROBERTS,  U.  S.  A.  1  vol. 
ISrno,  cloth,  New  and  enlarged  edition.  $1  00. 

"A  complete  catechism  of  gun  practice,  coYorins  the  -whole  ground  of  this 
branch  of  military  science,  and  adapted  to  militia  and  volunteer  drill,  as  well  as 
to  the  regular  army.  It  has  the  merit  of  precise  detail,  even  to  the  technical 
names  of  all  parts  of  a  gun,  and  how  the  smallest  operations  connected  with  its 
use  can  be  best  performed.  It  h::s  evidently  been  prepared  with  great  care, 
and  with  strict  scientific  accuracy.  By  the  recommendation  of  a  committee 
appointed  by  the  commanding  officer  of  the  Artillery  School  at  Fort  Monroe, 
"Va.,  it  has  been  substituted  for  'Burns1  Questions  and  Answers,'  an  English 
•work  which  has  heretofore  been  the  text-book  of  instruction  in  this  country." 
— New  York  Century. 


New  Infantry  Tactics, 

For  the  Instruction,  Exercise,  and  Manoeuvres  of  the  Soldier,  a  Com- 
pany, Line  of  Skirmishers,  Battalion,  Brigade,  or  Corps  d'Armee. 
By  Brig. -Gen.  SILAS  CASEY,  U.  S.  A.  3  vols.  24mo.  Half  roan, 
lithographed  plates.  $2.50. 

YOL.  I. — School  of  the  Soldier  ;    School  of  the  Company  ;    In- 
struction for  Skirmishers. 
VOL.  II.— School  of  the  Battalion. 

YOL.  III. — Evolutions  of   a  Brigade ;    Evolutions   of   a    Corps 
d'Armee. 

The  manuscript  of  this  new  system  of  Infantry  Tactics  was  carefully  ex- 
amined by  General  MCCLET.LAN,  and  met  with  his  unqualified  approval,  which, 
he  has  since  manifested  by  authorizing  General  CASEY  to  adopt  it  for  his  entire 
division.  The  author  has  retained  much  that  is  valuable  contained  in  the  sys- 
tems of  SCOTT  and  HAKDEE,  but  has  made  many  important  changes  and  addi- 
tions which  experience  and  the  exigencies  of  the  service  require.  General 
CASEY'S  reputation  as  an  accomplished  soldier  and  skilful  tactician  is  a  guar- 
antee that  the  work  he  has  undertaken  has  been  thoroughly  performed. 

"These  volumes  are  based  on  the  French  ordonncfnces  of  1831  and  1845  for 
the  manoeuvres  of  heavy  infantry  and  chasseurs  d  pud  ;  both  of  these  systems 
have  been  in  use  in  our  service  for  some  years,  the  former  having  been  trans- 
lated by  Gen.  Scott,  and  the  latter  by  Col.  Hardee.  After  the  introduction  of 
the  latter  drill  in  our  service,  in  connection  with  Gen.  Scott's  Tactics,  there 
arose  the  necessity  of  a  uniform  system  for  the  manoeuvres  of  all  the  infantry 
arm  of  the  service.  These  volumes  are  the  result  of  the  author's  endeavor  to 
communicate  the  instruction,  now  used  and  adopted  in  the  army,  to  achieve 
this  result." — Boston  Journal. 

"  Based  on  the  best  precedents,  adnpted  to  the  novel  requirements  of  the  art 
of  war,  and  very  full  in  its  instructions,  Casey's  Tactics  will  be  received  as  the 
most  useful  and  most  comprehensive  work  of  its  kind  In  our  language.  From 
the  drill  and  discipline  of  the  individual  soldier,  or  through  all  the  various 
combinations,  to  the  manoeuvres  of  a  brigade  and  the  evolutions  of  a  Corps 
D'Armee,  the  student  is  advanced  by  a  clear  method  and  steady  progress.  Nu- 
merous cuts,  plans,  and  diagrams  illustrate  positions  and  movements,  and  de- 
monstrate to  the  eye  the  exact  working  out  of  the  individual  position,  brigading, 
order  of  battle,  &c.,  &c.  The  work  is  a  model  of  publishing  success,  being  in 
three  neat  pocket  volumes," — New  Yorker- 


D.   Van  Nostrand^s  Publications. 

Elements  of  Military  Art  and  History. 

Comprising  the  History  of  the  Tactics  of  the  separate  Arras,  the  Com- 
bination of  the  Arms,  and  the  minor  operations  of  War.  By  ED- 
WARD DE  LA  BARRE  DUPARCQ,  Captain  of  Engineers,  and  Profes- 
sor of  the  Military  Art  in  the  Imperial  School  of  Saint  Cyr. 
Translated  by  Brig.-Gen.  GEORGE  W.  CULLUM,  U.  S.  A.,  Chief  of 
the  Staff  of  Major-General  H.  W.  Ilalleck,  U.  S.  A.  1  vol  8vo 
cloth.  $4. 

"I  read  the  original  a  few  years  since,  and  considered  it  the  very  best  work  I 
had  seen  uj>on  the  subject,  (Jen.  Culluui's  ability  and  familiarity  with  the 
technical  language  of  French  military  writers,  are  a  sufficient  guarantee  of  the  cor- 
rectness of  his  translation. 

"II.  W.  IIALLECK,  Major-Gen.,  U.  S.  A." 

"  I  have  read  the  book  with  preat  interest,  and  trust  that  it  will  have  a  large 
circulation.  It  cannot  fail  to  do  good  by  spreading  that,  very  knowledge,  tin- 
want  of  which  among  our  new.  Inexperienced,  and  untaught  BOldien,  has  cost  us 
BO  many  lives,  and  so  much  toil  and  treasure. 

"M.  C.  MEIGS,  Quartermaster  Gen.,  U.  S.  A/' 

"  I  have  carefully  read  most  of  Gen.  Cullum's  translation  of  M.  Barrc  Puparcq's 
'Elements  of  Military  Art  and  History.'  His  a  plain,  concise  work,  well  suited  to 
our  service.  Our  volunteers  should  rend  and  study  it.  1  wish  it  could  be  widely 
circulated  among  our  officers.  It  would  irivc  them  a  comprehensive  knowledge 
of  the  different  arms  of  the  service,  and  invite  further  investigation  into  the  pro- 
fession of  arms  which  they  have  adopted.  A  careful  study  ol  such  works  will 
make  our  officers  learned  and  skilful,  as  well  as  wise  ami  "successful  ;  and  they 
have  ample  time  .while  they  are  campaigning  to  improve  themselves  In  this  re- 
gard- OE  01  T  KTIS,  Major-General,  U.  S.  A." 


European  Ordnance  and  Iron-Clad 
Defences, 

"With  some  account  of  the  American  Practice,  embracing  the  Fabri- 
cation and  Test  of  Heavy  Guns;  Projectiles  and  Rifling;  the 
Manufacture  and  Test  of  Armor,  from  official  data,  with  a  de- 
tailed account  of  English  experiments  ;  the  principles,  structure, 
and  classification  of  Iron-Clad  Vessels  ;  Marine  Steam  Machinery, 
&c.  By  ALEX.  L.  HOLLEY,  B.  P.,  author  of  "  American  and 
European  Railway  Practice,"  &c.  1  vol.  8vo,  cloth.  With  two 
hundred  and  fifty  illustrations.  In  press. 

Cavalry:   its  History,   Management, 
and  Uses  in   War. 

By  J.  ROEMER,  late  an  Officer  of  Cavalry  in  the  service  of  the  Nether- 
lands. 1  vol.  8vo.  With  over  two  hundred  beautifully  engraved 
illustrations.  Price  $5  00. 


D.  Van  N'ostrand">s  Publications. 

Rifles  and  Rifle  Practice. 

An  Elementary  Treatise  on  the  Theory  of  Rifle  Firing ;  explain- 
ing the  causes  of  Inaccuracy  of  Fire  and  the  manner  of  cor- 
recting it ;  with  descriptions  of  the  Infantry  Rifles  of  Europe 
and  the  Uiilted  States,  their  Balls  and  Cartridges.  By  Capt. 
C.  M.  WILCOX,  U.  S.  A.  New  edition,  with  engravings  and 
cuts.  Green  cloth.  $1.75. 

"Although  eminently  a  scientific  work,  special  care  seems  to  hare  been 
taken  to  avoid  the  use  of  technical  terms,  and  to  make  the  whole  subject  readily 
comprehensible  to  the  practical  enquirer.  It  was  designed  chiefly  lor  the 
use  of  Volunteers  and  Militia;  but  the  War  Department  has  evinced  its  ap- 
proval of  its  merits  by  ordering  from  the  publisher  one  thousand  copies,  for  the 
use  of  the  United  States  Army.11— Louisville  Journal. 

"  The  book  will  be  found  intensely  interesting  to  all  who  are  watching  the 
chansrcs  in  the  art  of  war  arising  from  the  introduction  of  the  new  rifled  arms. 
We  recommend  to  our  readers  to  buy  the  book." — Military  Gazette. 

"  A  most  valuable  treatise."1 — New  York  Herald. 

"This  book  is  quite  original  in  its  character.  That  character  is  complete- 
ness. It  renders  a  study  of  most  of  the  works  on  the  rifle  that  have  been 
published  quite  unnecessary.  We  cordially  recommend  the  book." — United 
Service  Gazette,  London. 

"The  work  being  in  all  its  parts  derived  from  the  best  sources,  is  of  the 
highest  authority,  and  will  be  accepted  as  the  standard  on  the  subject  of  which 
it  treats/'— New  Yorker. 


Army  Officer's  Pocket  Companion. 

Principally  designed  for  Staff  Officers  in  the  Field.  Partly  trans- 
lated from  the  French  of  M.  DE  ROUTRE,  Lieutenant-Colonel 
of  the  French  Stan0  Corps,  with  Additions  from  Standard  Amer- 
ican, French,  and  English  Authorities.  By  WM.  P.  CRAIGHILL, 
First  Lieutenant  U.  S.  Corps  of  Engineers,  Assist.  Prof,  of 
Engineering  at  the  U.  S.  Military  Academy,  West  Point. 
1  vol.  18mo.  Full  roan.  §1.50. 

"I  have  carefully  examined  Capt.  CRAIGHILL'S  Pocket  Companion.  I  find 
it  one  of  the  very  best  works  of  the  kind  I  have  ever  seen.  Any  Army  or 
Volunteer  officer  who  will  make  himself  acquainted  with  the  contents  of  this 
little  book,  will  seldom  be  ignorant  of  his  duties  in  camp  or  field." 

H.  W.  HALLECK, 
».     Major-General  U.  S.  A. 

"  I  have  carefully  examined  the  '  Manual  for  Staff  Officers  in  the  Field.'  It 
is  a  most  invaluable  work,  admirable  in  arrangement,  perspicuously  written, 
abounding  in  most  useful  matters,  and  such  a  book  as  should  be  the  constant 
pocket  companion  of  every  armv  officer,  Regular  and  Volunteer." 

G.  W.  CULLUM, 
Brigadier-General  U.  S.  A. 
Chief  of  General  Halleck's  Staff, 
Chief  Engineer  Department  Mit-sissippi. 

"This  little  volume  contains  a  large  amount  of  indispensable  information 
relating  to  officers1  duties  in  the  siege,  camp,  and  field,  and  will  prove  to  them 
a  most  valuable  pocket  companion.  It  is  illustrated  with  plans  and  drawings." 
—Boston  Com.  Bulletin. 


D.  Van  Nostranfrs  Publications. 


Sword-Play, 


THE  MILITIAMAN'S  MANUAL  AXD  SWORD-PLAY  WITHOUT 
A  MASTER. — Rapier  and  Broad-Sword  Exercises  copiously 
Explained  and  Illustrated ;  Small- Arm  Light  Infantry  Drill  of 
the  United  States  Army ;  Infantry  Manual  of  Percussion  Mus- 
kets ;  Company  Drill  of  the  United  States  Cavalry.  By  Major 
M.  W.  BERRIMAN,  engaged  for  the  last  thirty  years  in  the  prac- 
tical instruction  of  Military  Students.  Second  edition.  1  vol. 
12mo,  red  cloth.  $1. 

"Captain  Berriman  has  had  thirty  years'  experience  in  teaching  military 
Btndents,  and  his  work  is  written  in  a  simple,  clear,  and  soldierly  style.  It  is 
illustrated  with  twelve  plates,  and  is  one  of  the  cheapest  and  most  complete 
•works  of  the  kind  published  in  tub  country."—  Sew  \ork  World. 

"This  work  will  be  found  very  valuable  to  all  persons  sec-kins  military  in- 
struction ;  but  it  recommends  itself  most  especially  to  officers,  and  those  who 
have  to  use  the  sword  or  sabre.  We  believe  it  is  the  only  work  on  the  use  of 
the  sword  published  in  this  country." — Neio  York  Tabltt. 

"  It  is  a  work  of  obvious  merit  and  value." — Boston  Traveller. 


Military  Law  and   Courts  Martial, 

By  Capt.  S.  V.  BENET,  U.  S.  Ordnance,  Asst.  Prof,  of  Ethics  in  the 
United  States  Military  Academy.  1  vol.  8vo.  Law  sheep,  $3.50. 


The  Artillerift's  Manual: 

Compiled  from  various  Sources,  and  adapted  to  the  Service  of  the 
United  States.  Profusely  illustrated  with  woodcuts  and  engrav- 
ings on  stone.  Second  edition,  revised  and  corrected,  with 
valuable  additions,  By  Capt.  JOHN  GIBBON,  U.  S. 

Army.     1  vol.  8vo,  half  roan,  $5 ; 

This  book  is  now  considered  the  standard  authority  for  that  particular  branch 
of  the  Service  in  the  United  States  Army.  The  War  Department,  at  Washing- 
ton, has  exhibited  its  thorough  appreciation  of  the  merits  of  this  volume,  the 
want  of  which  has  been  hitherto  much  felt  in  the  service,  by  subscribing  for  700 

"It  is  with  great  pleasure  that  we  welcome  the  appearance  of  a  new  work  on 
this  subject  entitled  'The  Artillerist's  Manual,'  'b'y  Capt.  John  Gibbon,  a 
highly  scientific  and  meritorious  officer  of  artillery  in  our  regular  service.  The 
voik,  an  octavo  volume  of  500  pages,  in  lanre,  clear  tvpe,  appears  to  be  well 
adapted  to  supply  just  what  has  been  heretofore  needed  to  fil  the  gap  between 
the  simple  Manual  and  the  more  abstruse  demonstrations  of  the  science  of  gun- 
nery The  whole  work  is  profusely  illustrated  with  woodcuts  and  engravings 
on  stone,  tending  to  give  a  more  complete  and  exact  idea  of  the  various  matters 
described  in :  the  text  The  book  may  well  be  considered  as  a  valuable  and  im- 
portant addition  to  the  military  science  of  the  country,"— Jfew  York  Herald. 


D.  Van  N'ostrand's  Publications. 

A  Treatife  on  Ordnance  and  Naval 
Gunnery. 

Compiled  and  arranged  as  a  Text-Book  for  the  IT.  S.  Naval  Acad- 
emy, by  Lieutenant  EDWARD  SIMPSON,  U.  S.  N.  Second  edi- 
tion, revised  and  enlarged.  1  voL  8vo,  plates  and  cuts,  half 
morocco.  $5. 

MAs  the  compiler  has  charge  of  the  Instruction  In  Naval  Gunnery  at  the 
Naval  Academy,  his  work,  in  the  compilation  of  which  he  has  consulted  a  large 
number  of  eminent  authorities,  is  probably  well  suited  for  the  purpose  designed 
by  it— namely,  the  circulation  of  information  which  many  officers,  owing  to 
constant  service  afloat,  may  not  have  been  able  to  collect.  In  simple  and  plain 
language  it  gives  instruction  as  to  cannon,  gun  carriages,  gun  powder,  projectiles, 
fuzes,  locks,  and  primers;  the  theory  of  pointing  guns,  rifles,  the  practice  of 
punnery,  and  a  great  variety  of  other  sinrlar  matters,  interesting  to  fighting 
men  on  6ea  and  land." — Washington  Daily  Globe. 

"A  vast  amount  of  information  is  conveyed  in  a  readable  and  familiar  form. 
The  illustrations  are  excellent,  and  many  of  them  unique,  being  colored  or 
bronzed  so  as  to  represent  various  military  arms,  &c.,  with  more  than  photo- 
graphic literalness." —  Washington  Star. 

"It  is  scarcely  necessary  for  us  to  say  that  a  work  prepared  by  a  writer  so 
practically  conversant  with  all  the  subjects  of  which  he  treats,  and  who  has  such 
a  reputation  for  scientific  ability,  cannot  fail  to  take  at  once  a  high  place  among 
the  text-books  of  our  naval  service.  It  has  been  approved  by  the  Secretary  of 
the  Navy,  and  will  henceforth  be  one  of  the  standard  authorities  on  all  matters 
connected  with  Naval  Gunnery." — New  York  Herald. 

"The  book  itself  is  admirably  arranged,  characterized  by  great  simplicity 
and  clearness,  and  certainly  at  this  time  will  be  a  most  valuable  one  to  officers 
of  the  Navy." — Boston  Commercial  Bulletin. 

"Originally  designed  as  a  text-book,  it  is  now  enlarged,  and  so  far  modified 
in  its  plan  as  to  make  it  an  invaluable  hand-book  for  the  naval  officer.  It  is 
comprehensive — preserving  the  cream  of  many  of  the  best  books  on  ordnance 
and  naval  gunnery,  and  is  printed  and  illustrated  in  the  most  admirable  man- 
lier."— New  York  World. 


Elementary    Instruction     in    Naval 
Ordnance  and  Gunnery. 

By  JAMES  H.  WARD,  Commander  U.  S.  Navy,  Author  of  "  Naval 
Tactics,"  and  "Steam  for  the  Million."  New  edition,  revised 
and  enlarged.  8vo.  Cloth,  $2. 

"  It  conveys  an  amount  of  information  in  the  same  space  to  be  found  no- 
where else,  and  given  with  a  clearness  which  renders  it  useful  as  well  to  tha 
general  as  the  professional  inquirer." — N.  Y.  Evening  Post. 

"This  volume  is  a  standard  treatise  upon  the  subject  to  which  it  is  devoted. 
It  abounds  in  vnlunble  information  upon  all  the  points  bearing  upon  Naval 
Gunnery." — 2f.  Y.  Commercial  Advertiser. 

"The  work  is  an  exceedingly  valuable  one,  and  is  opportunely  issued." — 
Boston  Journal. 


D.    Van  N~ostrand' }s  Publications. 

Gunnery  Instructions. 

Simplified  for  the  Volunteer  Officers  of  the  U.  S.  Navy,  with  hints  to 
Executive  and  other  Officers.  By  Lieut. -Commander  EDWARD 
BARRETT,  U.  S.  N.,  Instructor  in  Gunnery,  Navy  Yard,  Brook- 
lyn. Third  edition,  revised  and  enlarged.  1  vol.  12mo,  cloth. 

$1  25. 

"It  is  a  thorough  -work,  treating  plainly  on  its  subject,  and  contains  also  some 
valuable  hints  to  executive  officers.  No  officer  in  the  volunteer  navy  should  be 
without  a  copy." — Boston  Evening  Traveller. 

"This  work  contains  detailed  and  specific  instructions  on  all  points  connected 
with  the  use  and  management  of  guns  of  every  kind  in  the  naval  service.  It  has 
full  illustrations,  and  many  of  these  of  the  most  elementary  character,  especially 
designed  for  the  use  of  volunteers  in  the  navy.  The  duties  of  executive  officers 
and  of  the  division  officers  are  so  clearly  set  forth,  that  l  he  who  runs  may  read' 
and  understand.  The  manual  exercise  is  explicit,  and  rendered  simple  by  dia- 
grams. Forms  of  watch  and  quarter  bills  are  given;  and  at  the  clo.se  there  is  a 
table  of  ranges  according  to  the  kind  and  calibre  of  gun,  the  weight  of  the  ball, 
and  the  charge  of  powder.  A  valuable  little  hand-book."— Philadelphia  In- 
quirer. 

"I  have  looked  through  Lieut.  Barrett's  book,  and  think  it  will  be  very  valu- 
able to  the  volunteer  officers  who  are  now  in  the  naval  service. 

"C.  R.  P.  RODGERS, 
Commanding  U.  S.  Steam  Frigate  Walash." 


The   "  C.  S.  A."  and  the  Battle  of 
Bull    Run. 

(A  Letter  to  an  English  Friend.)  By  J.  G.  BARXARD,  Major  of  Engi- 
neers, U.  S.  A.,  Brigadier-General,  and  Chief  Engineer,  Army  of 
the  Potomac.  With  five  maps.  1  vol.  8vo,  cloth.  $1  50. 

"This  book  was  begun  by  the  author  as  a  letter  to  a  friend  in  England. but  as 
he  proceeded  and  his  MSS.  increased  in  magnitude,  he  changed  his  original  plan, 
and  the  book  is  the  result  General  Barnard  gives  by  far  the  best,  most  compre- 
hensible and  complete  account  of  the  Battle  of  Bull  Run  we  have  seen.  It  is  il- 
lustrated by  some  beautifully  drawn  maps,  prepared  for  the  War  Department  by 
the  topographical  engineers.  He  demonstrates  to  a  certainty  that  but  for  the 
causeless  panic  the  day  mitrht  not  have  been  lost.  The  author  writes  with  vigor 
and  earnestness,  and  has  contributed  one  of  the  most  valuable  records  yet  pub- 
lished of  the  history  of  the  war." — Boston  Commercial  Bulletin. 


Models  of   Fortifications. 

Yauban's  First  System — One  Front  and  two  Bastions ;  Scale,  20  yards 
to  an  inch.  The  Modern  System — One  Front;  Scale  20  yards 
to  an  inch.  Field-Works — The  Square  Redoubt;  Scale,  5  yards 
to  an  inch.  Mr.  Kimber's  three  volumes,  viz.  :  Vauban's  First 
System,  The  Modern  System,  and  Field- Works,  will  accompany 
the  Models.  Price  for  the  Set  of  Three,  with  books,  $60. 


D.  Van  Nostrand's  Publications. 


Siege  of  Bomarfund   (1854). 

Journals  of  Operations  of  the  Artillery  and  Engineers.  Published 
by  permission  of  the  Minister  of  War.  Illustrated  by  maps  and 
plans.  Translated  from  the  French  by  an  Army  Officer. 
1  vol.  12mo,  cloth.  75  cents. 

"  To  military  men  this  little  volume  is  of  special  interest.  It  contains  a 
translation  by  an  officer  of  the  United  States  Army,  of  the  journal  of  operations 
by  the  artillery  and  engineers  at  the  siege  of  Bomarsund  in  1854,  published  by 
permission  of  the  French  Minister  of  War  in  the  Journal  des  Armees  speciales 
et  de  VEtat  Major.  The  account  of  the  same  successful  attack,  given  by  Sir 
Howard  Douglas  in  the  new  edition  of  his  work  on  Gunnery,  is  appended;  and 
the  narrative  is  illustrated  by  elaborate  maps  and  plans." — Ifew  York  Paper. 

Lefsons  and   Practical  Notes  on 
Steam, 

The  Steam-Engine,  Propellers,  &c.,  &c.,  for  Young  Marine  Engi- 
neers, Students,  and  others.  By  the  late  W.  R.  KING,  U.  S.  N. 
Revised  by  Chief-Engineer  J.  W  KING,  U.  S.  Navy.  Fifth, 
edition,  enlarged.  8vo,  cloth.  $2.00 

"This  is  the  second  edition  of  a  valuable  work  of  the  late  W.  R.  KINO, 
U.  S.  N.  It  contains  lessons  and  practical  notes  on  Steam  and  the  Steam- 
Engine,  Propellers,  &c.  It  is  calculated  to  be  of  great  use  to  young  marine  en- 
gineers, students,  and  others.  The  text  is  illustrated  and  explained  by  numerous 
diagrams  and  representations  of  machinery.  This  new  edition  has  been  revised 
and  enlarged  by  Chief  Engineer  J.  W.  KING,  U.  S.  N.,  brother  to  the  deceased 
author  of  the  work." — Boston  Daily  Advertiser. 

"This  is  one  of  the  best,  because  eminently  plain  and  practical,  treatises  on 
the  Steam-Engine  ever  published."—  Philadelphia  Press. 

"  Its  re-publication  at  this  time,  when  so  many  young  men  are  entering  the 
service  as  naval  engineers,  is  most  opportune.  Each  of  them  ought  to  have  a 
copy"— Philadelphia  Evening  Bulletin. 


Manual  of  Internal  Rules  and  Reg- 
ulations for  Men-of-War. 

By  Commodore  II.  P.  LEVY,  U,  S.  N.,  late  Flag-officer  command- 
ing U.  S.  Naval  Force  in  the  Mediterranean,  &c.  Flexible 
bine  cloth.  Second  edition,  revised  and  enlarged.  50  cents. 

"Among  the  professional  publications  for  wh;ch  we  are  indebted  to  the  war, 
we  willingly  give  a  prominent  place  to  this  useful  little  Manual  of  Rules  and 
Regulations  to  be  observed  on  board  of  ships  of  war.  Its  authorship  is  a  sura- 
cient  guarantee  for  its  accuracy  and  practical  value  ;  and  as  a  guide  to  young 
officers  in  providing  for  the  discipline,  police,  and  sanitary  government  of  the 
vessels  under  their  command,  we  know  of  nothing  superior.  —  JV.  Y.  lleraiO. 

"  Should  be  in  the  hands  of  every  Naval  officer,  of  whatever  grade,  and  will 
not  come  amiss  to  any  intelligent  mariner." — Boston  Traveller. 

"  A  work  which  will  prove  of  great  utility,  in  both  the  Naval  service  and 
the  mercantile  marine.1'— Baltimore  American. 


D.   Van  Nostran&s  Publications. 

Nautical  Routine  and  Stowage, 

With  Short  Rules  in  Navigation.     By  JOHN  McLEOD  MURPHY,  and 
WM.  N.  JEFFERS,  Jr.,  U.  S.  N.     1  vol.  8vo,  cloth.     $2  50. 


Union  Foundations. 

A  Study  of  American  Nationality,  as  a  Fact  of  Science.  By  Major 
E.  B.  HUNT,  Corps  of  Engineers,  U.  S.  A.  1  vol.  8vo,  paper. 
30  cents. 


Standing  Orders  of  the  Seventh  Reg- 
iment,  National  Guard. 

For  the  Regulation  and  Government  of  the  Regiment  in  the  Field  or 
in  Quarters.  By  A  DURYEE,  Colonel.  New  edition.  Flexible 
cloth.  40  cents. 

"This,  which  is  a  new  edition  of  a  popular  work,  cannot  fail  to  ho  eagerly 
sought  after,  as  presenting  clearly  and  succinctly  the  principles  of  organi/ation 
and  discipline  of  a  most  favorite  corps.  An  appropriate  index  facilitates  refer- 
ence to  the  matter  of  the  volume." — New  Yorker. 


The  Automaton  Regiment; 

Or,  Infantry  Soldiers'  Practical  Instructor.  For  all  Regimental  More- 
meiits  in  the  Field.  By  G-.  DOUGLAS  BREWERTON,  U.  S.  A. 
Neatly  put  up  in  boxes,  price  $1  ;  when  sent  by  mail,  $1  40. 

The  "Automaton  Regiment"  is  a  simple  combination  of  blocks  and  counters, 
BO  arranged  and  designated  by  a  carefully  considered  contrast  of  colors,  that  it 
supplies  the  student  with  a  perfect  miniature  regiment,  in  which  the  position  in 
the  battalion  of  each  company,  and  of  every  officer  and  man  in  each  division,  com* 
pany,  platoon,  and  section  is  clearly  indicated.  It  supplies  the  studious  soldier 
with  the  means  whereby  he  can  consult  his  "tactics,  and  at  the  same  time  join 
practice  to  theory  by  manoeuvring  a  mimic  regiment. 


The  Automaton  Company; 

Or,  Infantry  Soldiers'  Practical  Instructor.  For  all  Company  Move- 
ments in  the  Field.  By  G.  DOUGLAS  BREWERTON,  U.  S.  A. 
Price  in  boxes,  $1  25 ;  when  sent  by  mail,  $1  95. 

The  Automaton  Battery; 

Or,  Artillerists'  Practical  Instructor.  For  all  Mounted  Artillery  Ma- 
noeuvres in  the  Field.  By  G-.  DOUGLAS  BREWERTON,  U.  S.  A. 
Price  in  boxes,  $1 ;  when  sent  by  mail,  $1  40. 


D.  Van  JVostrand's  Publications. 


School  of  the  Guides. 

Designed  for  the  use  of  the  Militia  of  the  United  States.     Flexible 

cloth.     60  cents. 

"This  excellent  compilation  condenses  into  a  compass  of  less  than  sixty 
pages  all  the  instruction  necessary  for  the  guides,  and  the  information  being 
disconnected  with  other  matters,  is  more  readily  referred  to  and  more  easily 


"  The  work  is  carefully  got  up,  and  is  illustrated  by  numerous  figures,  which 
make  the  positions  of  the  guides  plain  to  the  commonest  understanding.  Those 
of  our  sergeants  who  wish  to  be  '  posted  '  in  their  duties  should  procure  a  copy." 
—  Sunday  Mercury,  Philadelphia. 

"  It  has  received  high  praise,  and  will  prove  of  great  service  in  perfecting 
the  drill  of  our  Militia."—^.  American  and  U.  &  Gazette,  Phil. 

"This  neat  hand-book  of  the  elementary  movements  on  which  th«  art  of  the 
tactician  is  based,  reflects  great  credit  on  Col.  LB  GAL,  whose  reputation  is  de- 
servedly high  among  military  men.  No  soldier  should  be  without  the  School 
of  the  Guides."—  New  York  Daily  News. 


Gunnery  in   1858  : 

A  Treatise   on  Rifles,    Cannon,    and   Sporting    Arms.      By  WM. 
GBEENER,  C.  E.     1  vol.  8vo,  cloth.    $3. 

Manual  of  Heavy  Artillery. 

For  the  Use  of  Volunteers.     1  vol.  12mo.     Red  cloth.     75  cents. 

"  Should  be  in  the  hands  of  every  Artillerist."— N.  Y.  Illustrated  News. 

"This  is  a  concise  and  well-prepared  Manual,  adapted  to  the  wants  of  Vol- 
unteers. The  instruction,  which  is  of  an  important  nature,  is  presented  in  a 
simple  and  clear  style,  such  as  will  be  easily  understood.  The  volume  is  also 
illustrated  with  explanatory  cuts  and  drawings.  It  is  a  work  of  practical 
value,  and  one  needed  at  the  present  time  in  the  serTice."— Boston  Commercial 
Bulletin. 

"  An  indispensable  Manual  for  all  who  wish  easily  and  accurately  to  learn 
the  school  of  the  Artillerist."— .y.  Y.  Commercial  Advertiser. 


Auftrian  Infantry  Tactics. 

Evolutions  of  the  Line  as  practised  by  the  Austrian  Infantry,  and 
adopted  in  1853.  Translated  by  Capt.  C.  M.  WILCOX,  Seventh 
Regiment  U.  S.  Infantry.  1  vol.  12mo.  Three  large  plates, 
cloth.  $1. 

"The  movements  of  armies  engaged  in  battle  have  often  been  compared  to 
those  of  the  chess-board,  and  we  cannot  doubt  that  there  are  certain  principles 
of  tactics  in  actual  war  as  in  that  game,  which  may  determine  the  result  inde- 
pendently, in  a  great  measure,  of  the  personal  strength  and  courage  of  the  men 
engaged.  The  difference  between  these  principles  as  applied  in  the  American 
Army  and  in  the  Austrian,  is  so  wide  as  to  have  sucryested  the  iranslation  of 
the  \vork  before  us,  which  contains  the  whole  result  of  the  famous  Field-Marshal 
EADETZKY*8  experience  for  twenty-five  years,  while  in  •upreme  command  in 
Italy."— New  York  Century. 


D.   Van  NostrandTs  Publications. 

Viele's  Hand-Book. 

Hand-Book  for  Active  Service,  containing  Practical  Instructions  in 
Campaign  Duties.  For  the  use  of  Volunteers.  By  Brig.-Gen. 
EGBERT  L.  VIBLE,  U.  &  A.  12010,  doth. 

Monroe's  Company  Drill. 

The  Company  Drill  of  the  Infantry  of  the  lane,  together  with  the 
Skinq^h'ing  Drill  of  the  Company  and  Battalion,  after  the  method 
of  Gen.  LE  LOUTEREL.  And  Bayonet  Fencing.  By  Col  J.  Mox- 
ROE,  22d  Regiment  N.  Y.  S.  M.  24mo,  cloth.  60  cents. 

A  System  of  Target  Practice. 

For  the  use  of  Troops  when  armed  with  the  Musket,  Rifle-Musket, 
Rifle,  or  Carbine.  Prepared,  principally  from  the  French,  by 
Captain  HENRY  HETH,  10th  Infantry.  U  S.  A.  50  cents! 

"WAR  DEPARTMENT,  Washington,  March  1> 

"The  'Svstem  of  Tareet  Practice,'  prepared*  under  direction  of  the  V 
partment,  by  Captain   Henry  Hetb,  10th   Infantry,  having  been  apnr. 
adopted  for  the  instruction  of  troops  when  armed  with  the  musket,  rifle-musket, 
rifle,  or  carbine,"  

Hints  to  Company  Officers. 

By  Lieut-Colonel  C.  C.  ANDREWS,  3d  Regiment  Minnesota  Volunteers. 
1  vol.  ISmo,  cloth.  50  cents. 

American  Military  Bridges, 

"With  India-Rubber  and  Galvanized  Iron  Pontons  and  Trestle  Sup- 
porters, prepared  for  the  use  of  the  Armies  of  the  United  States. 
By  Brig.-Gen.  GEO.  W.  CCLLUM,  Lt-CoL  Corps  of  Engineers,  U. 
S.  A.,  Chief  of  the  Staff  of  Major-Gen.  Hallecky  Second  edition, 
with  notes  and  two  additional  chapters.  1  VOL  Svo,  with  plates. 
$3.50.  , 

Holley's  Railway  Practice. 

American  and. European  Railway  Practice,  in  the  Economical  Gener- 
ation of  Steam,  including  the  materialsjjCWfConstruction  of  Coal- 
burning  Boilers,  Combustion,  the  Variable  Blast,  Vaporization, 
Circulation,  Superheating,  Supplying  and  Heating  Feed-v. 
&<x,  and  the  adaptation  of  Wood  and  Coke-burning  Engines  to 
Coal-burning;  and  in  Permanent  Way,  including  Road-bed, 
Sleepers,  Rails,  Joint  Fastenings.  Street  Railways,  £c.,  &c.  By 
ALEXANDER  L.  HOLLEY.  B.  P.  With  seventy-seven  lithographed 
plates.  1  vo§  folio,  cloth.  $10. 


14  DAY  USE 

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